Protein (nutrient)

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This article is about protein as nutrient. For protein as class of molecule, see protein.
For other uses, see bodybuilding supplement.

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.

Amino acids are necessary nutrients. Present in every cell, they are also precursors to nucleic acids, co-
enzymes, hormones, immune response, repair and other molecules essential for life.

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body.[1] They are one of the building
blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as
much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in
contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining
characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.[2]
Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
During human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to
smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for
the absorption of the essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body.[3]
 There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order
to prevent protein–energy malnutrition and resulting death. They
are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine,
and histidine.[2][4] There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino
acids.[5] The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in
adults.[6] There are five amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body.
These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. There are
six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special
pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe
catabolic distress. These six
are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine.[2] Dietary sources of
protein include meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, grains, legumes, nuts[7] and edible
insects.

Contents

 1Protein functions in human body

 2Sources
 3Testing in foods
o 3.1Protein quality
 4Digestion
o 4.1Newborn
 5Dietary requirements
 6Dietary recommendations
o 6.1Active people
o 6.2Aerobic exercise protein needs
o 6.3Anaerobic exercise protein needs
o 6.4Special populations
 6.4.1Protein allergies
 6.4.2Chronic kidney disease
 6.4.3Phenylketonuria
 6.4.4Maple syrup urine disease
 7Excess consumption
 8Protein deficiency
 9See also
 10References

Protein functions in human body[edit]

Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside
from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can
be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the
body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are
also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids,
they are used as precursors to nucleic acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response,
cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to
form blood cells.[1][2]

Sources[edit]

Some sources of animal-based protein

Nutritional value and environmental impact of animal products, compared to agriculture overall [8]

Categories Contribution of farmed animal product [%]

Calories 18

Proteins 37

Land use 83

Greenhouse gases 58

Water pollution 57

Air pollution 56

Freshwater withdrawals 33
Protein occurs in a wide range of food.[9][10] On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods
contribute over 60% of the per capita supply of protein. In North America, animal-
derived foods contribute about 70% of protein sources. [10] Insects are a source of protein
in many parts of the world.[11] In parts of Africa, up to 50% of dietary protein derives from
insects.[11] It is estimated that more than 2 billion people eat insects daily.[12]
Meat, dairy, eggs, soy, fish, whole grains, and cereals are sources of protein.
[9]
 Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration
greater than 7%, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn),
rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa.[10] Some research highlights game meat as
a protein source.[13]
Vegetarian sources of proteins include legumes, nuts, seeds and fruits. Vegetarian
foods with protein concentrations greater than 7% include soybeans, lentils, kidney
beans, white beans, mung beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas,
lupines, wing beans, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, pecans, walnuts, cotton seeds,
pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds. [10]
Plant sources of protein.

People eating a balanced diet do not need protein supplements.[7][10][14]

The table below presents food groups as protein sources.

Threonin Sulfur-containing
Food source Lysine Tryptophan
e amino acids

Legumes 64 38 12 25

Cereals and whole
31 32 12 37
grains

Nuts and seeds 45 36 17 46

Fruits 45 29 11 27

Animal 85 44 12 38

Colour key:
  Protein source with highest density of respective amino acid.
  Protein source with lowest density of respective amino acid.
 Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a
common bodybuilding supplement

Protein powders – such as casein, whey, egg, rice, soy and cricket flour– are

processed and manufactured sources of protein. [15]

Testing in foods[edit]
The classic assays for protein concentration in food are the Kjeldahl method and
the Dumas method. These tests determine the total nitrogen in a sample. The
only major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fat,
carbohydrate and dietary fiber do not contain nitrogen). If the amount of nitrogen
is multiplied by a factor depending on the kinds of protein expected in the food
the total protein can be determined. This value is known as the "crude protein"
content. On food labels the protein is given by the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25,
because the average nitrogen content of proteins is about 16%. The Kjeldahl
test is typically used because it is the method the AOAC International has
adopted and is therefore used by many food standards agencies around the
world, though the Dumas method is also approved by some standards
organizations.[16]
Accidental contamination and intentional adulteration of protein meals with non-
protein nitrogen sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have
been known to occur in the food industry for decades. To ensure food quality,
purchasers of protein meals routinely conduct quality control tests designed to
detect the most common non-protein nitrogen contaminants, such
as urea and ammonium nitrate.[17]
In at least one segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries
(at least the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary) have adopted "true protein"
measurement, as opposed to crude protein measurement, as the standard for
payment and testing: "True protein is a measure of only the proteins in milk,
whereas crude protein is a measure of all sources of nitrogen and includes
nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, which has no food value to humans. ...
Current milk-testing equipment measures peptide bonds, a direct measure of
true protein."[18] Measuring peptide bonds in grains has also been put into practice
in several countries including Canada, the UK, Australia, Russia and Argentina
where near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology, a type of infrared
spectroscopy is used.[19] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to determine
protein in, inter alia, foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as
infant formula, but also provides: "When data on amino acids analyses are not
available, determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC,
2000) or similar method ... is considered acceptable." [20]
The testing method for protein in beef cattle feed has grown into a science over
the post-war years. The standard text in the United States, Nutrient
Requirements of Beef Cattle, has been through eight editions over at least
seventy years.[21] The 1996 sixth edition substituted for the fifth edition's crude
protein the concept of "metabolizeable protein", which was defined around the
year 2000 as "the true protein absorbed by the intestine, supplied by microbial
protein and undegraded intake protein". [22]
The limitations of the Kjeldahl method were at the heart of the Chinese protein
export contamination in 2007 and the 2008 China milk scandal in which the
industrial chemical melamine was added to the milk or glutens to increase the
measured "protein".[23][24]
Protein quality[edit]
Further information: Protein quality and Amino acid score
The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a
nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.[2] There are multiple systems
which rate proteins by their usefulness to an organism based on their relative
percentage of amino acids and, in some systems, the digestibility of the protein
source. They include biological value, net protein utilization,
and PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score) which was
developed by the FDA as a modification of the Protein efficiency ratio (PER)
method. The PDCAAS rating was adopted by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) in 1993 as "the preferred 'best'"
method to determine protein quality. These organizations have suggested that
other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior. [25] In 2013 FAO
proposed changing to Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score.

Digestion[edit]
Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-
intestinal tract.[26]
Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted
to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued
by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine.[26] Before the absorption in
the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or
peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are
not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end.
There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.
Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is
degraded is done by the gastrointestinal tract. The absorption rates of individual
amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the
digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between soy and
milk proteins[27] and between individual milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and
casein.[28] For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed
between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the
digested food reaches the ileum.[29] Biological value (BV) is a measure of the
proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the
proteins of the organism's body.
Newborn[edit]
Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in
that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables passive
immunity, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via
milk.[30]

Dietary requirements[edit]
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years
ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.

Considerable debate has taken place regarding issues surrounding protein

intake requirements.[31][32] The amount of protein required in a person's diet is
determined in large part by overall energy intake, the body's need for nitrogen
and essential amino acids, body weight and composition, rate of growth in the
individual, physical activity level, the individual's energy and carbohydrate intake,
and the presence of illness or injury. [3][15] Physical activity and exertion as well as
enhanced muscular mass increase the need for protein. Requirements are also
greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy, or
when breastfeeding in order to nourish a baby or when the body needs to
recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an operation. [33]
If not enough energy is taken in through diet, as in the process of starvation, the
body will use protein from the muscle mass to meet its energy needs, leading to
muscle wasting over time. If the individual does not consume adequate protein in
nutrition, then muscle will also waste as more vital cellular processes (e.g.,
respiration enzymes, blood cells) recycle muscle protein for their own
requirements.[citation needed]

Dietary recommendations[edit]
According to US & Canadian Dietary Reference Intake guidelines, women aged
19–70 need to consume 46 grams of protein per day while men aged 19–70
need to consume 56 grams of protein per day to minimize risk of deficiency.
These Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were calculated based on 0.8
grams protein per kilogram body weight and average body weights of 57 kg (126
pounds) and 70 kg (154 pounds), respectively.[2] However, this recommendation
is based on structural requirements but disregards use of protein for energy
metabolism.[31] This requirement is for a normal sedentary person. [34] In the United
States, average protein consumption is higher than the RDA. According to
results of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013-
2014), average protein consumption for women ages 20 and older was 69.8
grams and for men 98.3 grams/day.[35]
Active people[edit]
Several studies have concluded that active people and athletes may require
elevated protein intake (compared to 0.8 g/kg) due to increase in muscle mass
and sweat losses, as well as need for body repair and energy source. [31][32]
[34]
 Suggested amounts vary from 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg for those doing endurance
exercise to as much as 1.6-1.8 g/kg for strength exercise, [32] while a
proposed maximum daily protein intake would be approximately 25% of energy
requirements i.e. approximately 2 to 2.5 g/kg.[31] However, many questions still
remain to be resolved.[32]
In addition, some have suggested that athletes using restricted-calorie diets for
weight loss should further increase their protein consumption, possibly to 1.8–
2.0 g/kg, in order to avoid loss of lean muscle mass.[36]
Aerobic exercise protein needs[edit]
Endurance athletes differ from strength-building athletes in that endurance
athletes do not build as much muscle mass from training as strength-building
athletes do.[citation needed] Research suggests that individuals performing endurance
activity require more protein intake than sedentary individuals so that muscles
broken down during endurance workouts can be repaired. [37] Although the protein
requirement for athletes still remains controversial (for instance see Lamont,
Nutrition Research Reviews, pages 142 - 149, 2012), research does show that
endurance athletes can benefit from increasing protein intake because the type
of exercise endurance athletes participate in still alters the protein metabolism
pathway. The overall protein requirement increases because of amino acid
oxidation in endurance-trained athletes.[37] Endurance athletes who exercise over
a long period (2–5 hours per training session) use protein as a source of 5–10%
of their total energy expended. Therefore, a slight increase in protein intake may
be beneficial to endurance athletes by replacing the protein lost in energy
expenditure and protein lost in repairing muscles. One review concluded that
endurance athletes may increase daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.2–1.4 g
per kg body weight.[15]
Anaerobic exercise protein needs[edit]
Research also indicates that individuals performing strength training activity
require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may
increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4–1.8 g per kg body weight
to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid
oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high-protein diet as part of
their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g.,
weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so
consume high protein meals and also protein supplements. [3][15][37][38]
Special populations[edit]
Protein allergies[edit]
Main article: Food allergy
A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to proteins in food. The signs
and symptoms may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness,
swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood
pressure. These symptoms typically occurs within minutes to one hour after
exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as anaphylaxis. The
following eight foods are responsible for about 90% of allergic reactions: cow's
milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, fish, peanuts, tree nuts and soy.[39]
Chronic kidney disease[edit]
While there is no conclusive evidence that a high protein diet can cause chronic
kidney disease, there is a consensus that people with this disease should
decrease consumption of protein. According to one 2009 review updated in
2018, people with chronic kidney disease who reduce protein consumption have
less likelihood of progressing to end stage kidney disease. [40][41] Moreover, people
with this disease while using a low protein diet (0.6 g/kg/d - 0.8 g/kg/d) may
develop metabolic compensations that preserve kidney function, although in
some people, malnutrition may occur.[41]
Phenylketonuria[edit]
Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine -
an essential amino acid - extremely low to prevent a mental disability and other
metabolic complications. Phenylalanine is a component of the artificial
sweetener aspartame, so people with PKU need to avoid low calorie beverages
and foods with this ingredient.[42]
Maple syrup urine disease[edit]
Maple syrup urine disease is associated with genetic anomalies in the
metabolism of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). They have high blood
levels of BCAAs and must severely restrict their intake of BCAAs in order to
prevent mental retardation and death. The amino acids in question are leucine,
isoleucine and valine. The condition gets its name from the distinctive sweet
odor of affected infants' urine. Children of Amish, Mennonite, and Ashkenazi
Jewish descent have a high prevalence of this disease compared to other
populations.[2]

Excess consumption[edit]
The U.S. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein concluded
that there was not sufficient evidence to establish a Tolerable upper intake level,
i.e., an upper limit for how much protein can be safely consumed. [2]
When amino acids are in excess of needs, the liver takes up the amino acids
and deaminates them, a process converting the nitrogen from the amino acids
into ammonia, further processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle.
Excretion of urea occurs via the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acid
molecules can be converted into glucose and used for fuel.[34][43][44] When food
protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at
an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve" to compensate for daily
variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future
caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs. [2]
Excessive protein intake may increase calcium excretion in urine, occurring to
compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. This may
lead to a higher risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal
circulatory system.[2] One meta-analysis reported no adverse effects of higher
protein intakes on bone density.[45] Another meta-analysis reported a small
decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with diets higher in protein, with
no differences between animal and plant protein. [46]
High protein diets have been shown to lead to an additional 1.21 kg of weight
loss over a period of 3 months versus a baseline protein diet in a meta-analysis.
[47]
 Benefits of decreased body mass index as well as HDL cholesterol were more
strongly observed in studies with only a slight increase in protein intake rather
where high protein intake was classified as 45% of total energy intake.
[47]
 Detrimental effects to cardiovascular activity were not observed in short-term
diets of 6 months or less. There is little consensus on the potentially detrimental
effects to healthy individuals of a long-term high protein diet, leading to caution
advisories about using high protein intake as a form of weight loss.[47][41][48]
The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommends that men
and teenage boys increase their consumption of fruits, vegetables and other
under-consumed foods, and that a means of accomplishing this would be to
reduce overall intake of protein foods. [49] The 2015 - 2020 DGA report does not
set a recommended limit for the intake of red and processed meat. While the
report acknowledges research showing that lower intake of red and processed
meat is correlated with reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases in adults, it also
notes the value of nutrients provided from these meats. The recommendation is
not to limit intake of meats or protein, but rather to monitor and keep within daily
limits the sodium (< 2300 mg), saturated fats (less than 10% of total calories per
day), and added sugars (less than 10% of total calories per day) that may be
increased as a result of consumption of certain meats and proteins. While the
2015 DGA report does advise for a reduced level of consumption of red and
processed meats, the 2015-2020 DGA key recommendations recommend that a
variety of protein foods be consumed, including both vegetarian and non-
vegetarian sources of protein.[50]
 Protein deficiency[edit]

A child in Nigeria during the Biafra War suffering from kwashiorkor – one of the three protein

energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries. [51]

Main article: Protein-energy malnutrition

Protein deficiency and malnutrition (PEM) can lead to variety of ailments
including mental retardation and kwashiorkor.[52] Symptoms of kwashiorkor
include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and
edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the action of
lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal
functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport. [53]
PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6
million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in
hospitals, is associated with disease, or is often found in the elderly. [2]

See also[edit]
 Food portal

 Azotorrhea
 Biological value
 Bodybuilding supplement
 Leaf protein concentrate
 Low-protein diet
 Protein bar

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