Shear walls

• column – stiffening element

• stiffness: EIwall >> EIcolumn

1
 Rigidity of stiffening elements

H2 >> H1 Rigid walls – decrease of

deflections δ and more simple
foundations

Stiffening elements

Column systems without Almost all lateral loads –

stiffening elements – carried by shear walls and
deflections and big stiffening elements
bending moments

2
 Shear walls (stiffening elements)
• contribute to overall stiffness of the
building + provide stability
• correct design of shear walls = condition of
reliability and efficiency of the structure
• transfer lateral loads to basement
• shall be designed so that all lateral load is
carried by shear walls (stiffening elements)

Principles of arrangement of stiffening elements

• use of existing structural members →

• stiffening elements shall carry all lateral load
• stiffening elements shouldn't restrain
deformations due to shrinkage, creep and
temperature changes
• avoid torsion of the building
• stiffening elements shall carry a big part of
vertical loads
• stiffening elements should have big moments
of inertia
• of stiffening elements´ axis shouldn't intersect
in one point

3
 no point of intersection of
stiffening element axis

Behaviour and design of shear walls

• according to governing deformation

Deformation
• predominantly bending
• predominantly shear

4
• If walls with different type of deformation
are combined in one structure, bending
and shear deformation (stiffness) must be
considered in analysis.

• Deflection due to
– Bending
– Shear (usually neglected)

5
Stiffness
of walls

Stiffness in bending Combined stiffness Stiffness in shear

B 1 1
≤  
H 85 1 B 2 B 2
≥ ≥ ≥
5 H 3 H 3

4% (16%) proportional share

of shear in total stiffness
– shear effect neglected

Stiffness of walls
(Mohr principle)
• Load the dual beam with moment
factored by stiffness M =
WH
EI

• Deflection ≈ moment on dual beam

due to factored load M
1 WH 2 WH 3
y= H H=
2 EI 3 3EI

6
 Stiffness of walls
Stiffness = load that cause deflection equal
to one

3EI 3EI
W= y K=
H3 H3

Stiffness in bending

3EI
K=
H3

7
 Shear stiffness

deflection due to shear

shear stiffness

8
 Shear stiffness

AG
KS =
κH

Combined (complex) stiffness

1 1 1
= +
K combined K bending K shear

9
 Procedure of analysis of a building with
shear walls
1st step
• Divide lateral load to particular stiffening
elements (shear walls)

2nd step
• Design of the wall
• Check the wall stability (or max. deflection)

3rd step
• Design of reinforcement

Dividing of load to walls –

according to stiffness of walls

10
• stiffening elements + other loadbearing
elements = statically indeterminate system

• simplified idealisation
– preliminary design
– interpretation and check of detailed analysis

Proportioning of lateral load to

stiffening elements

According to layout
• statically determinate
- proportioning from equilibrium of forces
- (the most simple case: shear walls)
• statically indeterminate
- further simplifying assumptions

11
 Simplified method – idealisation
• flooring plates rigid for
transferring lateral load

• pinned connection of
floor slab and stiffening
element, rigidity of the
floor slab in its plane

Idealisation
• stiffness of shear walls is EIy>>EIx
negligible perpendicular to the
plane of the wall and negligible
stiffness in torsion; stiffness of EIx≈ 0, stiffness
other vertical elements is also in torsion ≈ 0
negligible

• stiffening elements don't

change section along height

• buildings with rectangle shape

may be analyzed separately
with two directions of lateral wx
load only
wy

12
• According to layout of stiffening elements
the analysis is performed as:
– 2D or
– 3D.

• Stiffening systems:
– statically determinate
– statically indeterminate

For statically determinate systems the

load carried by one wall may be
determined from equilibrium
conditions.

– graphically
– by numerical calculations

13
 Graphical determination of load carried by
shear walls in statically determinate system

Calculation of load carried by one wall

(statically determinate system)

Here: stiffnesses of all walls are equal

14
 Dividing of wind load to particular walls
(statically determinate system) – example
Wind load could be solve for 2 directions (x and y) and
separately
Equilibrium conditions (in a plan): forces, moments
Here: stiffnesses of all walls are equal
12 6 12

4
A

ly = 12
xA = 2
Wx

6
C
y
Wy

x lx = 30

Height of the building 33m.

Three walls of same dimensions (B=6m, H=33m, t=0,2m) and same stiffness.
12 6 12
1
E cm I = E cm ⋅ 0,2 ⋅ 6 3 = 3,6 ⋅ E cm
12 B
4

A
ly = 12
xA = 2

Wx
6

Load Wx: carried by wall A C

y
Wy

W A = Wx x lx = 30

Wall A is in nonsymetric position - Wx applies a torsional moment T= Wx .xA

Load Wy is carried by walls B and C. WB =WC= Wy /2

Torsion: WB = -T/l, WC= T/l

Total lateral load for walls B,C:

Wy T W y Wx ⋅ 2 W y Wx Wy T W y Wx
WC = + = + = + WB = − = −
2 lx 2 30 2 15 2 lx 2 15

15
 Dividing of wind load to particular walls –
general procedure

Due to lateral load the floor slab moves and rotates.

3 unknowns: translations Δx, Δy, rotation φ
→ 3 equilibrium equations
n m

Wx = ∑Wxi Wy = ∑ Wy j
i =1
i =1

W yj e x − W xi e y = ∑ W yj x j − ∑W xi yi

Origin – in centre of gravity

m n

∑K yj x j = 0 ∑K i =1
xi yi = 0
j =1

stiffness of wall j in direction y stiffness of wall i in direction x

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 translation of point
∆xi = ∆x − ϕ yi
∆yi = ∆y + ϕ xi
forces in walls due to translation
and rotation
W yj = (∆y + ϕx j )K yj
Wxi = ( ∆x − ϕ yi ) K xi

From equilibrium conditions we obtain Δx, Δy, φ

Consequently load of particular walls may be

determined

new system of coordinates

origin of coordinates – centroid of stiffness (centroid of bending)
m n

∑K yj xj = 0 ∑K
i =1
xi yi = 0
j =1

translations of point
∆xi = ∆x − ϕ yi ∆yi = ∆y + ϕ xi

forces in walls due to translation and rotation

W yj = (∆y + ϕx j )K yj Wxi = ( ∆x − ϕ yi ) K xi

17
equilibrium of forces and moments (load and forces due to translations and rotation)

W yj e x − Wxi e y = ∑ W yj x j − ∑ Wxi yi
n m

Wx = ∑Wxi Wy = ∑Wy j
i =1 i =1

substitution (unknown Δx, Δy, φ) ;

Wy W y ex − Wx e y
∆x = n
Wx
∆y = ϕ= n m

∑K yi2 + ∑ K y j x 2j
m
∑K
i =1
xi ∑K yj xi
j =1 i =1 j =1

calculation of forces in particular walls:

W yj = (∆y + ϕx j )K yj

effect of bending effect of torsion

After the total load is distributed to particular

shear walls
→
design and check of each wall

18
 Design of shear walls
• common requirement: no tensile stresses
at bottom of the wall for operational load
(repeated changing of compression and
tensile is unsuitable)

Tensile at bottom section of the wall

19
 Shear wall - stability check
• Check of stability – EQU
• possible demand: check of stress at the
bottom-section of the wall (service load;
characteristic value) : no tension

• Check of max deflection

fmax ≤ flim

Stability of a wall
Stability condition – EQU

Mdst ≤ Mstb

Destabilizing Stabilizing
moment moment
γG = 1,1 γQ = 1,5 γG = 0,9 γQ = 0

20
Note:
event. check of the stability of the whole
system (building)

Elastic behaviour of wall

M N V

principle tensile ~ fct → reinforcement

according to detailing

21
 Walls with predominantly shear
deformation

Linear analysis
M, N, V

N M V ⋅S
σ = + y σy =0 τ =
t⋅I
x
A I

σx +σy σx +σy  2

2

σ1,2 = ±   +τ
2  2 
σ 1 ≤ f ctd σ 1 〉 f ctd

22
• Heavily loaded walls with shear straining
could be analysed by means of strut-and-
tie method.

Tall walls (predominantly bending

deformation)
• simplified analysis method: reinforcement
design from normal stresses at bottom
section of the wall
• Method is suitable for walls ca 5 m long

23
 Simplified analysis of a tall wall
B 1 1
≤  
H 85 1. check of the stress at bottom
γG = 1 γQ = 1
2. stability check
γG = 1,1 γQ = 1,5
γG = 0,9 γQ = 0
3. reinforcement design
γG = 1,35 γQ = 1,5
γG = 1 γQ = 1,5 γQ =0

Wall = cantilever, stress at bottom section 1-1´

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recapitulation: Simplified analysis of tall
wall (dominating bending stiffness) –
procedure:

1. total horizontal load

2. dividing of load to particular walls (according to
stiffness of walls)
3. design of a wall
i. check of the stress at bottom
a. wind load (γQ = 1) and vertical load (γG = 1 γQ = 1)
ii. stability check
iii. reinforcement design :
a. max. wind load (γQ = 1,5) and max. vertical load (γG = 1,35
γQ = 1,5)
b. max. wind load (γF = 1,5) a min. vertical load (γG = 1) → if
tensile occurs – design tensile reinforcement

ad 3) wall design

charakteristické γF návrhové γF návrhové γF návrhové

Stálé
0,9 1,1 1,35

Celkem stálé gk = gd = gd = gd =
Nahodilé
1,5 1,5 1,5

qk = qd = qd = qd =
Celkem (g+q) k = (g+q) d = (g+q) d = (g+q) d =

25
 ad 3) wall design

ad 3) wall design– stability

γG = 1,1 γQ = 1,5

γG = 0,9 γQ = 0

26
 ad 3) wall design – reinforcement design

• combination M + N
wind load

– moment from the central plane

– slenderness
– imperfections

ad 3) wall design – reinforcement design

wind load + vertical loads

tensile reinforcement

1m

4,4 m

vertical loads γG = 1, γQ = 0
γG = 1,35 γQ = 1,5
horizontal loads γG = 1,35 γQ = 1,5

27
 ad 3) wall design – reinforcement design

-6000,0

N [kN]

-5000,0

-4000,0

-3000,0

-2000,0

-1000,0 [M Ed,N Ed] tlak

-200,0 -150,0 -100,0 -50,0 0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0 200,0

0,0
M [kNm]
[M Ed,N Ed] tah

1000,0

2000,0

ad 3) wall design – reinforcement design

Compression in footing section: N Ed = AC f cd + AS ⋅ σ s

nd
(2 order effect - slender, short column)
Tensile in footing section: N = A ⋅ f
t S yd

Main (vertical) reinforcement

As,min =0,002Ac (each surface 1/2 As,min )
spacing ≤3t, ≤400mm

28
 Procedure of analysis of a building with
shear walls
1st step
• Divide lateral load to particular stiffening
elements (shear walls)

2nd step
• Design of the wall
• Check the wall stability (or max. deflection)

3rd step
• Design of reinforcement

29
Simplified method of analysis of high wall with
bending stiffness (shear effect neglected)
B 1 1
≤  
H 85
No tensile stress for service (operational) load in
footing bottom

Design of reinforcement (compression force) -

load situations
• max. lateral load + min. vertical load
• max.lateral load + max. vertical load

ad 3) wall design– stability

γG = 1,1 γQ = 1,5

γG = 0,9 γQ = 0

30
Reinforcement design – normal forces

max. wind load (γQ = 1,5) and

max. vertical load (γG = 1,35
γQ = 1,5)

NRd = 0,8 Ac fcd + As σs

max. wind load (γF = 1,5) a min.

vertical load (γG = 1) → if
tensile occurs – design tensile
reinforcement

NRd = As fyd

Stiffening walls with openings

a) flexible cross beams - coupled walls
b) stiff cross beams - one wall
c) medium cross beams

31
 Flexible coupling beam
l1
M1 = M
I1 + I 2

l2
M2 = M
I1 + I 2

two cantilevers - connected - same deformation

- proportion of moment - due to stiffness

Stiff cross beams

One wall
in calculation of moment of inertia Ired use section

design of coupling (cross) beam

32
 Design of coupling (cross) beam

shear force in i-storey:

Zi = τ i t h
VSidS
τi =
t I red
VSid Sh
substitution: Zi =
I red

Reinforcement in coupling beam:

1
M Sd = Zi l VSd = Zi
2

Medium cross beams

Stiffness of cross beam {0, ∞}

1
M = w⋅ H 2
2

M = M1 + M 2 + Z ⋅ l

Z
Z

M1
M2
l

33
 Medium cross beams

Structure could be analysed as a

frame:
part of the tie-beam has infinite
stiffness
part at the opening is flexible

Reinforcement of coupling beam

• cantilever
• ties
• edge reinforcement
• diagonal reinforcement
• edge of the wall – U-shaped reinforcement

34
Reinforcement - detailing

Main - longitudinal reinforcement

As,min =0,002Ac (at least 1/2 As,min each edge of wall)
spacing ≤3t, ≤400mm

As,max =0,04Ac ......... 0,08 Ac (in lapping area)

Secondary (horizontal) reinforcement

As ≥ 25% of main As
≥ 0,001Ac
spacing ≤ 400mm

Purpose:
• keep position of main reinforcement during grouting
• shrinkage cracking, cracks due to temperature
changes

35
Ties: if As of main reinf. ≥ 2% Ac
spacing and ∅ − same as for columns
∅ ≥1/4 ∅ of main reinf.
≥ 6mm
spacing ≤ 12 ∅ of main reinf.
≤t
≤ 300mm
reduced spacing of ties below and above ceiling – distance 4t
at least 4 ties per 1m2 of wall

If reinf. is provided as a weld mesh : φ ≤ 16 mm, cover > 2 φ.

ties

ties lapping

either
buď
ornebo

36
37
38
39
40
 example Wx = 800 kN Wy = 1200 kN.
y0 y

A x0 = 4 xD = 2

6
yA = 9
D E x

y0 = 3

ly = 24
x0

yB = -9
Wx xC = -16 xE = 14

6
C
B

6
Wy

6 6 6 6 6 6

lx = 36

I C ⋅ xC + I D ⋅ x D + I E ⋅ x E (−12 + 6 + 18) I
centre of bending : xo = = =4
IC + ID + I E 3I

I A ⋅ x A + I B ⋅ x B (12 − 6) I
yo = = =3
IA + IB 2I

translations, rotation
Wx Wx 800 400 Wy wx 1200 400
∆x = = = = ∆y = = = =
n
E cm I A + E cm I B 2 E cm I E cm I n
Ecm I C + E cm I D + E cm I E 3Ecm I E cm I
∑K xi ∑K j
yj
i

W y ex − Wx e y 1200 ⋅ (− 4 ) + 800 ⋅ 3 3,88

ϕ= = =−
n m
(
E cm I A ⋅ 9 2 + I B ⋅ 9 2 + I C ⋅ 16 2 + I D ⋅ 2 2 + I E ⋅ 14 2 )
∑K y + ∑Kyjx
2 2 E cm I
xi i j
i =1 i =1

resultant forces in walls

W A = (∆x − ϕ ⋅ y A )E cm I A = (400 − 3,88 ⋅ 9 ) = 365
W B = (∆x − ϕ ⋅ y B )E cm I B = (400 + 3,88 ⋅ 9 ) = 435
WC = (∆y + ϕ ⋅ xC )E cm I C = (400 − 3,88 ⋅ 16 ) = 337,9

WD = (∆y + ϕ ⋅ x D )E cm I D = (400 + 3,88 ⋅ 2) = 407,8

WE = (∆y + ϕ ⋅ x E )E cm I E = (400 + 3,88 ⋅ 14 ) = 454,4

41
 Proportioning of lateral load –
statically indeterminate system
• different stiffness of different elements (different
character of deformation)

simplifying assumptions for deformation - composite

element

Design and analysis of combined

systems

Effect of loads are usually solved

separately for parts of the building or
particular elements (assumed elastic
behaviour).

42
 Analysis model – stability
• stiffening elements + other load-bearing
elements = statically indefinite system

• numerical model – computer analysis

• laboratory tests (tunnel)
• simplified idealisation
• deformation properties of the idealised structure
shall not differ from real behaviour

Analysis model

• In linear analysis effect of vertical and

lateral loads may be analysed separately
and superimposed
• The whole structure may be divided to
structural parts or elements and these are
solved separately

• Non-linear solution

43
 Different behaviour of vertical
elements

• different properties – stiffness –

simplification – idealisation

Char. deformation of column system, wall system

and combination

frame wall combined structure

44
 Structural model

linear solution – simplification

• separate effects of loads → and other
• divide to particular elements
• analyse particular elements

• (nonlinear solution – all loads analysed

together)

• column – stiffening element

• stiffness: EIwall >> EIcolumn

45
 Combination of different types of
elements in one system

Interaction of different types of vertical

elements – idealisation
• composite prism
• substitute stiffness (continuous continuum
along the building height

RIGID slabs

46
 Dividing of effects of loads to
particular elements

• assumptions:
– slabs rigid in their central plane
– pinned connection of slabs and vertical stiffening
elements
– slabs transfer load to vertical stiffening elements
– stiffening element = cantilever fixed to basement
• According to arrangement of stiffening
elements in a plan – plane or spatial (3D)
system is assumed

47