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3.1 Fluid Mosaic Model

 The plasma membrane/cell membrane separates cell contents from extracellular environment and is
selectively permeable
 Allows a steady supply of nutrients into the cell without regarding the extracellular environment
 Plasma membrane and organelle membrane have the same basic structure
 1972, S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane consisting of a
bilayer (double layer) of phospholipids with various protein molecules embedded and attached to it
 Membrane is ‘fluid’ as individual phospholipids and some protein molecules can move around within their
layer
 Protein molecules scattered in the membrane gives a ‘mosaic’ pattern to the surface of the membrane
 7-8 nm thick
 Arrangement of phospholipids in water:
◊ When phospholipid molecules are spread over the surface of water, they form a single layer film
◊ In water, they spontaneously arrange themselves in such a way to minimise the area of surface
contact between the non-polar hydrophobic tails and water
◊ Depending on the concentration of phospholipids, they form:

 Micelles (spherical aggregates)

 Liposome (membrane bound vesicle)
 Phospholipid bilayer

COMPONENTS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Held together mainly by hydrophobic interactions
 Phospholipid bilayer:
❖ Polar hydrophilic heads of phospholipids are attracted to aqueous surrounding, point outwards and
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
❖ Nonpolar hydrophobic tails of phospholipids are repelled by water, they face inwards and are
attracted to one another by hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interaction

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 Proteins:
❖ Amphipathic
❖ Extrinsic (peripheral proteins):
✓ Loosely attached on the inner and outer surfaces of plasma membrane
❖ Intrinsic proteins
✓ Embedded in plasma membrane
✓ Some are embedded partially in the membrane
✓ Some (transmembrane integral proteins) penetrate through the membrane
✓ Hydrophobic region consists of one or more stretches of non-polar amino acids, which
usually coils into α helices
❖ Only certain proteins are unique to each membrane
❖ Protein part which contains hydrophobic amino acids interact with hydrophobic fatty acid chains to
expel water
❖ Hydrophilic part of protein is attracted to the aqueous surrounding
 Some proteins and phospholipid conjugate with short branched oligosaccharides to form glycoproteins and
glycolipids on the outer surface
❖ More glycoproteins are formed compared to glycolipids
❖ Important for cell recognition (function as ‘name-tags’), help to distinguish cells
❖ Important in sorting cells into tissues and organs during embryonic development
❖ Basis for rejection of foreign cells
 Cholesterol:
❖ Found between phospholipid molecules
❖ Stabilise membrane structure
❖ Regulates membrane fluidity
❖ Controls membrane permeability, particularly reducing leakage of small polar molecules
 Membrane is supported by intracellular protein filaments at inner surface which act as cytoskeleton
❖ Some proteins are immobilised by microfilaments or the extracellular matrix (attached to fibres)
 Membrane fluidity
❖ Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds, which form kinks
✓ Prevents close packing of phospholipid molecules
✓ Increase fluidity, promoting movement of substances across plasma membrane
❖ An increase in temperature increases membrane fluidity
✓ Cholesterol restrains the free movement of phospholipid molecules, making the membrane
less fluid
✓ Cholesterol hinders the close packing of phospholipids, lowering the temperature required
for membrane to solidify
❖ At low temperatures
✓ Cholesterol prevents close packing of phospholipid molecules, slowing down solidification of
the membrane

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FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE AND ITS COMPONENTS
• Form a protective barrier between cell contents and external environment
• Form membranous organelles
• Selectively permeable and regulate transport of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining a stable,
constant internal cellular environment
• Folding of membranes increases surface area for absorptions
• Folding of cell membranes enables phagocytosis and pinocytosis
• Phospholipid:
 Act as a barrier to most water-soluble substances
• Glycolipid:
 Recognition sites for specific chemicals
• Cholesterol:
 Maintains fluidity of membrane i.e. prevents membrane from becoming too rigid
 Prevents ions and hydrophilic molecules from passing through i.e. ionic insulation
• Protein:

 Channel protein and carrier proteins: Proteins which span the membrane, provide a hydrophilic
channel or change its shape, in order to assist movement of substances across plasma membrane via
facilitated diffusion
 Pump proteins use ATP to transport substances actively against concentration gradient
 Cell surface receptor proteins: Proteins which may have a binding site with a specific binding site for
a chemical messenger, involved in signal-transduction by converting extracellular signal to an
intracellular signal
(e.g.) certain hormones bind to specific receptors in membranes of target cells, produces changes in
chemical activities in the cell
 Glycoprotein: cell recognition, act as antigens and are recognised by other cells with complementary
sites
 Electron carrier protein: carries electron in electron transport chain across membrane
 Enzymes: Protein built into membrane with active sites to catalyse chemical reactions within or
along membrane surface
 Cell adhesion proteins: join cells together forming tissues
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 Peripheral proteins: provides attachment to cytoskeleton filaments to help maintaining cell shape
and give support
 Forms hydrogen bonds in water to stabilise membrane

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3.2 Movement of Substances Across Membrane
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Movement of ions and molecules down concentration gradient
Does not require expenditure of energy and ATP

1. Diffusion:
⸙ Net movement as a result of random motion of ions or molecules from a
high concentration region to a low concentration region; i.e. down
concentration gradient, until an equilibrium is achieved
⁑ Due to the kinetic energy of particles (kinetic theory of particles)
⁑ Equilibrium: continuous movement of particles without net movement in a particular direction
⁑ Particles of different substances in a mixture diffuses independently
⸙ Does not require usage of energy from ATP
⸙ Phospholipid bilayer is permeable to very small uncharged molecules (e.g. respiratory gases, lipid-soluble
substances – steroid hormones) and water molecules
⁑ Diffuse freely in and out of the cell through phospholipid bilayer
⸙ Phospholipid bilayer is impermeable to charged ions (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-) and hydrophilic molecules
(e.g. glucose, macromolecules)
⸙ Fick’s Law states that the rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface area and concentration gradient,
and inversely proportional to the length or thickness of diffusion path
Surface area × Difference in concentration
Rate of diffusion =
Length of diffusion pathway
⸙ Rate of diffusion depends on:
⁑ Concentration gradient
 The greater the difference in concentration gradient, the faster the net rate of diffusion
⁑ Surface area
 The greater the surface area, the faster the molecules and ions move through it
⁑ Temperature
 At high temperatures, molecules have more kinetic energy
 Move around faster, increasing speed of diffusion
⁑ Size and nature of molecules
 Larger molecules diffuse more slowly
 Require more energy to move around
⁑ Distance/thickness of exchange surface
 Diffusion is faster over shorter distance/thinner surfaces
⁑ State of particles
 Gas > liquid > solid
⁑ Polarity of molecules
 Most non-polar ones diffuse with the highest rate
⁑ Rate of solute entry increases linearly with extracellular concentration of solute
2. Facilitated diffusion/carrier-mediated diffusion:
⸙ Movement of hydrophilic molecules/ions across cell membrane via special transport proteins
⸙ Transmembrane proteins form channels or act as transport proteins to facilitate and to increase rate of
diffusion across cell membranes.
⸙ Does not require usage of energy from ATP
⸙ Occurs down concentration gradient
⸙ Occur at a higher rate than simple diffusion
⸙ Specificity: carrier only acts upon specific substrates
⸙ Limitations: Saturation
⁑ Limited number of functional carrier proteins in cell membrane
⁑ Concentration of solute increases, more carriers are required to transport the solutes
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 ⁑ Rate of facilitated diffusion is limited by number of functional membrane carrier proteins which
can become saturated
⁑ Increasing of concentration of solutes increases the rate of diffusion until a maximum rate
⸙ Protein channels:
⁑ Transmembrane proteins form specific water-filled hydrophilic channels to permit diffusion of
various charged ions (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, HCO3-)
⁑ Walls of channels are made up of a single or a group of protein molecules
⁑ There are differences in diameter and chemical properties which ensures only one specific type
of particle passes through a particular protein channel
⁑ Channels that can open or closed are known as gated-channels (e.g. ligand-gated channels,
voltage-gated channels)
⁑ Aquaporins: specialised channels for water, speed up rate of diffusion of water molecules down
its water potential gradient
⸙ Carrier proteins:
⁑ Alternates between two conformations
⁑ Solute (e.g. glucose, amino acids) binds to the
carrier, altering the conformation of the carrier
protein
⁑ The solute is transported across the membrane
as the shape of the carrier changes
⁑ Solute molecule is released on the other side of the membrane down concentration gradient
3. Osmosis:

⸙ Diffusion of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from a weak solution to a strong
solution
⸙ Definition in terms of solute concentration: Passive movement of water molecules across a partially
permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration until an equilibrium is achieved
⁑ More solute = lower water concentration
⸙ Definition in terms of water potential: Passive movement of water molecules across a partially
permeable membrane, from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential
through a partially permeable membrane until an equilibrium is achieved
⸙ Occurs through aquaporins or lipid bilayer

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
◆ Movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane aided by a protein pump with a specific binding site
against concentration gradient
◆ Requires expenditure of energy provided by ATP
◆ Cells which occurs active transport have high respiratory rate and a large number of mitochondria to
generate a high concentration of ATP
◆ Energy from ATP may be used directly or indirectly in active transport
◆ Can be slowed down/inhibited by respiratory poisons (e.g. cyanide) or lack of oxygen
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◆ Types of membrane proteins involved:
♪ Uniport carriers: carry a single ion/molecule in a single direction
♪ Symport carriers (cotransport): carry two substances in same direction
♪ Antiport carriers: carry two substances in opposite directions

◆ Direct active transport (Primary active transport):

♪ Direct use of metabolic energy (e.g. ATP hydrolysis) to mediate transport
♪ E.g. Na+- K+ protein pump
♪ ATP is hydrolysed and the binding of phosphate group to the protein pump (phosphorylation) alters
protein conformation
♪ Transports 3Na+ ions out of the cell for every 2K+ ions pumped against their concentration gradient
i. 3 intracellular Na+ ions bind to specific binding sites in protein pump
ii. ATP is then hydrolysed into phosphate group and ADP
iii. Phosphorylation of protein occurs which binds phosphate group to protein pump
iv. This alters the protein conformation
v. 3 Na+ ions are released to the other side of cell membrane
vi. 2 extracellular K+ ions bind to exposed specific site of proteins
vii. Binding of K+ ions causes phosphate groups to be released (dephosphorylation)
viii. Dephosphorylation restores protein pump to original conformation, K+ ions are released
ix. The cycle repeats for continuous transport of Na+ ions and K+ ions

♪ Generates a difference in ionic charge on 2 sides of membrane, which is important for transmission
of nerve impulses
◆ Indirect active transport (secondary active transport):
♪ Transport protein couples the movement of an ion down its electrochemical gradient to the
movement of another ion or molecule against a concentration or electrochemical gradient
♪ Cotransport: e.g. Coupled uptake of glucose into the cells lining the ileum in mammals
i. ATP is used by Na+ protein pumps to pump Na+ ions out of the cells
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 ii. This creates a Na+ concentration gradient
iii. Na+ ions and glucose molecules bind to the same transmembrane protein (cotransport
proteins/coupled transport proteins)
iv. They are moved by the proteins into the cell
v. Na+ ions move down concentration gradient while glucose molecules move against
concentration gradient

◆ Exocytosis:
♪ Moves materials in bulk across membrane (egestion/secretion)
♪ Vesicle membrane incorporates into plasma membrane, helping to restore membranes used in
endocytosis
♪ Contents in vesicles are released outside the cell (e.g. enzymes, hormones, excretory products)

◆ Endocytosis:

♪ Involves bulk transport of material into a cell Endocytosis and exocytosis are
used to transport larger
molecules which
pumps/channels could not
transport

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 ♪Phagocytosis (cell ‘eating’):
i. Folds of plasma membrane and cytoplasm forms cytoplasmic
projections that extend around solid particles
ii. The projections fuse together, trapping the solid particles within a
vacuole (phagosome)
iii. Surface of vacuole is derived from plasma membrane
iv. Vacuole moves into cell and fuses with lysosome
v. Hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes are released into vacuole,
digesting the solid particle into smaller particles
vi. Soluble particles are absorbed into surrounding cytoplasm
vii. Undigested material is egested from cell via exocytosis
▫ Examples:
1. Nutrition in Amoeba
2. Leucocytes, neutrophils, macrophages engulfing foreign substances
♪ Pinocytosis:
i. Folds of plasma membranes invaginates inwards, forming a flask
shaped vesicle
ii. Droplets of extracellular fluids containing dissolved particles flow
inside the vesicle
iii. The vesicle is pinched off to form a pinocytic vesicle in cytoplasm
iv. Vesicle fuses with lysosome
v. Hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes are released into vesicle,
breaking down its content
▫ Pinocytic vesicles are smaller than phagosome
▫ It contains fluid and dissolved solutes
◆ Receptor-mediated endocytosis:

Ligand: a molecule that binds

specifically to a receptor site of
another molecule

♪Selective uptake of specific macromolecules

♪Coated pit forms vesicle when specific ligand molecules (e.g. cholesterol molecules) bind to the
receptors on cell surface and triggers the inward folding of plasma membrane
◆ Processes involving active transport:
♪ Muscle contraction
♪ Transmission of nerve impulses
♪ Absorption of amino acids and glucose in ileum and out of proximal convoluted nephron tubules
back into blood capillaries
♪ Absorption of mineral salts by plant roots

WATER POTENTIAL
 Measure of the relative tendency of water molecules to move from one area to another via osmosis
(OR) Measure of the free kinetic energy of water molecules in the solution
(OR) The tendency of a solution to lose water
 Commonly represented by Greek letter psi, Ψ
 Unit: kilopascal (kPa), MPa or bar
 Pure water has the highest water potential of ΨW = 0 kPa at 1atm
 Water molecules diffuses from region of high water potential to region of low water potential via osmosis

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  Water potential decreases with addition of solutes
☂ The higher the solute concentration of a solution, the lower the water potential
☂ Concentrated solution has a lower concentration of water molecules
☂ Movement of water is restricted due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between solutes and
water molecules
☂ Fewer water molecules with a high kinetic energy move across membrane
☂ Thus, water potential of solutions is lower than pure water and has a negative value
Ψsolution < 0
 A dilute solution has a high water potential
☂ Contains fewer solute molecules and high concentration of water molecules (more unbound water
molecules)
☂ Water molecules have a high kinetic energy and move freely
☂ Tendency of water molecules to collide with membrane and penetrate the membrane increases
 Water potential can be increased via application of pressure

SOLUTE POTENTIAL (ΨS)

 Pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent inward flow of water molecules through a
semipermeable membrane
(OR) The potential or forces of attraction towards water molecules caused by dissolved substances (solutes)
inside the solution
 Also known as osmotic potential
 Attraction between solute molecules and water molecules reduces the random movement of water
molecules
 Hence, addition of more solute molecules lowers the water potential of a solution
i.e. Ψs is proportional to the number of dissolved solutes
 In pure water, Ψs = 0
 Therefore, the value of Ψs is always negative
Ψs < 0

PRESSURE POTENTIAL (ΨP)

 Pressure exerted on a fluid by its surrounding
(OR) The component of water potential due to the hydrostatic pressure that is exerted on water in a cell
 Turgid plant cells have a positive pressure potential
☂ Protoplasts expand causing a turgor pressure exerted on the cellulose cell wall
☂ Cell wall develops an inward pressure (pressure potential) to resist influx of water
 Water potential of an animal cell depends on its solute potential as pressure potential generated by cell
membrane is negligible
 Net movement of water can be prevented or slowed down by increasing pressure potential of less
concentrated solution
☂ Pressure increases water potential
 Can be positive or negative
☂ Positive: pushes like a hose
☂ Negative: sucking like a straw
 Water in xylem is often negative, which results in transpiration pull
 Water in cells is often positive, which maintains the shapes of the cell

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WATER POTENTIAL IN PLANTS
 Sum of its solute potential and pressure potential
Ψ = ΨS + ΨP
Water potential of plant cell Solute potential Pressure potential

 Tonicity of solution: osmotic pressure gradient of two solutions separated by a semi-permeable membrane
☂ Osmotic pressure gradient: water potential of the two solutions
☂ Tonicity is influenced only by the solutes that cannot cross the semi-permeable membrane
☂ Solutes that can move freely across membrane do not affect tonicity as when they reached
equilibrium, the concentrations of the solutes will be equal
☂ Hypotonic solution: Solution with lower solute concentration (high ΨS, high Ψ)
☂ Hypertonic solution: Solution with higher solute concentration (low ΨS, low Ψ)
☂ Isotonic solution: Solution have the same solute concentration
 Osmosis in plant cells:
☂ When placed in hypotonic solution:
 Water enters via osmosis
 Vacuole expands
 Cell contents push against cell wall
 Pressure potential increases as water potential increases until pressure potential equals to
the solute potential
 No net movement of water, i.e. the cell is turgid (Ψ = 0)
 Turgidity gives support to herbaceous plants
 Cells do not burst as they are surrounded by strong cell walls
☂ When placed in isotonic solution:
 No net movement of water molecules
 No change in volume of cell
☂ When placed in hypertonic solution:
 Net outflow of water by osmosis from the cell
 Protoplast starts to shrink away from cell wall
 Plasmolysis occur and cells become flaccid
 Plants start to wilt

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OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS

☃ Animal cells have no cell walls

☃ When red blood cell is placed in hypotonic solution:
✿ Net movement of water entering the cell via osmosis
✿ Cell expands, thin plasma membrane bursts, releasing cell contents
✿ The red blood cell is haemolysed (haemolysis)
☃ When red blood cell is placed in isotonic solution:
✿ No net movement of water molecules
✿ No change in shape or volume of cell
☃ When red blood cell is placed in hypertonic solution:
✿ Net outflow of water by osmosis from the cell
✿ Cell shrinks and plasma membrane has a crinkled appearance
✿ Cell is crenated (crenation)
☃ Hence, it is crucial to maintain a constant water potential in animal bodies
☃ Some organisms (e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium) have contractile vacuole to regulate water content in cell

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