What is Behavior?

- the way in which someone conducts oneself or behaves 

- the manner of conducting
- anything that an organism does involving action and response to stimulation
- the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment
- the way in which something functions or operates
What is meant by Human Behavior?
- Human Behavior refers to the full range of physical and
emotional behaviors that humans engage in; biologically, socially, intellectually, etc. and
are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport,
persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.
The field of HBO seeks to replace intuitive explanations with systematic study
- Consciously or unconsciously we are all students of behavior. We observe others and
attempt to interpret what we see. We "read" people all the time and even attempt to
predict what they might do under different sets of conditions. We develop some
generalizations in explaining and predicting what people do and will do. These
generalizations come as a result of observing, sensing, asking, listening, and reading, or
else secondhand through the experience of others.

While some of our appraisals may prove highly effective in explaining and predicting the
behavior of others, we all carry with us a number of beliefs that frequently fail to explain
why people do what they do. This occurs because many of the views we hold concerning
human behavior are based on intuition rather than fact. There is a better way; a
systematic approach to the study of behavior can improve your explanatory and
predictive abilities and will uncover important facts and relationships, and provide a base
from which more accurate predictions of behavior can be made. Most behavior does not
occur randomly; it generally has a cause caused and direction based upon some end that
the individual believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his or her best interest. Because of
differences between individuals even in similar situations, people do not all act alike. 

There are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behavior of all individuals
that can be identified and used to alter conclusions based on individual differences. The
consistencies allow predictability. Systematic study means looking at relationships,
attempting to attribute causes and effects, and basing our conclusions on scientific
evidence; that is, on data gathered under controlled conditions and measured and
interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner. Systematic study replaces intuition or those
"gut feelings" you often hear experienced managers talk about.

Contributing Disciplines in HBO

6 Contributing Disciplines to the Organization Behavior Field are:
 Psychology.

 Sociology.

 Social Psychology.

 Economics.

 Anthropology.

 Political Sciences.

Psychology

Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational behavior because it is a

science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost all aspects Of behavior. X
Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and sometimes change
the behavior of humans and other animals.
Psychologists are primarily interested in predicting the behavior of individuals to a great extent
by observing the dynamics of personal factors.
Those who have contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB are teaching
theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and primary, industrial and
organizational psychologists.
Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology are:

 General Psychology

 Experimental Psychology

 Clinical Psychology

 Consumer Psychology

 Personality and Social Psychology

 Industrial Psychology

 Counseling Psychology

 Educational Psychology
 Consulting Psychology

Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in gaining the
knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as
- the learning process,

- motivation techniques,

- personality determinants and development,

- perceptual process and its implications,

- training process,

- leadership effectiveness,

- job satisfaction,

- individual decision making,

- performance appraisal,

- attitude measurement,

- employee selection,

- job design and work stress.

Sociology

The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals fill their
roles. The focus is on group dynamics.
They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in
organizations, particularly formal and sophisticated organizations.
Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to understand better
the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, corporate
technology, bureaucracy, communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior.
Psychologists are primarily interested in focusing their attention on individual behavior.
Key concepts of Sociology are;
 Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:

 Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are the key influencing factor
among people in social settings.

 Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting individuals constitute a plurality
pattern of behavior

 Sociology is the systematic study of social systems:

A social system is an operational social unit that is structured to serve a purpose.

It consists of two or more persons of different status with various roles playing a part in a
pattern that is sustained by a physical and cultural base.
When analyzing organizing as a social system, the following elements exist:
- People or actors

- Acts or Behavior

- Ends or Goals

- Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior

- Beliefs held by people as actors

- Status and status relationships

- Authority or power to influence other actors

- Role expectations, role performances, and role relationships.

Therefore, organizations are viewed by sociologies as consists of a variety of people with

different roles, status, and degrees of authority.
The organization attempts to achieve certain generalized and specific objectives.
To attain some of the abstract ends such as the development of company loyalty, the
organization’s leaders appeal to the shared cultural base.
Social Psychology

It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of
individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied the presence of others.
It deals with how people are affected by other individuals who are physically present or who
are imagined to be present or even whose presence is implied.
In general, sociology focuses on how groups, organizations, social categories, and societies are
organized, how they function, how they change.
The unit of analysis is the group as a whole rather than the individuals who compose the group.
Social Psychology deals with many of the same phenomena but seeks to explain whole
individual human interaction and human cognition influences culture and is influenced by
culture.
The unit of analysis is the individual within the group.
In reality, some forms of sociology are closely related to social psychology.
Social Psychologists study an enormous range of topics including conformity, persuasion,
power, influence, obedience, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, sexism and racism, small
groups, social categories, inter-group behavior, crowd behavior, social conflict, social change,
decision making, etc.
Among them, the most important topics relevant to the organizational behavior field are
behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process, and group decision making.
Social psychologists making significant contributions. Social psychologists making significant
contributions to measuring, understanding and improving attitudes, communication patterns in
how groups can satisfy individual needs and group decision-making processes.X
Anthropology

The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the relationship between
the human being and the environment.
Adaptations to surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which people view their
surroundings is a part of the culture.
Culture includes those ideas shared by groups of individuals and languages by which these ideas
are communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned behavior. X
Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand differences in fundamental
values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different
organizations.
Much of our current understandings of organizational culture, environments, and differences
between national cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or those using their
methodologies.X
The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings must be studied in the
natural habitat. Understanding the importance of studying man in natural settings over time
enables one to grasp the range of anthropology.
Familiarity within some of the cultural differences of employees can lead to greater managerial
objectivity and depth in the interpretation of behavior and performance.
Anthropologists contribute to study some aspects of organizational settings – similar values,
comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis between or among the employees.
Political Sciences

Contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of behavior in

organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political
environment.
They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of conflict and
conflict resolution tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual
self-interest.
In a business field, organizations wanted to attain supremacy in their field and indulge in
politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain tasks like
Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices, etc.
The knowledge of political science can be utilized in the study the behavior of employees,
executives at micro as well as macro level.
Economics

Economics contributes to organizational behavior to a great extent in designing the

organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and its
structure.X
Transaction costs economics implies cost components to make an exchange on the market.
This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization structure and
size of an organization varies in response to attempts to avoid market failures through
minimizing production and transaction costs within the constraints of human and
environmental factors.
Costs of transactions include both costs of market transactions and internal coordination.
A transaction occurs when a good or service is transferred across a ‘technologically separable
barrier’ Transaction costs arise for many reasons.
So we can assume that there are various types of disciplines that involve organizational
behavior. They, directly and indirectly, influence the overall activities of OB.
Types of Personalities and Values and examples

Personality

Employees are individuals. How does their individuality affect their participation within an
organization?

That is a big question, and there are different perspectives on how to answer it. Most answers
place at least some emphasis on an individual’s personality. Though there are several
approaches to defining personality, one commonly accepted formula for this is known as the
“Big Five” personality traits, which you can remember using the acronym OCEAN. Personality
psychologist Lewis Goldberg popularized the use of the following five traits in describing
personality:

 Openness: how willing and eager an individual is to try new experiences and consider
new ideas
 Conscientiousness: how concerned an individual is to be organized, punctual, reliable,
and dependable
 Extraversion: how eager an individual is to be outgoing and have social interaction
 Agreeableness: how desirous an individual is to please others and be friendly, sensitive,
and kind
 Neuroticism: how negative, moody, and emotionally unstable an individual is

Goldberg’s Big Five personality traits

Many studies have been undertaken in an attempt to measure the relationship between
personality traits and job performance. Though these studies are far from definitive, each trait
seems to show connections with certain tendencies, as shown in the following table.

Personality Trait Employee Tendencies

Openness  excel when
flexibility is
 required
 do well in
training
 adapt well to
unexpected
changes
 can become
bored with
routine jobs
Conscientiousness  high levels of
effort and
motivation
 low levels of
absenteeism and
turnover
 only personality
trait that is
consistently
linked to career
success over time
 can become
consumed with
details and miss
the big picture
Extraversion  can be
successful
managers who
motivate
employees
 often successful
in jobs involving
sales
 can be poor fits
for jobs that do
not provide
sufficient social
interaction
Agreeableness  often display
high willingness
 to help others at
work and display
good
organizational
citizenship
behaviors
 create fair
environments
when in
management
positions
 work well in
team settings
 might be
hesitant to
engage in
constructive
criticism and
encourage
change, even
when it is needed
Neuroticism  excitable, often
very dynamic
 tendency to
analyze self and
world more
realistically and
critically[1]
 high tendencies
towards job
dissatisfaction
and intention to
leave their jobs
 tend to create
unfair
environments
when in
leadership
positions
Personality Traits and Employee Tendencies
Though the “Big Five” list is a commonly used summary of personality traits, other aspects of an
individual’s personality are often identified as significant in relation to job performance. These
include self-esteem (how positive an individual feels about himself), self-efficacy (how
confident an individual is in his own abilities), tendency to be proactive, and the ability to
monitor oneself. These are obviously significant features of an individual’s makeup and
character, though it is questionable whether they should be classified as true personality traits.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) relies on the psychological theories of Carl Jung and
works on the basic assumption that individuals fall into fairly distinct classes, or types, of
personalities. Those types are created by combining personality categorizations along four
distinct axes. Individuals are classified as characterized by either:

 Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)

 Sensing (S) or Intuition (N)
 Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
 Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)

A person’s classifications within each of these four categories are then combined to create 16
unique personality types identified by the MBTI. Four-letter acronyms are used to name these
personality types, with the letters representing the corresponding trait within each category.
For example, a person who exhibits characteristics of extraversion, intuition, thinking, and
judging would be classified as ENTJ.

The MBTI has been popular with businesses for decades. Despite many studies, the MBTI lacks
scientific evidence showing reliability in identifying personality types and, crucially, in predicting
job performance.

Another potential weakness of the tool is that it divides individuals into completely distinct
classes for each category, not indicating how strong an individual’s preference is toward that
end of the spectrum. What that means is that if someone is just slightly more introverted than
extraverted, he or she receives the same classification as someone who is intensely introverted.
The distinction between the two individuals is not represented.

Another significant factor in evaluating the MBTI is the question of stability and reliability.
Critics point to data that shows that as much as 50 percent of an individual’s MBTI classification
will change from test to test with as little as only four or five weeks between tests. [2] However,
proponents question the validity of this argument, pointing to data that shows between 75 and
90 percent of subjects receive the same classification in at least three of the four categories on
repeat tests.[3] They suggest that this is a very favorable level of consistency when compared to
other personality testing tools.
In the end, proponents of the MBTI stress that the usefulness of the tool depends largely on
how it is used. They warn against its use for the purposes of hiring or promoting employees—
after all, any system can be gamed. Thus, these types of tests are best used in conjunction with
other measures.

Instead, the MBTI is intended as a learning tool. It is meant to be taken for the sake of self-
analysis with the goal of better understanding oneself and providing insight into how people
can best use their personal traits and how they might be able to grow and improve on
weaknesses. Administration of the MBTI is strictly controlled by the MBTI Foundation. It
requires extensive training before anyone is allowed to administer it. In 2017, training cost
$1,800.[4] The foundation and the trained administrators have strong incentives to defend it.

Values

Personality traits are one large aspect of an individual’s makeup, but personal values introduce
another vital area of interest and importance. Values are described as the stable, enduring
goals that one has for life, the things that are counted as most important to the individual.

As with personality traits, many systems have been proposed for analyzing the values of
individuals. One widely accepted system was developed by Shalom H. Schwartz and is known as
the Schwartz theory of basic values. It identifies 10 such basic values:

 Power
 Achievement
 Hedonism
 Stimulation
 Self-direction
 Universalism
 Benevolence
 Tradition
 Conformity
 Security

Another important value analysis system, the Rokeach Value Survey, analyzes an individual’s
values within a framework of 18 “terminal values” and 18 “instrumental values.” Terminal
values are those end goals that people hope to reach in life, such as having a life that is
comfortable and secure or reaching a place of self-respect. Instrumental values are the modes
of conduct that are considered appropriate and right, such as honesty, integrity, and even
ambition. Simply put, terminal values are the goals we want to reach, and instrumental values
are the proper ways to act in order to reach those goals.
Most theories assert that the creation of personal value systems is strongly influenced by early
life experiences. Those values tend to remain relatively stable, though they are certainly still
influenced by the accumulation of further experiences throughout life.

When we recognize and consider an individual’s personality and values, we can more clearly
predict how that person will behave. Though a word of caution should be added to remind us
that behavior is influenced by many factors and that every situation is unique, personality and
values still remain helpful predictors.

Businesses (and individuals) use these attributes to identify the best fit for employees and
potential future employees. Will a certain candidate for a job be a good fit for that position? Do
the requirements and expectations of the position match both the person’s personality
preferences and his or her value system? If not, the likelihood for poor performance or poor
attitude increase, as does the likelihood that the employee will eventually leave the company in
search of a better fit.

A wise business practice is to try to match individuals with the optimum role in light of their
personality and values. If a business identifies an employee to be high in openness, that person
should try to find a role that involves new and diverse activities rather than unchanging routine.
Likewise, some roles are more suited for introverts than extraverts. Placing individuals in the
role where they are most likely to succeed will certainly benefit the business as a result. The
following table shows how individuals with certain values might excel in particular roles.

Value Example of Role Application

Universalism An individual with a strong
commitment to universalism
might make a good fit for a
role as a cultural analyst and
advisor for a company
expanding its activities into
new and foreign markets.
Benevolenc An individual who places
e much emphasis on
benevolence would
potentially be effective in a
role focused on organizing
activities giving back to a
company’s local community.
Security An individual who places
high value on security might
be considered for a role in
risk analysis and contingency
planning.
Values and Role Application
Beyond the consideration of job fitting, companies are increasingly aware of the importance of
looking for employees whose individual values match those of the organization. This is
particularly visible in organizations that are charitable in nature, whose existence revolves
around a particular humanitarian cause. However, each business organization has its own
particular set of values, and many businesses strongly promote those values. For example, if
creative innovation is a large part of a company’s focus, it will likely look for employees who
also share that focus personally.

People and jobs are complex, so a simple test is not the final answer. Businesses recognize that
flexibility in some environmental aspects may make room for more diversity. For example,
more and more companies are allowing employees freedom to work flexible hours and in
convenient locations. This may cater to an employee’s value of family focus, autonomy, or
freedom of expression. Employees whose values are met in their work environment are more
likely to be satisfied and productive.

Holland's Six Personalities and Compatible Occupation

Realistic

 Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines; generally avoids social activities like
teaching, healing, and informing others;
 Has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or
plants and animals;
 Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals, tools,
equipment, or machines; and
 Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.

Investigative

 Likes to study and solve math or science problems; generally avoids leading, selling, or
persuading people;
 Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems;
 Values science; and
 Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.

Artistic

 Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative writing;
generally avoids highly ordered or repetitive activities;
  Has good artistic abilities -- in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;
 Values the creative arts -- like drama, music, art, or the works of creative writers; and
 Sees self as expressive, original, and independent.

Social

 Likes to do things to help people -- like, teaching, nursing, or giving first aid, providing
information; generally avoids using machines, tools, or animals to achieve a goal;
 Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;
 Values helping people and solving social problems; and
 Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.

Enterprising

 Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; generally avoids
activities that require careful observation and scientific, analytical thinking;
 Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas;
 Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and
 Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.

Conventional

 Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way; generally avoids
ambiguous, unstructured activities
 Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly way;
 Values success in business; and
 Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.
 Examples of occupations that have a Realistic environment are:

 Carpenter
 Diesel Mechanic
 Electrician
 Farmer

 Fire Fighter
 Flight Engineer
 Forester
 Locksmith

 Locomotive Engineer
 Pilot
 Police Officer
 Truck Driver

Examples of occupations that have an Investigative environment are:

 Biologist
 Chemist
 Computer Programmer
 Dentist

 Electrical Engineer
 Mathematician
 Medical Technician
 Meteorologist

 Pharmacist
 Physician
 Surveyor
 Veterinarian

Examples of occupations that have an Artistic environment are:

 Actor
 Art Teacher
 Book Editor
 Clothes Designer

 Comedian
 Composer
 Dancer

 Disk Jockey
 Graphic Designer
 Musician

Examples of occupations that have a Social environment are:

 Athletic Trainer
 Counselor
 Dental Hygienist

 Librarian
 Nurse
 Parole Officer

 Physical Therapist
 Social Worker
 Teacher

Examples of occupations that have a Enterprising environment are:

 Auctioneer
 Bank President
 Camp Director
 City Manager
 Customs Inspector

 Hotel Manager
 Judge
 Lawyer
 Recreation Leader
 Real Estate Agent

 Sales Manager
 Sales Person
 School Principal
 Travel Agent
 TV Newscaster

Examples of occupations that have a Conventional environment are:

 Bank Teller
 Bookkeeper
 Court Clerk

 Mail Carrier
 Post Office Clerk
 Secretary
 Timekeeper
 Title Examiner
 Typist