Appendix2 laf

L¡
ft Of irfeg U Ve f bS (=+ unit 24)

ínfinítíve pør;t símple pøstparticíple injnitive pat símple past partíciple

be was/were been let let Iet

beat beat beaten lie lry lain
become became become light lit lit
begin beg"an begun lose lost lost
bite bit bitten make made made
blow blew blown me:ln meatrt meant
break broke broken meet met met
bting brought brought P^y paid paid
build built built put Ptrt put'
boy bought bought rcrd /ntd/* rcad /red/* ¡ead /rcd/*
caæh caught caught ride rode d¿lden
choose chose chosen .i.g rang rutrg
come calne cottle n¡ie rose tisen
cost cost cost run ra¡r tutt
cut cut cut sây said said
do did done see saw teen
draw dtew dnwn sell sold sold
drink d¡ank drunk send sent sent
drive drove driven shine shone shone
eet ate eaten shoot shot shot
åll fell fallen show showod shown
feel felt felt shut shut shut
fight fought fought sing sang sung
find found found sit sat sat
fly flew flown sleep slept slept
forget forgot forgotten speak spoke spoken
get got got spend spont spent
gr*t" gve given sønd stood stood
go went gone steal stole stolen
gow gfew glown swim swafn svrum
hrttg hung hung ake took taken
h¿ve had had teach taught taught
hear heard heatd tear tote torn
hide hid hidden tell told told
hit hir hir think thought thought
hold held held th¡ow threw thrown
hurt hurt hurt understand understood understood
k""p kept kept wake woke woken
know knew known wear wote worn
leave left left win wo¡l won
lend lent lent write wrote written
t * pronunciation
The following verbs can be regular (-ed) or irregular (-t):

ínjnitíue past simple / past partidple ínjnitive past simple / past partîcíple

bum bun¡ed orburnt leam learned orlearnt

dream d¡eamed ordreamt s¡nell smelled or smelt

1
 COMPOUND NOUNS
LOOK AT THESE EXAMPLES:
FOOD PRODUCTION = the production of food
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION = the organization concerned with the health of the
world.
DISEASE CONTROL = the control of diseases
X.RAY DIFFRACTION CRYSTAL STRUCTURE ANALYSIS = the analysis of the
structure of crystals by means of the diffraction of X-rays.
A 24-HOUR ESSAY = an essay that lasts/takes24 hours

EXERcISES
I. FOLLOWING THE SAME PRINCLIPLES, FORM COMPOUND NOUNS FROM EACH OF THE
FOLLOWING PHRASES:
1. A theory about the waves of earthquakes.

2. A study concerned with the study of population

3. Measurements of the transfer of heat.

4. lnterpretation of photographs taken by X-rays

5. The production of machinery for the farm

II. REPLACE THE UNDERLINED PHRASES WITH COMPOUND NOUNS:

1. Earthquakes cause several different kinds of waves of shock.

2. The lndustrial Revolution led to a radical change in methods of production.

3. Wind power has been utilized by some of the latest plants for the supplv of electric
power.

4. Gas is one of the byproducts of the industrv concerned with the refininq of oil.

5. Several countries are carrying out plans in the field of economics which are to be
accomplished in five vears,

2
 TO BE KEPT IN MIND
No book (method), regardless of how good it is, can turn you into an excellent
writer. You have to write, and keep writing.

The most important step is to realize that writing is hard not only for you but for
everyone, that it takes much more time than you want to devote to it, and that the
results are never pefect. With these assumptions understood, you can stop feeling
frustrated and disappointed in yourself and instead put your energies into creating
a document that gets the job done.

In prose, the good style is the lean style. Like a good distance runner, it has not
an ounce of fat anywhere on it. And like the good distance runner, it moves without
excess motion. Its arms do not flail out in all directions; they swing easily at the
sides in a beautiful economy of effoft. A good style has the same grace and beauty
in its motion as a good athlete because there is nothing wasted. Everything is there
for a purpose.

POSSIBLE STEPS

. brainstorming
. talking
. free writing
. sketching information
. clustering
. branching
.organizing information
1. chronologically/ spatially
2. from more general to more specific information
3. from the most important to the less important
4. problem - method - solution
5. cause - effect
. draft - revision

f-- s
 WRITING
USEFUL TIPS

** What kind of document are you writing? Who is it meant to reach?

då Your first responsibility as a writer is not to lie.
f¡. Unclear writing can create wasting or ethical problems.
* if your readers suspect you are slanting information - by overstating or omitting
a particular point - you will lose your credibility.
*& An accessible document is structured so that your readers can easily locate the
information they seek. A consistent page design also helps readers find
information.
* lf your document is full of careless errors, your readers will begin to doubt the
accuracy of your technical/scientific information.
J& When your readers have finished reading, what do you want them to know, or to
believe or to do?
* An effective document includes a clear description of the writer's methods, as
well as a complete statement of the major findings - the results as well as any
conclusions and recommendations.
dl* When you keep the writing sessions relatively brief and spread them out over
several days, you not only prevent the fatigue that leads to wasted effort, but
you also give your mind a chance to work out the project while you take a break
(sometimes driving, or even having a shower, you may have a bright idea).
dt lf you spend too long on a piece of writing, you cannot get a good perspective
on it to see whether it makes sense.
*l Revising effectively involves 4 steps: letting the document sit; reading it aloud;
getting help from somebody else; looking for particular problems (one tends to
make the same mistakes again and again).
* When revising, check for the following kinds of problems: comprehensiveness
(false cognate), accuracy, organization, emphasis, paragraphing, style, spelling.

4
Join eoch of the groups of three senlences into q single, long one, using the
given conjunction; you con olso use and, but or which, but only once in eoch long
senÌence. You ore expected to form one porogroph consisting of five long
sentences. Remember to eliminote everything thot is redundqnt ond to moke
the necessory olterqtions.
ft wos roining. olthough
I d¡d not hove o rqincoot.
f had to go out
f ron to the nea?esÌ bus stop. while
f wqs running ocross the rood.
A large cor sploshed me from head to foot.
T reached my friend's house. until
f wos wet through.
f could not chonge my clothes.
Fortunotely, my friend wos qble to lend me some dry lest/otherwise
clothes.
They fitted me very well.
f should cotch o cold.
ft wqs time to leave. when
My own clothes were dry.
f chonged into them.

5
 7.88 Connecting adverbs [> LEG 7 sB, App 1B]
Study: we can connect ideas in speech or writing using adverbs like these:
*Ít - (= I'm adding somelhing): in addition, again, apart from this, besides, moreover.
- (= l'm comparíng/contrasting): as compared to, equally, however, ín reality.
- (= l'm summarizing): a// in all, and so on, essentially, in brief, in conclusion, in effect.

Write: Mark the 'connecting ideas' (a-h) that are expressed in this text.
a
Accordingto ('..&..) a lot of people I know, there are few things more
terrifying than having to speak in public. The only way to succeed is a lam introducing a list
to follow strict rules. First of all, (2......) you should be well-prepared. b lam making an addition
Second, (t......) you should have a few jokes ready. As wett as that, c lam pointing to a contrast
(t......) you should have rehearsed your speech, preferably in front of d I am stating an alternative
a mirror. ln comparison with (u......) being hit by a bus, public e I am summarizíng
speaking isn't too bad, but it's bad enough. However, (u......) you t lam making a second Point
can make things easier for yourself by being ready. Alternatively, g lam making a comParison
(t......) you can do nothing and make a fool of yoursell. To sum up, h As stated bY
(t-.....) success depends entirely on you.

o)
A TMPORTÂilCIA DA PONTUAçÃO

Um homem rico estava muito mal. Pediu papel e pena.

Escreveu assim:

"Deixo meus bens à minha irmã não a meu sobrinho jamais será paga a
conta do padeiro nada dou aos pobres."

Morreu antes de fazer a pontuação.

A quem deixava ele a fortuna?

Eram quatro @ncorentes.

1) O sobrinho fez a seguinte pontuação:

Deixo meus bens à minha irmã? Não! A meu sobrinho. Jamais será paga
a conta do padeiro. Nada dou aos pobres.

2) A irmã chegou em seguida. Pontuou assim o escrito:

Deixo meus bens à minha irmã. Não a meu sobrinho. Jamaís será paga
a conta do padeiro. Nada dou aos pobres.

3) O padeiro pediu cópia do original. Puxou a brasa pra sardinha

dele:
Deixo meus bens à minha irmã? Não! A meu sobrinho? Jamais! Será
paga a conta do padeiro. Nada dou aos pobres.

4) Ai, chegararn os descamisados da cidade. Um deles, sabido,

fez esta interpretação:
Deixo meus bens à minha irmã?.Não! A meu sobrinho? Jamais! Será
paga a conta do padeiro? Nada! Dou aos pobÉes.

Assim é a vida.
Nós é que colocarRos os pontos.
E isso îaza dÍferença.

7
PUNCTUATION PRACTICE

LASERS

of Radiation are devices

Lasers Light Amplification by stimulated Emission
wh¡ch are very intense directional
wtrich ampliff light and produce beams of light
gas semiconductor or liquid
and pure in color they can.be solid state
thought they could be
when lasers were invented in 1960 sofne'people
usedas'deathrays'inthelgSOstheunitedstatesoçerimentedwithlasersasa
against nuclear missiles nowadays they are used
to identiÛ targets but
defense
apart ftom military uses they have many apþlications
in engineering

communications medicine and the arts

on a small area these
ln engineedng powerful laser bearns can'be focused
beams can heat melt or vaporize material in a
very precise way they can be used
from plastics t'o iteel for
for drilling diamonds cutting complex shapes in materials
sport welding and for surfacing techniques such
as hardening aircraft engine
rneasure and align structures
turbine blades laser beams can also be used to
light can carry many
Lasers are ideal for communications in space laser
of its high frequency in
fnore information channels than microwaves because
signal strength lasers can also
addition it can travel long distances without losing
discs are read by lasers'
be used for inforrnation recording and reading compac-t
in a ftaction of a second
ln medicine laser bearns can treat darnaged'tissue
i1 vev precise operations
without harming a healthy tissue they can be used
ln the arts lasers can provide fantastic displays of light pop concerts are

often accompanied by laser displays

8
 LINKERS

1. ADDITION
The fur coat was soft and warm.
The car was both new and in good condition.
Not onlv lS sh-epretty; sfre ¡s ãlso clever.
She is not onlv pretty but clever, too/ as well.
The car was almost new;
additionallv/ also. it was in excellent condition.

2. CONTRAST
The coat was thin but warm./ The coat was thin; vet, it was warm.
The car was quite old; yeU still/ however/ nevertheless, it was in excellent condition
ln soite of/ Desoite/ Notwithstandino its age, the car was in excellent condition. (ln spite
of/ Despite/ Notwithstanding + noun lthey cannof be used with subject + verbl)
The car was quite old; despite/in spite of/notwithstandinq that, it ran smoothly/glespþþ
spite oflnotwithstandinq the fact that it ran smoothly. (You have to use thaî/ the focf
thaf if you want to use subject and verb after these linkers).
Albeit thin, the coat was quite warm. (Albeit + adjective)
Even thouqh/ Althouqh the coat was thin, it was quite warm/ The coat was thin; it was
warm, thouqh. (Even though/Although require a verb and a subject after them).
He is clever; onlv he cannot be trusted.
He was going to buy a car, but bought a bicycle, instead.
Bryson decided to quit rather than accept the new rules/ instead of accepting the rules.
On the one hand, sugar gives you energy. On the other hand/ Conversely, it can be
harmful.
A Ferrari is very expensive, whereas a bicycle is quite accessible. A Ferrari is very
expensive; in turn, a bicycle is quite accessible.

3. ALTERNATIVE
You must either work harder, or go into another class.
You should stick to the rules or else leave.
You must eat fibers, otherwise you will have intestine problems

4. CONSEQUENCE
The rain began to fall; [sol/ therefore/ accordinqly/ thus/ hence/ consequently/ as a
consequence. we had to go home.

5. COMPARISON
He is older than I am.
She speaks as fast as she thinks.
6. . EXCLUSION
All of them but / except for me had been there before
Neither your answer nor mine is correct.

10
7. CONDITTON
I will tell you if you promise to keep it a secret.
We do not know whether they are coming (or not).
Unless you take an umbrella, you will be wet.
He can come with us, provided (that)/ as lono as he pays for his own meals
ln case you cannot find the book, ask the librarian to help you.

8. TIME
He carne before we could tell him not to.
He has lived here since last month.
She has studied English for a long time.
They left after the prizes were announced.
lwill be here till/ untilyou come back.
They will tell you when they get news from her.
Tim slept while he was reading.
They met durinq a conference in ltaly.
We saw Jane as she was sitting at a café.

9. PURPOSE
She saved so that she could travel.
We read the news to / so as to / in order to be well informed

10. CAUSE
She went to bed because/ since/ as/ seei e was tired
She was fined due to/ because of/ owing to overs peeding

11. MANNER
Henry did the work as it had to be done.
He ran as ifl as thouqh his life depended on it.

12. PLACE
Stay where you are.
The dog goes wherever he goes.

13. CONCESSTON
He did very well even if he did not get a prize.
However hard he tries, he cannot learn. (however+ adverb = näo importa quanto)

14. DEGREE
He was so tired that he could not speak. (so + adjective)
It was such a hot day that everybody wore shorts. (such requires a noun and an article
[a/an] if it countable and singular).

1 1
 SELECT THE BEST LINKER

1. He is intelligent (buU and/ so) friendly

2. He bought a computer (forl to/ so that) make work easier.
3. I cannot be sure (whether/ because/ although) it is going to rain.
4. (However/ Although/ But) he tries hard, he cannot get a girlfriend.
5. She will not come (both/ jusU unless) you bring her.
6. (Although / Albeit/ Likewise) old, he still runs the Marathon.
7. (lnstead of/ Conversely/ Therefore) using XML to script your Java applications,
consider using an actual scripting language, such as Jython.

CHOOSE THE BEST LINKER

1. He did his work . .. he enjoyed it.

2. .... ..... I have finished my university studies, I will spend a year traveling
3. Putthese books back.. ...... theywere.
4. We took a lot of photos .... ....... we were in Sweden.
5. The pianist waited for silence he began to play
6. They promised to wait eight o'clock.
7. I gave up studying that it was too difficult
8. He often worked late he could earn more money.
9 lenjoy his lectures, his mannerisms irritate me.
10. The oral exam was not hard
... ... we had thought it would be.
11. We will do ...... you tell us to.
12. ...... ... . the money does not come, how will we pay the rent?
13. I need hammer and nails . ..... to repair this box.

14. I will not give you any sweets . ... you eat your lunch.

15. You must . price

... pay the .... do without the goods.
16. What he said was . kind
..... ...... true. (neg.)
17. ... ... his ignorance, he was quite clever.
18. Nobody told me ... ... I could find her.
19. I read all his books the latest one
20. You can walk leisurely and enjoy the view; .., you can take the
subway and arrive faster.
21. He is brown-eyed, she and all the children are blue-eyed
22. Find oul they are going follow them

f1z
 Finally, notice that öe + said * tohas a second meaning:

If a body íncreases in speedt i,t 'acce.lerates"

iî o Aoãy increases in speed, it is said to 'øccelerote"

o Exercise 14 Rewrite these simple statements using one of the passive

forms below:
thought
belìeved
Passives and infinitives
estimated
Here is a simple statement of fact: (modal) + óc lølid ¡o + verb
known
The world population ìs J,500 millíon. aswmed
shown
In unit 2 we saw that we can show that the number is not precisely
known by writing: t AtÏca has a population of 250 million'
The world population ß appmximately J,500 miltion.
2 If no force aótJon a body it is'in equilibrium"
3 The moon has several dustY areas.
lVe can now express this uncertainty in a different way: 4 This liquid is poisonous.
5 The world has mineral oil reserves for another hundred yeafs.
The world populøtìon is thought ro be 3,500 mìttion. 6 The opposite angfes of a parallelogram ar9 equ-* -
Th 7 The stiã¿e temPe-rature in the Sahara reaches 55- C'
ch n. 8 A fluid which icsists relative motion within itself is 'viscous.'
ch 9 The new physics laboratories will cost $120'000'
l0 A large nùcl.* powcr station nrns on ônly 50 kg of uranium a year.
In contrast, certainty can be expressed by be * lcnown * to:
The previous exercise practised passives followed by infinitives' The
china is known to have apopurotíon of over 700 milrìon passive infinitive its¿lf is ùre¿ in a ãumber of different situations. One is
afær the modal høslhøve to:
Now notice thc different meanings of ø¿ in:
must
Forothe purposes of this problem, t cott be øswmed to be 960 cm per úaid
The experíment be repeøted.
sect. lwn
If this experiment ß cørclully canied out, g cs, be shown to be 960 cm wíll hsve to
per sec2.
The infinitive is also used aftcr be in aspecial structure. Consider
these pairs of scntences:

(a) makes a prediction; the writer predics that the factory""'

that the
iU¡ tuggrr1, ih"t those who know have stated of announced
(, factory.....
 Itis not surprisin_g, therefore, îhat
be + infinitive is particurarry used for
reporting news. He¡e are sorne furthe¡
examples:

I.F.A.O. meertng.

in the number of
because of the great the body ored
mcnease ,*ar;.rfT'"ü"d onre of it
¡ Exercise 15 Rewrite this paragraph, compreting for instan run
underneath.
it by using the verbs a clock.
Each verb shouìd ofuV UË used once.

_ The plans for the new road .... i

facts .... . An entirely new,oui,
two cities.... by nine kilometers. It
number of existing houses....
ræhicles an hour and it .... a wid
to exæed f,5 milion the prans.... to ce
state that only locar building
materials....
aÌe to be ønounced will have why.
k designed ue alrcody knom t(a) You often fìnd oil in limestone formations'
will have to be destrcyed will be reâuced
(b) Oil is often found in limestone formations'
is estim¿ted will be taken 2(a) White su¡faces çflect sunligþt-
are expected are to beused (b) Sunlight is reflected by white surfaces.
3(a) Factories produce millions of radios each year in Japan-
Passive and active (b) Millions of radios are produced each year in Japan.
a(a) All wires resist the passing of an electric current.
The last f"y p1g"r
fve d.9art yith_ the passive in scientifìc Engrish.
How- (b) The passing of an electric current is resisted by ali wires.
ever' you should not get the idea from'these prg", th"itou-,nur,
,
whgpvgr possible. All scienèe
ur. . 5(a) People largely base modem civilisatlon on iron and steel.
l1*lo. anj active to (b) Modern civilisation is largely baæd on iron and steel.
¡assiv.e þac! again accorrting nt they want
to make. Indeed,
s€ntence
it is posible tõ Here is a
with too many passive verbs:

a¡e inlormed that the n¿bstances to be anarysed

ly¿:1,:
Iabelled
are to be
A, B. C od sltould be handted with cue.
Exercise 16 Read the followingpassaæ and cross
out the wrong
alternatirrcs.

to the energy which a body

tion. For example, a weight
otential energy. lVhen
Some of this wo¡k
I
À storefmry be stored inside the
_l
Relative Pronouns:
who(m) is used for people, which is used for things, that is used for both.
ln case you are referring to a place, use where; in case you are nof, use in/at which.'

Thatis only used in defining clauses. lt is regularly used to refer to both things and people. lt cannot
be omitted when it is a subject pronoun (when it comes immediately before a verb):
I want to speak to the girl fhaf wrote this letter.
The book fhat is lying on the table is mine.

Thatis regularly preferred as an object pronoun to which and who(m), if it is expressed at all
The man (thaV who) I met yesterday is your neighbor.
The book (thaV which) I am reading is a science fiction one.

Ifiaf cannot be used after a preposition. But if the preposition is placed at the end of the clause, its
use is normal.
That is the book about which I was speaking.
That is the girl about whom I was speaking.
That is the book/ girl (ffaf) I was talking about.

Use fáaf after: only, f ew,little, none, oll, some, ony (and their compounds) ond superlotives.
I will lend you the few (thatl I still have.
You may keep any (fhaf) you find.
ls that the öesf (fhaf) you can do?

T. Fill allthe blonks with thqt, wholwhom or which:

1. Are these all the exercises ............... you have done?
2. Someone you all know is coming to dinner tonight.
3. The first thing you must do is to have a meal.
4. This is the dog I bought last week.
5. These dogs, ............... I bought last week, will do tricks.
6. My mother, ............... is over sixty, still likes a good walk.
7. The longest walk ............... I ever went was over 20 miles.
8. The last time I saw him was on Saturday.
9. The girl ............... Mr Jones is going to marry is twenty-five.
10. Joan, Mr Smith is going to marry, is twenty-six.
11. The man ...............1 am sending this parcel to is my partner.
12.The lady to I am sending this letter is a friend of my wife's.
13. ls ............... the picture you are laughing at?
14. These are the pictures at............... they were laughing.
15. She is the only girl ............... he has ever loved.
16. The river............... runs through London is the Thames.
17. Tþe Thames, runs through London, is quite wide at its mouth.
18. There is little you can do to help him.
19. What you need is a little sugar, you can find in the kitchen.
20. The news bulletin ............... I heard a few moments ago said that inflation is under control

ff. Removø therelative pronouns from the exercise obove whenever possible.
The relative pronoun cannot be omitted when it comes after a preposition, after a comma, or when
it is the subject of the verb coming immediately after it (there is nothing between it and the verb).

'ln case you are referring to a place, use where; in case you are not, use in/at which. Whose is preferred for
people; therefore, "....work, the results of which....."/ "...a method, the description of which..."

15
 word order (1) - verb + object; place and time
Verb + obiect
ilhe uerb and the obiect of the verb normally go together. ve do not usuallv put.other words
between them:

ùerb + obiect
I like children very much. (not 'I like very much children')
Did you see your friends yesterday?
Ann often plays tennis.
Study these exåmples. Notice how the verb and the object go
together each time:
o Do you clean the house every weekend? (not'Do you clean every weekend the
house?r)
o Everybody *fYetrlhe party very much. (not 'Everybody enjoyed very much
the party,)
our guide spoke English fluently. (not'...spoke fluently Englishr)
'
o I not only lost all my money - I port. (not'I lost also my passport,)
:r:.. "rq1qd;;r
f_____:_:________ì
o At the end of the street you'll see a supermarket on your left. (not '...see on your left a
supermarketl),, ' ,

Place and time

Time (when? / how often? / how long?) normally goes after place:
place + time
Tom walks .to work every morning. (not'Tom walks every morning to work')
She has been 'in Canáda since April,
'SØe
arrived dt the airport early.
study thesb examples. Notice how tirnegoes after pracez
o I'm going to Paris on Monday. (not,I'ingoing on Monday to paris'
o They have lived in the same house for a long time.
o Don't be late. Make sure you're here by I o'clock.
o Sarah gave me a lift home after the party.
o You really shouldn,t go ro fi *j"r".
It is often possible ro put time at the beginning of rhe sentence:
o On Monday I,m going to paris.
:-
.o Every morning Tom walks to work.
some time words (f9r example, always lnever/olten)
usually go with the verb in the middle of the
sentence. See Unit L09.

16
word order in questions - [MMIîEff¡ Adjective order -* ¡ñilfl word or(ter t2ì --+ lîiftrirt
 EXERCISES

Is the utord order right or.wrong? Correct the ones that are wrong.
1 Everybody enjoyed the parry very much. ...,ß!.9.Hf..
2 Tom walks'every morninþ to work ...!fYßgNg¡. þp.:ttp.¡k.w.ç.t'y..mp..rn.l.ng
3 Jim doesn't like very much foot'ball.
4 I drink tb¡ee or four cups of c.gffee every morrung.
5 I ate quickly my dinner and went out.
6 Are you going to invite t'o rhe PaÉt' a lot of people? ......
7 I phoned Tom immediately after hearing the news......
I Did you go late to bed last night ?
9 Sue was here five minutes ago.'Where is she now?
10 Did you learn a lot of things at school today?
L1 I met on my way home a friend of mine..........
L2 I fell yesterday off my bicycle......

?ut the parts of the sentence in thq right order.

(the party I very much / everybody en joyed)...Eu.ergÞ.edu.çnjo.y.ed,.r.hç.?-aLty:u.ery..mu.q.h"..
(we won / easily / the game)
(quietly / the door / I closed)
(Diane / quite well / speaks / German) ...................:..
(Tim / all the time/ television / watches) ....
(again / please don'r'ask / that question)

' (football I every weekend / does.Ken play?) .

(sorne money./ I borrowed / from a friend of mine) ¡ r¡i.:il ,

)omplçtç the'sentences. Put the parts in the right order.

t (f9r; lgng tipe
i !'hauelived / in the same house)
1,

They...h.au.ç.l,.up.d.in.,the.ea.me.he.we.f er,.e.!e.nø..tlt:ne,...
2 (to the bank / every FÅday I go) I...
3 (home / did you come / so late) Why r....r........a..............r..................
4 (her car / diives / every da'¡ lto work) Ann
?

5 (been / recently / to the cinema) I haven't

6',(e.Ê'!.hc top of the page lyour name / write)
Pleäse,.......
Z (her name I after a few minutes / remembered)
' I..,......................:........
I (around the town / all mormng / walked)
Ve
)( on Satu¡day night / didn't see you / at the parry)
I
) (some interes ting books / found / in the library)
'We
..................
L (the children / y..esterday I to the zoo / took)
Sally
| (opposite the park I a new hotel / are building)
They

l{+
 Tables and graPhs

Unit 11 Tables and graphs of differcnt groups. In the case of Table I the written work should be
uæd to poini oui the differences between the amounts of the
various
g*Ã-Vär will hnd several useful ways of doing this in the following
exercise.

o Exercise 1 Using the information in Table l, complete these sentences

I The two most important components of air are ""'

2 The two major components of air ""'
a
3 The two principal components of air ""'
4 The two main components of air ...''
5 About 4/5 of ai¡ is composed of .-"'
I
In fact, the writer usually wants to pick out the most sþiltcant 6
i information. He may want to contrast one set of figures with another 7
q'
set, or he may u/ant to compare his results with someone else's- 8
[¿':

È..
9
( Tabtes and graphs without a t¡me reference
a,i
l0
FJ. [-ook at this table: Now studY this table:
r¡
í
Table I Table 2
[:
The composition of air (% volume)
Compæition (by weight) of the earth's crust

Nitrogen 78.O9% Oxygen 46-s%

Oxygen 20.95% Silicon 28'Vo
Argon O'9Vo Aluminium 8'Øo
5 other gases (neon, etc-) O'MVo lron 5'Vo
Calcium 3'57o
Statements from tables with too much detailed information should Sodium 3'Vo
be avoidcd. Here is an example of what nof to do: Potassium 2.s%
Magnesium 2-2%
Air ís composed of 78'09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.09% ugon and
All the other'elements l'2Vo
O0lft other gases-
(In the above example the writer is merely repeating the table.) It is clear that in terms of Per cent occurrence the elements can be

placed into a number of differeot grouPs'

Statements with too little infoimution should also be avoided. Here
is anolher example of what nof to do:
Air is composed of nítrogen, oxygen, argon ønd five other gases.

(Ihe above sentenca is merely a list of the constituents of air)

The written explanation strould never merely list the items contained
in the table. A long series of items strould be divided into a small number

t41
 Tables with a single time reference
Tables with a single time reference describe information given for a
o Exercise 2 Th,e following sentences are in the wrong order. write out certain moment of time. The point of time is usually in the past. This
an explanation of rable 2 by putting the sentences
¡nto ttre right order. means that the Past tense is usually the na¡rative tense.
I Next come four elements which are found in percentages varying
ftom2'2 to 3.5 per cent. Table 8
2 Two erements-oxygen and silicon-provide
nearþ 75 per cent of the Major copper producers (1960)
weight of the earth's crust.
3 The¡emaining g5 erements only add up just
total.
to over l per cent of the USA approx. 1,050,0ü) tons
4 Just over half of the rcmaining 25 per
Zambia ,, 600,000 ,,
cent is provided by the two Chile ,, 550,000 ,,
5
metallic elements.
In fact, only eight erements have a distribution ussR ,, 500,000 ,,
cent ofthe total.
which exceeds l per Canada ,, 350,000 ,,
6 Moreover, the differences between these eigþt
Congo ,, 300,000 ,,
considerable.
elements afe very Peru ,, 120,000 ,,
7 The hundred or so elements Australia ,, 100,000 ,,
proportions in the earth's crust.
so far identified exist in widely varying Japan ,, 90,000 ,,
Mexico ,, 70,0(Xl ,,
(Total world production ('60) estimated at 4,200,(X)0 tons)
^ Exercise 3 DescrÍbe. the melting points of re.metals risted in Table 3.
(Notice how unhelpful the alphaËiicafããer
is.)
Table 3
Melting points (cenhigrade) of certain
metals

Aluminium 660 o Exercise 6 Complete lllis explanation of Table 8. Each gaP rePresents
Copper t083 one word (or one number).
Iron I 535 In 1960 the ten leading copper- .... countries produced nearly ....%
l¡ad 327 of the world total. The .... producer was the USA, one- .... of world
Platinum t773 production coming from this sourse. In fact, the USA was the ..'.
Tin 232 country to produce more than . .... other countries each
Tungsten 33?0 produced half a million tons or more; in decreasing order they werc '...
Chile and .... . This group was followed by ..-. countries, Canada and the
You may be able to make use of these kinds Congo, producing .... and .... tons respectively. Finally, therc .... a gfouP
of statement:
of smaller producen, led by .... and ..... . It is worth noting that ..'.
The melting points of metatr rorv
t greatly. I deposits are distributed relatively evenly .... the world because they
occur in .... quantities in all continents excePt .... .

x tu s ø
{r"ii"^ r) t rul
::,:,:;';" The narrative tense is the Past tense. ll'hy then is the last sentence in
the Present simple?

" {'i!.i:;'"'
x metts,,
I much
\t* I t,;:::l tumpem*re thøn y.

Iltith regørd to their M.p. these metals

I cst be divided ínto ...-.
(o
 As clauses
I¡ok at these two exarnples:
As can be seen from Toble 9, the world proùtction of iron in 196I was
not far short of 200 míIlion tons.

Tables and graphs

As is shown in the gmph, the rel¿tionsltip between the density otd
tempemture of water is complex.
Table 9

World production of certain Linking øs-clauses which do not contain modals can be reduced. Here
netals (1961) is the formula:
lron 190 million tons
Aluminium 30 million tons øs + be * verb-ed as + verb-ed
Copper 4.4 million tons As lus been stated As stated
Zinc 3 million tons As høsbeen prcved As prarcd
l¿ad 2.5 million tons
Tin 0.3 million tons
As ¡b shown ínFïg.l As shown in Fig I
Mercury 0'09 million tons
a Exercie 9 complete ten of these sentences. The fint one has been
done.

o Exercic Z Rewrite_anj-c-omplote this I As can be seen from Table 9, .....

Table 9. (The spaces representãny
passa_ge using information
from 2 As can be çen from Table 6, .....
nurnber of words.) 3 As shown in Table 8, .....
As can be seen t oT.:.:._rl"Iorld producrio 4 As will be seen from Table I
than any .... . In fact, i¡on production r of iron w¡rs .... higher
w", o"", .... times as great as its
5As
.... competitor, aluminium.
M-oreover, tfr. Uttø was easily
.... metal with
6 As of this unit, .....
a .... of approximately 30
million tonl. N";î 7 As page}3, -...-
prôåu"ti;;;;ib"d;;ã;;ä._. . iff:-l€'*P
y9¡rd or..... with a
8 As prgr q, .....
roüowädby.....Fúrv,tr,.i"l,,Ë[;'.:.'#ìå1"ilili,1'"u"lr#I|t 9As a'
tion of which w",
.... ;;iiil lo As ""'
"on*id"rably ionr; tt .... .
"y I I
As is well known, ._...
l2 As has been demonstrated, .....
13 As indicated by ttÉ results, .....
14 As expected, ._._.
15 As can be simply proved, .....

N)
o
i
>
Word order (2) - adverbs with the verb
Some adverbs (for example, always, also, probably) go with the verb in the middle of a senrence:
o Tom always goes to work by car.
o We were feeling very tired and we \¡¡ere also hungry,
o Your car has probably been stolen.
Study these rules for the position of adverbs in the middle of a senrence. (They are only general
rules, so there are exceptions.)
i) If the verb is one word (goes/felUcooked etc.), the adverb usually goes befor¿ rhe verb:

aduerb uerb
Tom always; goes to work by car.
I almost fell as I was going down the stairs.

o
I cleaned the house and also cooked the dinner. (not 'cooked also')
o
Lucy hardly ever watches television and rarely reads newspapers.
Note that these adverbs (always/often/also erc.) go before have to:
o We always have to wait a long time forihe bus. (not 'we have always to wait')
ii) But adverbs go øfter amlislarelwas/were:
o 'We were feeling very tired and we \Mere also hungry.
. ¡Øhy are you always late? You're never on time.
o The traÍfic isn't usually as bad as ir was this morning.
iii) If the verb is fwo or more words (can remember / doesn't smoke / has been stolen etc.), the
adverb goes after the first uerb (canldoesn'lhas erc.):
uerb L aduerb uerb 2
I can never remember his narne.
Ann doesn't usually smoke.
Are you definitely going to the party tomorrow?
Your car has probably been stolen.
c My parents have always lived in London.
o Jack can't cook. He can't even boil an egg.
c The house was only built a year ago and it's already falling down.
Note that probably goes before the negative. So we say:
o I probably won't see you. or I will probably not see you. (but not'I\Mon't probably:..')
$Øe also use all and both in these positions:
o \Øe all felt ill after the meal. (not'we felt all ill,)
. My parents are both teachers. (not'my parents both are teachers')
. Sarah and Jane have both applied for the job.
o 'We are all going out this evening.
ìometimes we use is/wilUdid etc. instead of repeating part of a sentence (see Unit 504). Note the
losition of always/never etc. in these sentences:
. He always says he won't be late but he always is. (= he is always late)
o I've never done it and I never will. (= I will never do it)
Ve normally put always/never etc. before the verb in sentences like these. 21
 IxEncr$Fs
Are the undeilined uords in the ight positioa or not? Correct the sentences..that øre wrong.
1 Tom goes always to work by car. ...!VßQN.Ø.Íen.a!w.ayç.gee.e.,.
2 I cleaned the house and also cooked the dinner. ...ßlglJf,...
3 I have usuall)¡ a shower when I get up.
4 \Vq soon found the solution ro the problem.............:,..
5 Steve getb hardl)¡ eyer angry. ...,......:................
6 I did some shopping and I wenr also to the bank. ......
7 Jane has always to hurry in the morning because she
8 We all were. tired so we all fell asleep.
9 She always says she-ll phone me but she never does. .........:..,............

Reutrite the sentences to include.the word in brucþets.

7 Ann doesn't drink tea. ( oft en )' ....Ann.deeen:r. p.fwn .drr.nk.rça,...
2
3
4
5
6
I
7 Do you watch television in the evenings? (always)

8 Martin
is learning French. He is lèarning ltaliah. (
Ma¡tin is learning French. He ...
9 That hotel is very expensive. (probably).......... .. ..
10 It costs a lot to stay rhere. (probably) .........:.....
11 I can help you. (probably) ...
12 I can't help you. (probably)
Complete the sentences. (Jse the,uords in bracþ.ets in the correct order.
7 I ...çan.neu.et.remg.mÞer... her name. (remember./ never I canl
2' I sugar in coffee. (take / usually)
3 I hungry when I get home from work. (am /.usually) ,.
4 .Where's Jim?' 'He .......,... .....home earl)r.' (gone / has,/ probably) '

5 Mark and Diane ...............;.... in Manchester. (both l.were / born)

6 Liz is a good pianist. She ......... very well. (ðing / also I canl
7 dqwn. (often / breaks)
8 They live in the same srreet as me but I
(never lhave / spoken)
'We
9 a long time for the bus. (have I alvrays/ to wait)
t0 My sight isnrt very good. I .....
r.1
L2
I
I'm afraid I .,...................................
----;;;ü;;;;;:i;;ä:i'li'i'"'i;f;^lå,äîl;^"
. abld ro come ro the paÉy. (probably I be I won,t)
t3 It's difficult to contact Sue. She ...-.t.. athome when I
phone her. (is / hardly ever)
'We
t4 in the same place.'We haven't moved..
(still/arelliving)
L5 If we hadn't taken the same train, we ......... each other.
(never / met / would / have)
6 'fue you tired?' .'yes, I ..... ......... at this time of day.' (am lalways)
22-
L
fú Changes
5
.ct A. Look at these sentences and decide if the statement which follows each one is true or false.
G Use the words and expressions in bold to help you decide'
rJ
o 1. The population of the country has trebled in the last 25 years'
There has been a dramatic increase in the number of people living in the country.
-fu
¡-
o
c 2. Unemployment has dropped by about 2o/o everl year for the last six years'
o
ctì There has been a steady decrease in the number of people out of work.

3. The governments has spent a lot of money improving roads around the country'
There has been a deterioration in the national road system'

4. The number of exam passes achieved by the school's pupils has risen by almost 50%
There has been a decline in the number of exam passes.

5. American travellers abroad have discovered that they can buy more foreign currency with their dollar.
There has been a weakening of the dollar.

6. lt is now much easier to import goods into the country than it was a few years ago
There has been a tightening up of border controls-

7. We're increasing our stocks of coal before the winter begins.

We're running down our stocks of coal.

8. Prices have gone up by about 4o/o every year since 1998.

There has been a constant rise in the rate of inflation'

9. The pass rate for the exam was 3% lower this year than it was last year'
There has been a sharp fall in the pass rate.

10. The alliance are going to reduce the number of conventional weapons in their armed forces.
The alliance are going to build up the number of weapons they have.

11. Deflation has adversely affected industries around the country.

There has been a growth in industrial activity'

'12. The rules are much stricter now than they were before'
There has been a relaxation of the rules.

13. Last year,12o/o of the population worked in industry and 10% worked in agriculture' This year,14o/o
of the population work in industry and 8% work in agriculture.
There has been a narrowing of the gap between those working in different sectors of the economy'

34
Peter Collin Publishing. @ 2001. For reference, see the Englr3h Dictionaryfor Students (1-90f
 (a
Changes o
I
¡¡
o
ìl
14.,Some management roles in the company will not exist this time next year.

i
0¡
Some management roles are going to be phased out.
o
ô
t 5. More people are shopping at large supermarkets rather than small village shops. o
There has been an upward trend in the number of people shopping in small village shops.
E
Ê
-o,
16. Her English is clearly better now than it was when she first arrived. -
There has been marked progrcss in her English.

17. People live in better houses, drive nicer cars and'eat higher-quality food than they did twenty
years ago.

There has been a general ímprovement in the standard of living.

18. Our company has opened factories in France, Germany and ltaly ín the last five years.

Our company has witnessed considerable expansíon in the last five years.

19. The governmentwillspend less on the National Health Service nextyear.

There are going to be cuts in healthcare spending next year.

20. British people nowadays want to see more of the world.

British people nowadays want to narrow their horizons.

B. Check your answers, then use some of the words and expressions in bold above and in the
answer key to write some sentences about your country.

24
Dararl'nllinÞ¡¡hll<hiaa f,i)llî1 F¡¡¡ø1¡¡oa¡o <eathÀFôdlì.hl1l¡¡ian¡ntl¡¡çttÍlÃâh /r-o^l(CO-nÂ-11
 48 Chapter 5
Improving the Coherence of your Writing 49
Wrlte lnformatlve Tltles and Headlngs k.it sufficinttlyþrecisè?youwant to herp your reader understand
'
where you are going in the text that follows.

Inþrccüe: Enhancing production

Precise: Three Techniques for Enhancing production in the Zuma
Copper Mines

Could the ritle or h3q{n_g_ apply equally well to any other

A good title should clearly identify rwo facrors abour the docu- document or discussion? IÌ ii could, you need to be
more
ment: its subject and its purpose. Here are a few examples: precise. For instance, if your title is .,The Geffen
202
Packager," your document courd be a¡r analysis of the
system,
but it also could be a recommendation to úuy it, or any of
Choosing a Laptop: A Recommendation a
number of different kinds of manuals.
An Analysis of the Geffers 302 packager
The Greenhouse Effect by the Year 2000: A Forecasr t Is it easy rn reed
and undzrstand? Avoid the noun strings that
A Summary of the Research on the Health Effects of Second- 3 seem to go on foreveç they can be difficurt to folrow (GlÈitman
hand Srnoke and Gleitman Ig70).

utul¿ar: shipboard corrosion-prevention Techniques Task

Force
Meeting Minutes
Cl¿ar:'tvleeting Minutes for the Task Force on Shipboard Cor-
rosion-Prevenúon Techniques

t il stru¿tured aþþroþriateþ for the subjea and the audience? The

!:-
"how to" form is effective for instn¡ctions:
uke titles, headings are important in helpingy'our reade¡s und.er-
sta¡ld the direction you will ficllow, but they have an additional job.
Because most worþlace writing consists of self-contained units of How to Attach rhe Optional Þap.. Tray to the printer
information intended for different readers with different needs, abil- How to Apply for NIH Research Grants
ities, and interests, headinç also herp them rerocate the information
they want when they come back to the document later. They don't have
to read the whole thing arain; they can just scan the document until Questions work well for less-knowledgeable readers:
te heading on rhe page. In addition, because
table of conrents, readers rely on them for help :,
what .A¡e the Advantages of switching to on-Line Documentation
scussion in the document.
for Our Senice Manuals?
As you check each of your titles and headings, ask yourself
why Expand our operarions in the southwest sector? A pran
N)
(,r three questions: for the
Next Fiscal yea¡
 50 Chapter 5 " lnrproving the Cohcrcnce of Your Writing 5l
The .¡zgverb clearly suggests a.process:
Presented as a list, the lócation gf the words ón the pa$e reinforces
the meaning. Readers can
Addi in a list; this visual rein
g Capacity ro rhe Millersville ptant:.Third better on the information.
Com items begin at the same left margin, again emphasizing their paral-
euestions and ^Answers for Commercial
lelism.
Vertical lists like these are appropriate in almost all kinds of'
workplace writing, but if for some reason you have to arrange the
information as a traditional sentence, use a horizontal format:

Usç Llsts to Communlcate parallel tni.ormatlon for three reasons:

We recommend that Operations bid on this facilicy
(l) it contains the latest production technology, (2) it is fully com-
Many sentences in workprace writing are long and complicated: for
puter conrolted, and (3) it contains ample sPace processing,
storage, and future expansion, both inside and outside-

We recommend thar Operations bid on this faciliry because it

con-
tains.the latest producdòn technorogy, it is fu[y.o*p't.. controiled,
and it contains ample space for processing, ,ioog., and futúre ex-
pansion, both inside aná ouaide:
Readers might ñnd this a difficult sentence ro understand and
re-
member because they cannot concentrate full¡ they háve to worry
about remembering all the information that comes after "because.,,
But when the information is presented as a venicar risr,
it
much easier to follow:
Notice in both the vertical and horizontal list that the lead-in indi-
Cates the number of items conhined in the lisc "three reasons."
This strategy help3 prgpare reade.n for the size.of the list, en4bling
them to f,ocus. on the information itself. Another reason to indicate
the number of items is that sometimes, especially in longer lists, the
writer or typist inadvertently omits an iiem; stating the numbér
- everyone see if an item is missing. than numbers in vertical
helps
Often, bullets are more approPriate
liss. Numbers work well when you want to suggest sequencing or
priority (the númber 1 item being the first in order ôr the most
is
important), but use bulles othenvise, particularly if people are listecl:
rr( I

We recommend that Operations bid on this faciliry for three

reasons: The following three ofticers will be Present at the meeúng:

¡ Helen Camveil, President

N
ct)
r Stuan King, Vice President
I Chaman Jetra, Recording Secretary
 7.8C lnversion atter'negative adverbs', etc. ¡> LEc 7.se, App lel

Study: f Some adverbs like never and little have a 'negative etfect' and we sometimes refer to them as
m¡r¡ 'negative adverbs'. We can use them in the ordinary way 1r7.41:
I have nevet seen so much prolest against a government.
Michaelllttle ¡ealìzes how importantthis meeting is.
2 llwe begin a sentence with â 'negative adverb'we must follow with the word order we use in a
Yes/No question [> 13.1]. Beginning with a negative is very formal:
Never have I seen so much protest against a government.
Little does Mlchael realize how important this meeting is.
3 We use this kind of inversion, in forrnal style, after:
-'negative adverbs': e.g. hardly, hardly ever. never, rarely, seldom.
- phrases wilh onl¡n e.g. only after, only then, only when (Only then dld I learn ...).
- so + adjective: So ditflcult was this problem, Einstein couldn't solve it.

Write: Rewrite these sentences so that they begin with the words in italics.

I h by the workers.
..a.f.atr*ttçthr.,ty.,tht-,awtLøt.
2 I realized what had happened only latër.

3 You shouldn't sign the document on any aæotnt.

On no aøunf ..................
4 You shouldn't answer the door when I'm oul in any cÍrcumstances.
ln no circumstances .........
5 The papyrus was so old,we didn't dare to touch it.

7.8D Context
Wrlte: Put in the right verb form and these adverbsz acærding to, agreeably, however, in brief, moreoverol
ultimately.

DON'T ASK FOR A ROOM WITH A VIEW!

So high t (öe)..............t4............the price of land in Tokyo, that its land
area probably costs as much as the whole of California. Never, in any
place in the world, (there Èel
spacel .......... a newspaper report, this lack of space has
led to 'capsule hotels'. The rooms are just capsules, measuring I metre
high, 76 cms wide and 2 metres deep. a......... , you will be
5
surprised to hear that they are equipped with
phones, radio and TV. 6............................., they are less expensive than
ordinary hotels. .........., they provide you with allyou need
for a comfortable night's sleep, even if they don't give you an automatic
wash and dry as well!8............!..........r....., some people would argue, a
small hole in the wall is preferable to a big hole in your pocketl But don'l
ask for a room with a view!
DonI ask lor a room wilh a view!

27
 ]3.{Mnl ¡t¡ ñtllllilll¡?lt Dtt¡n t3
Melhor que say,
Etate sao sinonimos naiutåiD imply Sinonimo de suggest
say ob8ero sugest
re4att eÀpb¡size erplain
coEEeDt decl¡¡e propoE€
cleirrr contend Go against something report
assert arlue

Some usefi¡l Gorn'non phrasee (where

[ = nene(B) of author(s)) are

acconlingtoX
in the opinion ofX

X erpreesee the view that

X presents the idea that

as X eays
as reportedbyX

some examplea of usefur erprcasions referting

to shrö¡s a¡d, resea.rch
aro'

the shrdy ghows ttat

her resea¡ch rweats that
,' their ¡esults demo¡stEats that
'\ir r¡seanh proves tbat

nTRODt 9Ttolts
Write last, so that you can mahe it a
guide the paper:, Renemberthatyou will
discoeer tåiDgs to eay or add s¡ -hq',gê as yãu
write the first drafts, and
so it would be a waste of time to p¡rpe¡e
a ÞolíEhed introdustion ñrst.
n*vriting +þl
in. hoductiou at'tåe very Lg¡-t¡"g, y""-*tll
fr
happeil byit and yoru pap6r will develop.more
oot r""r
easily.
o".*lnirrt of yourÍntrodustio¡ sh;uiä etåte the general conte:t
-
'ofyourtopic, r¡¡uållywitå some rêfeænce
i: ¡rou should fniticate what yor¡¡ paper
to work doae by others.Trren
will foct¡s on: your thesis state_
n
 ga tn¡¡nl I ltlrÇafsß r¡Ff --tsvrf---

¡neDt co¡rgs i¡ at tbis poi¡L I¡ tbe lsst pît of yoru i¡troductibn, yi¡u Take csrs to weave direct çrotaüons amoothly l¡to tbe text of your
should help the reader by giving a veFibrtef st¡Emary oftle 11i noints peper by usiDg auitable introductory phrases aail erpresrtour. (Ses u¡tt
you will cover. ttat is, the main potñs of your outlius a[oulil be-qeu' i 16 for examples aDal fonats of long a¡il ghort quotadons')
tioaed hero l¡ the fot,lû of a few ø¡soc|¡tive aentencee (uot i¡ the l¡' I
I
I
dented a¡d ur¡mbored format of ths outlino).
I KEEPI]IC YOUB REIDIB IH I¡XD
I

BODY ÍD'EYELOPTEHTI I
Asy to Put
i
i
into Y who
Ttre largest aingle part of tbe paper is the bod¡ whiù cousists of aup- will reail what'you write.
;
porting i¡fornation or arguments rolevant to tbe Iosin idea erpreased i Althougb you will be ha¡di¡g your PsPsr í¡ to oue inatnrctor' you
i¡ the tbesis etstemeut.llhercas, in a short paper, the inhoduction ancl sboulil not thi¡k of tåat lnövÍdu¡l as tho sualisDco or trsader of your
I
t
conclusion may eacb be just one paragraph, the boily is compoeetl of
I

lqa¡y paragrapbs. 7

c,oNcLUSloHS will get 8¡ underrtaodlng of what ie

roacling of booL¡ anil a¡1iclee, you
courmon loowleitge in the Eelil a¡d wb¡t i¡ sPedslize¿ fbfDl of
your
ll
A gootl conclr¡sion to a researcb paper ir the logical outcome of all that (
read,ere as baviug a gmd geueral howledge of tbe rubJect and soBe
hae been said esdier. usually, tue thegi¡ etst€mont iÊ repeetailbút not i
;
in eractly tbe s¡"'e wording. Sometimes certai¡ actioDs or fr¡¡tber re-
sea¡cl¡ are re'con¡De¡ileil in a couch¡sion" A¡cl occasioually a reees¡ù
pape¡ ende v¡ith an effective quotatiou. wheg *TitiDg tåe couehuion to ii
;l
you¡ paper, you ehoulil aim not to eucl too guitdealy, too abruptly. So it i8 t
r¡.seN to ¡eetatê the main points of your pàper in a very sunnisrized
form a¡d in different words before restatlqg the conholling iilea. ¿

it
lt
1
USITIG QUOTATIOHS {

Altbough direct quotations appeû in moet resea¡ch Papen, they are tl

1

.t

uperceutofyourwhole
bowyouexp:qss yor:r-
þ\ self s¡ò ¡ot lnte¡esteil i¡ the worils of otbe¡e.
 --

L
G
f
Add ition, eq uation & conclusion
ltfE This modul e will help you to review more of the important words that we use to join ideas
in
IJ an essay, a verbal presentation or sometimes in everyday speech (also see page i - Condition
- and page 9 - Contrast & comparison).
o
A. Put the following words and expressions into their correct place in the table depending
on
-IE their function.
L.
o to briefly . along with . it can be concluded that
sum up o also
o
= similarly o likewise . besides r to conclude .
cn too
in addition . in brief a in the same way . th us
what'smore.furthermore a moreover a

to summarise o as well as O therefore . correspondingly

Addition Equation Conclusion

(For and) (For equally) (For in conclusion)

Along with
Also Along with To sum up/ In sum
Besides Similarly It can be concluded that
Too Likewise To conclude
In addition As well as In brief
Furthermore In the same way
Thus
Moreover Correspondingly
To summarize
As well as
Therefore
Again,
As a consequence
As a result
Consequently

B. Complete these sentences with one of the words or expressions from

above. In most cases,
more than one answer is possible.

1 Tourism brings much needed money to developing countries.

Additionally
, it provides
employment for the local population.
2 Besides/ along with bringing much needed money to developing countries, tourism provides
employment for the local population.
3. Tourists should respect the local environment. Besides/also/
they should respect the
local customs.
4 As well as industrial waste, pollution from car fumes is poisoning the environment.
5. ln order to travel, you need a passport. Also , you might need a visa,
immunisation jabs and written permission to visit certain areas.
6. Drugs are banned in Britain - Likewise weapons such as guns and kníves.
7. All power corrupts. Thus , absolute power corrupts absolutely.
8. You shouldn't smoke, drink, take drugs or eat unhealthy food. Likewise
should live a more healthy lifestyle.
, You

I' The ozone layer is becoming depleted, the air in the cities is becoming too dirty
to breathe and our
seas and rivers are no longer safe to swim in. As a consequence
pollution is slowly
destroying the planet.
10. Your grades have been very poor Consequently
all years. you need to work really hard
if you want to pass you r exams next month

PetercollinPublishing.@2O0l.Forreference,seetheEng/rr'så
Dìctionaryforstudents(f-901659-06-2) 30
 Reporting what others say
Reporting verbs
Reporting what others say is a key aspect of academic English and you need a range of verbs
to do this in an appropriate and varied way. Note the structures used with each verb.

In her latest article Morton explains how information technology is changing society.
Schmidt describes the process of language change.
Kon suggests that all poets are strongly influenced by their childhood. fsays indirectly or
tentatively]
Lee states that problems arose earlier than was previously thought. [says directly]
Uvarov claims/asserts/contends/maintains/declares that the causes of the revolution can be
traced back to the 18'h century. [says something is true directly and firml¡ often used when
others disagree]
Van Ek implies that other historians have misinterpreted the period. fsuggests indirectly]
Patel argues that governments should continue to fund spâce research. [use of this verb
suggests he gives reasons for his view]
Greenberg emphasises/highlights/stresses the importance of taking a libe¡al approach. [gives
particular importance to]
Levack observes/notes/comments/points out that there are contradictions in Day's
interpretation of the poem. [states but does not develop at length]
Kim demonstrates/shows how Bach's music draws considerably on earlier composers'work.
Gray proves there is a link between obesity and genes. [shows that something must be true]
In the book Dean mentions some new research in the field. ,[refers to briefly]
Mclntosh pinpoints the key features of the period in question. [focuses in on]
Yaz advances/puts forward/proposes a new theory. fused with idea, theor¡ hypothesis]
Davidson casts doubt on previous research in the field. [suggests it is inaccurate]
Gerhard questions previous interpretations of the play. [expresses doubts about]

Reporting nouns
Academic writing also frequently uses nouns rather than verbs to report others' ideas (see Unit
L). Notice the corresponding nouns for some verbs in A. Note how these nouns often head
long phrases (underlined below) which can be either the subject or the object of the verb.
Morton provides
Schmidt gives a description of the process of language change.
Kon's suggestion that poets are influenced by their childhood is uncontroversial.
Lee's statement that problems arose earlier than previously thought has been challenged.
IJvarov's
the l,8th century is worth considering in some depth.
Van Ek's has caused some
controversy. [suggests indirectly]
Patel's 1S Convlnclng.

Greenberg's ls not new.

Levack's observation that there are contradictions in Day's interpretation of the poem has
been supported by a number of other scholars.
Kim's
composers is fascinating.
Gray's proof of the link between obesity and genes is of considerable interest.

\l According to is used when repórting othersl viewpoints rather than one's own. For
example, øccording to Greene ondWtllis... but ìn my opinion ... NOT eeea*nfte-me.
flr
72 AcodemicVocobulory in Use

31
 Exercises

32.1 Filt in the missing verbs and nouns'

noun verb
noun verb
describe
implication
observe statement
emphasise
arSument
explain
assertlon
contend demonstrat¡on

the verbs in bold and beginning as shown'

32.2 Rewrite the sentences using nouns instead of
e a more serious Problem than
s. (Harkov's ...)
same form when exPressed in
etrY'is ...)
idual government will ever be able to control
the
3
4rousgeneticmodificationmightbe.(Dudasprovides...)
preventing teenage diug abuse' (Groot puts "')
5 Groot emphasises the role of schoolsln
6 Lenardobserves that womer, .r.. ."p..rJi*, ,rr.lias 'yo,. know' in English more than
rate. (Lenard's ..')
pyramids in Guelcoga but this has been

Guelcoga people' (\ü/ilson gives "')

e e"tendãd ihróughout the year'
(\Øu puts "')
ghting poverty. (The President makes "')
possible and one is not' which is not?
32.3 In each sentence two of the options in italics are
prices change depending on the
1 The author notes / obserues / pinpointsthat commodity
season' ntroversial theory to explain climate change.
2
uccuracy of Malwar's figures'
, portance of pilot testing before carrying out a
4
large-scale urban planning can go wrong'
ionlhat no member of the committee was

ere was no causal link between the events'

32.4 Thereisonemistakeineachofthesesentences.Findandcorrectit.
ng should be compulsory for all new students'
Proved
jumP from sPecies to sPecies'
aknesses in the theorY'
ave looked at the problem in the past'
Suggestion
ered from depression is an interesting one'
On
I hypothesis.
n vour

:ïi',:"i:;:i:lï:',:""ä:::îå1"ïJ'"ïiä.il,ï"1':^iiî"ä:Ïi::Ïñl::ok
fl in lJse ]13
AcodemicVocabulorY
Cogrnitive UWB-OFDI¡I: tushing Uhru-Widebond Beyond Its Limit vio
Opporfunist¡c Spectrt¡m Usoge

Huseyin Arslan and Mustafa E. Sahin

In a continuously expanding wireless worfd, the number of radio systems increases every
day and efücientspectrurn usage becomes a more signiftcant requirement Ultra-wideband
(UWB) and cognitive nadio are two exciting tectrnologies that offer new approeches to the
spectrum usage. The main objective of this paper is to shed the first light on the maniage
of these tvr¡g impor1ant approaches. The strength of orthogonal'frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) based UWB in co-existing with licensed systerns is investþated. The
opportr.rnity concept is defined, and the requirements of the opportunistb spectrum usage
are o<plained. !t is proposed to take the UWB-OFDM from the cr¡nent underlay
implementation, ând evolve it to a combined underlay and opportunistic spectrum usage
tectrnology, leading to cognitive UWB-OFDM. This way, we aim at making UWB more
competitive in the wireþss market with extended range, higher capacity, better
performance, and a wide variety of applications-

Princþles of Flexible-Use Specfn'rm Rþhts

Robert J. iJ\otheson

A serious pobtem with traditional ¡"command&control¡t spectrum management

techniques 's that they do not easily accommodate new tecfrnologies and new services.
This paper describes the necessary principles of flexible-use spectrum rights which may
allow a wide variety of spectrum uses in a single general-purpose band. Based on the
electrospace description of the radio spectrum, these principles allow general aggregation
or div'sþn of licensed electrospace regions via secondary markets, providing rules for ho¡r
regulatory limits ctrange under aggregation or division. These flexible-use principles limit
transmiter behaviors that tend to create a more diffictllt operating environment for
receivers, while making receivers responsible.for handting any remaining interference. The
author shows hour fleible.use principles æuld provide a basis for real-world flexible'use
frequency bands.

Jq¡rnal of Cormr¡níætíons ond hlefuod€ - 1 fune2CFl6 Volunre: 8, Number:2

i33 I
 Sslentifit, -H.edlç+t end se*+at Frsçfrç*dlag +*d €*Tlrrg,

Responding to Reviewers

San Francisco Edit

wwr,v.sfedit.net

After submitting your manuscript, you will receive a letter from the journal's editor
containing comments from the different revÍewers, whose identities are normally kept
confidential. The letterwill either reject or provisionally accept your manuscript

lf the edÍtor has rejected your manuscrípt, fhere wíll usuaffy be reasons gÍven for the
decision. lf that is the case, you need to assess the reviewers' comments to determine
whetheryour manuscript might be accepted if you made certain revisions. ln the majority
of cases, the editor and reviewers will be trying to help you produce a high quality
manuscript.

Do not take the reviewers' comments personally. ln some instances it might be bad
timing. The joumal might have just accepted or published a similar study. You can always
submit your manuscript to another¡'oumaf. ff you do, if is uSualfy best to take the
reviewers' comments into consideration. Even if you feel that the reviewers have
misunderstood something in yourpaper, others might do the same. lf the editor believes
that the subject of your paper falls outside the scope of the joumal, there is no point in
challenging this. You have no choice üut to submit your manuscript to another joumal.

lf your manuscript has been provisionally accepted, you now need to plan a strategy for
revising your paper and gaining full acceptance. This will include resubmitting a rwised
manuscript and æsponses to the reviewens,connnenûs.

The following will assist you in responding to the rwiewers'comments and resubmitting
your manuscript:

1. Read all of the comments from reviewers and the editor.

2. Never respond immediately. Allow yourself a few days to reflect on the comments.
3. lf the comments from the editor and reviewers can be used to improve your
manuscript, by all means, make those changes.
4. ff your manuscrípf was rejected and you stíff feef that your work deserves pubfícafíon,
send it quickly to another journal. Some data can become less relevant if too much time
passes.
5. lf your manuscript has been provisionally accepted, it is a good idea to respond
promptfy. As soon as possÍble, begín draftÍng a pofite, fhoughtfuf, cfear, and detailed
response.

s4__.1
_
6. Be polite. Avoid a defensive or confrontational tone in your response. The goal is ir::
extrad helpfulinformation from tre comments, adopt any usefulsuggest'ons to improve
your manuscript, and cafm[y expfain your poínt of víew wñen you dísagree.
7. Respond completely to each comment in an orderly, itemized manner, and, if
necessary, copy and paste into the letterany substantive dranges made to the
manuscript. There 'ls no limit on the length of your response. Most editors are willing to
read a long and compfete response.
8. Change and modiff your manuscript wtrere it makes sense. You are not required io
make every suggested change, but you do need to addess all of the comments. lt "yoti
reject a suggestion, the editorwillwant a good reason with'evidence supported by
references. Just beeause you prefer it yourway ís nof a good enough reason.
9. Reviewers do not atways agree with eaoh other, in which case you must make a
ctro'¡ce. Decide which recommendations seem more valid, and note in your response ierrerr
to.the editorthat you received eonflicting advice and made what you think is the best
cfioice.
10. lf the revier¡rer is obviouslywß,ng and has rnade a mistake, you are entitled to provitle
an argument and prwide facts thãt can be referenced.
1 1. Sometimes you are asked to reduce considerably the length of the manuscdpt. You
must not feeltoo atlached ûc yourwords and should shorten the manuscript.
12. Ensure that what you gay you have done to the manuscript, has in fact been dsne,
and do make sufe you follq¡r the þúmal's guidelines. Editors become initáted when ttre+
find that comments made in the response letterdo not matchwhat's in the manraseript.

The process of getting a paper published in a scientific peer-reviewed journal is a

challenging but rewarding one, once all your hard work frnally pays off and the reprinfs
anive.

ff you are ínterested ín reading some of our other newsfettens you can vísít ourwebsits¡ a'r
http ://www.sfed it.neUnewsletters. htrn.
Scientific, Medical and GeneralProofreading and Editing
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-tt
 5 Quantity

5.7 'Another', '(the) other(s)', 'either', ,neither', , each (one

of),
5.74 'Another', 'other', 'others', 'the other', 'the others'
[> LEc s.24
Study: 1 Anotherdoesn't refer to anything in particular. lt can
mean:
E -'different': Come ano.ther day. (= anV other day, no particular day)
-'additiqnal': We need another day to finish this. (= on" rnor" day, no particu lar day)
2 we can contrast some and othe(s) when we tark about things
in generar:
Some holidays are cheap and other holidays
"r" "rp"nriíi.
Some holidays are cheap and others are expensiye. (= holidays in general)
3 We can contrast one with the other or the otherswhen
referring to particular things:
This one is mine and the other one is yours. (or: ...
the oihe-- is yours)
This one is mine and the other ones are yorrs. (or:
... the others are youþ
4 We can use the othe(s)to
John went cycling and the went with him.
John went cycling and the
5 The other day can mean ,a few days ago,; the
next day retersto the following day:
I met your father in the street the othei day.
1= a few áays ago)
we spent our first night in cairo and the next day we went
tõ AÞxandr¡a.

write: suppry another, other, the next, the other, the others
and others.
It was last Friday, I think.
them greeted me and didn,t.
the time; ............. don't.
5 we spent the nisht in a smar virase and continu; ;;;il;;;rlii..
.................. day.
6 Bill and ' boy are ptaying in the yard. Jane ãnd ....-........ ..... girls are in the front room
7 There must be road that leads to the cit/ centre.
I There must be roads that lead to the city centre.
9 I can't let you have any of these plants, but you can have all ...............

5.78 'Either'and 'neither' + singurar nouns [> LEc s.2e]

Study Either and neither refer to two people, things, etc. only. .t

E Eithermeans 'one or the other'.

[compare > .4]

which pot will I use? Either (of them). rt doesn,t

- matter which.
Neither means 'not one and not the other':
Which pot will I use? -Neither (oî them). Use this frying pan.

Write: Suppty eitheror neither.

1 when shallwe meet: at 7 or al7.go?
2 You can't use those screwdrivers. - I don't mind. ......... .Ê.ú*N{..........
time is convenient for me.
of them is suitable for the job.
3 I don't know who's on the phone. rt's .............. your mother or your aunt.
4 I met John a year ago, but I've seen him nor heard from him since.
5 Say what you like about those two applicants. I didn,t like .............
of theml [> 1g.2A]
6 I know you sent us two letters, ¡ut we have received ................
of them.
78

36
 5.7'Another', '(the) othe(s)', 'either', 'neither', 'each (one of)'

5.7C 'Each of', etc. [> LEc s.5.2, s.30-31]

Study: 1 We can use of the/my, etc. atter any, some, another, each, either, neither, nonel> 5.2A1
E lnstead of:
Nelther líft is working.
We can say: Nelther of the lifts is working.
2 After either, neither and none, when the reference is plural, we can use a plural verb ln
everyday speech or a singular verb when we wish to sound 'correst' or formal:
Nelther of us is/are happy about this. None of my frlends has/have been invited.

Wrlte: Rewrite these sentences using of the.

1 Another teaspoon is missing........ . A n'rth*r. d..tfu .Ée-n.+mt .. !4. ..@.:,.
2 Neither roadrnap is much use. .....
3 Any roadmap you have will be OK..................
4 Eiiher road leads to the same place.
5 Each painting is perfect.
6' Neither boy is guilty. ........
7 I can't ask either secretary to do the job. ........
8 Give a lip to each porter.

5.7D 'One of' ['LEG s.3o]

Study We can say: Each oî these answers is riQht. Or:. Each one of these answers is right.
We can use of or one of aller any, another, each, either, and neither.
We must use a noun after every @very room) or we must use one of (every one of):
Every room is booked. Every (single) one oî the rooms is booked. (Nol'Every of)

Write: Delete one where posSible in these sentences.

1 Every one ofthese answers is wrong.
2 Each one of these pilots has been highly trained.
3 She came in here and criticized every single one of our products.
4 I'm not prepared to listen to another one of your complaints.
5 Any one of us might be asked to help in an emergency.

5.7E Context
Write: Pulin one, eíther, others, other, the otherör some.
HALT!
The 1.....fu.... day the Prime Minister appointed a new Minister of Transport.
. ministers like to travel everywhere by car; . prefer to use
public transport. . of these means of transport is fine, but the new
minister is s................... of lhose who goes everywhere by bicycle. When he arrived
at the House of Commons yesterday, he was stopped by trrvo security guards.
6............,...... of thern was sure he had
seen him before. 'l know you, don't l?' asked
one of the guards. 'You're . of:these messengers, aren't you?' 'Well, no,
actually,' the minister replied. 'l'm 8................... of the ministers.' 'l knew you were
. or 10........,.......... I' the guard replied.
He goes
everywhere by bicycle

37
 (Q
Contrast & comparison o
5
o
,l Complete these sentences with the most appropriate.word or expression'from A, B or C. -
o
1. The two machines Differ considerably.'One has an electric motoç the other runs
on oil. o
aì
A. differ B. differentiate C. differential
0¡
2 Contrast in weather between the north and the south of the country is very
d
The
noticeable.
tr
A. comparison B. çontrast
-,
0
C. compare -
3. Many people cannot differentiate between lemon juice and lime juice
A. differ B. differentiate C. contrast

4. Children must be taught to distinguish between right and wrong.

A. differ B. contrast C. dîstínguísh

5. There is a distinction between being interested in politics and joining a.political

Party.
A. distinguish B. distínctive C. distindion

q. €an you tell the difference

A. difference B. differëntíate C. contrast

7. The management must not distriminate between mple and female applicants.
A. differ B, contrast C. distriminate

8. Asia covçrs a huge area By way of contrasts , Europe is very snrall.

. A. By way of contrast B. By ways of comparíng C. By simílar means

9. The new model of car is very similar to the old one.

A. same B. similar C. common

10. Her political opinions are _ identical to mine.

A. same B, exactly C.-'ídentical

11. Some political parties have súch simìlai manifestoes

Tell apart
that they are difficult to

A. tell apart B. say apart C. speak apart

12. My friends and I enjoy doing many of the same things. ln that respect, we have a lot
In common
A. in similar B, in partícular C. in common

13. There seems to be a largediscrepancy between the number of people employed in

service industries, and those employed in the primary sector.
A. discríminate 8. disøetíon C. dîscrepancy

14. British and Australian people share the same language, but in other respects they are as different
as Chalk and cheese
A. cats and dogs B; dtalk and cheese C. salt and pepper

15. Britain's economy is largely based on its industry whereas a few hundred years
ago it was an agrarian country.
A. wherefore B. whereas C. whereby

38
PeterCollinPublishing.O200l.Forreference.seetheEng/isâ DíctionaryforStudents(1-901659-06-2)
 Key quantifying expressions
s are important in academic English as it is often necessary to
trends. You will find more useful language for talking about numbers
in Reference 2, which focuses on measurement.

Number and amount

Learners of English often choose the wrong noun relating to quantity. For example, you
say a great (not la+ge) deal (informal) or a large/great amount of an uncountablå
noun
such as mon r ìnfluence. However, you say alargenumber of a plural noun
such as artic words. Both a nurnber and an an4ouftt can be described as small,
considerable significant, enormour, total, surprising, excessive [too much/many],
fair [quite a lot] and reasonable [acceptable].
B Other nouns relating to quantity

The size of our surveg was relativelg small-scale. We sent out 2,S00 questionna¡res
in totalr. Although a couple2 of people did not respond, the bulk3 of those sent
questionnaires have completed them. The surveg shows that, as a wholea, the
population is becoming more aware of the importance of recAcling. 0nlg one ofs our
respondents said that he recgcled less than he used to.

I 2
in all two or three, a few 3 the majority a considered as a group rather than individually
s notice
how respondents is in the plutal; it is a common erïor io
of .. . (r esp ondents/ suru ey s/ conclusions,
-iit.
a singular noun aÍter one
etc.)

C Comparing numbers and quantities

expression exomþle comment
exceeding Results exceeding 5 cm were eliminated from the (formal) means higher than
survey,
in excess of People who drive in excess of the speed limit will be means ove6 used mainly in
fìned. offìcial or legal writing
fewer and Fewer and fewer people are staying in the same job a steadily declining/decreasing
fewer / less throughout their lives.Young people are becoming tess number of, decreasingly
and less and less interested in politics.
more and There is more and more interest in the topic. a steadily increasing amount of,
more People are becoming more and more aware of the increasingly
environment
more or less The experiment was more or less a success. (slightly informal) means
mostly or approximately
no fewer than No fewer than 200 people responded. used to suggest the number
was unexpectedly large

V Note the significant difference between few and a few and between little and a fittle.
Few [Not many] peopte enjoy X\ music.A few [Some] peopte enjoy it. We hod little [not
lr much] response to our suvey.We hod o little [some] response to our survey.ln other words,
few/little has a more negative tone than a few / a little.

22 AcodemicVocobulory in lJse
 Exercises

7.1 Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words in italics
l Ina number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug. surþrise
2 The analysis demanded an amount of computer time. exceed
1
J numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter. consider
4 The course requires a amount of prior knowledge of computeÍs. reason
5 The survey took a amount of research time and costs were high. substance
6 The two dams can hold in of two cubic kilometres of water. exceed
7 In , L2 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are now closed to deep-sea
fishing. totdlity
8 Groups four people were considered too large for the experiment. exceed
9No than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year. few
10 In a number of cases, surface damage was noticed. signify
7.2 The sentences below are typical of spoken English. Replace the underlined words to make
them sound more appropriate for a written assignment.
1 The bulk of our work is concerned with carbon emissions.
2 We have noticed that fewer and fewer students are joining the course.
3 Our team spent a fair amount of time getting funding for the research.
4 In a couple of cases, we could not find âny reason for the outbreak.
5 'We spent a great deal of time on the pro,ect.
6 As you repeat the experiment, use less and less water each time.
7.3 Read the text and answer the questions.

For some years have been using a powerFul new machine to recreate the
noq scientists
conditions that existed at the birth of the universe, The machine generates a massive number
of hot, dense, bursts of matter and energy, simulating what happened in the first few
microseconds of the beginning of the universe, After no more than ten microseconds, the
particles of matter joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or
less everything we see in the universe today.

1 SØhich expression explains how long scientists have been using this machine?
2 fØhich expression tells us how many bursts of matter and energy the machine generates?
'VØhich
3 time period does the machine simulate?
4 \Øhich expression states how long it was before the particles of matter joined together?
5 \7hich expression in the last sentence means aþþroxirnately?
7.4 Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.

There have been a small numberof studies investigating the impactof email on interpersonal
communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting
trends in patterns of email use. From one of the older studies it seems that more and more
people send in excess of 50 emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior
citizens use email a lot more frequently than younger people do.

Find five quantifying expressions from one of your textbooks and write your own sentences

fl using them.

AcodemicVocobulary in lJse 23
 Fixed expressions
If we look at a corpus of academic texts, we see that certain chunks of language occur .very
frequently in spoken and written contexts. This unit looks at some of the most useful ones.

Numberi quantit¡ degree

Look at these comments written by a college teacher on assignments
handed in by her students. Note the expressions in bold.

A gcod ¡a7er. tt's cLear

sovæ. qood Pour'"ts here bvLl I thLv"Þ uct've n*Lsuwd.erstocd
a great deaL of
sqer,Lt
aoq've Ll's wor clear to what e"xtewt the tapLc to sot t"¿ extewt. Ynule
tLvu¿ researchLnq the svtbiect
uov're aware of aLLthe Lsswes wrLtewL* e,xocss oft
awd ¿ou quote a wLde =,coo
lwvcLved. qLobaL tvad'e affects words ow ar¿as that aye wol
Ya^Ae of sovtrces.
watLows Lw a varLctg of wags' ewtLreLt¿ reLevawt. Let's taLI".
qrad,e:B qrade: c
I more than

Generalising and specifYing

In this class discussion, the students make fairly general statements, while the teacher tries to
make the discussion more specific.
Marsha: 'Well, I think on the whole parents should take more responsibility for their kids.
Teacher: Yes, with respect to1 home life, yes, but in the case of violence, surely the wider
community is involved, isn't it? I mean, for the purposes of our discussions about
social stabilit¡ everyone's involved, aren't they?
Marsha: Yes, but in general I don't think people want to get involved in violent incidents, as
a rule at least. They get scared off.
Teacher: True. But as lar as general discipline is concerned, d^on't you think it's a
community-wide issue? I mean ãiscipline as regards2 everyday actions, with the
exceprion of school discipline. What do you think, in terms of public life, Tariq?
Tariq: I think rhe community aJ a whole does care about crime and discipline and things,
but for the most part they see violence as something that is outside of them' you
know, not their direct responsibility.
Teacher: OK. éo, let's consider the topic in more detail3, I mean from the point of view of
violence and aggression specifically in schools. Let's look at some extracts from the
American Mediãal Association's 2002 report on bullying. They're on the handout.
I or in respect of, or (more neutral) with regard to 2
another neuffal alternative to 1 3 or (more
formally) in greater detail

Æc Linking po¡nts and arguments

The increase in house sales is due to the fact that inflation fell in 2004. At the same time, tax
rate reductions were beginning to have an eÍfect.
Joslav used an eight-poirt scaie in the questionnaire, as opposed
tol a four-point one, by
means of which h. ,Ëo*.d that attitudãs covered very wide range, in the sense that the
^
results were spread very evenly over all eight points.
It's very difficult to interpret tirese data. gã ttl t as it fr^Yz, there is some evidence of a decline
in frequency. For this reàson, we decided to repeat the experiment'
In addition to surveying the iiterature on population movements, we also reviewed work
carried out on family names in five regions.
I rather than 2 a typical academic way of saying 'although I accept that this is true'; more
common in speech than in writing

40 AcodemicVocobulory in Use
 Ió.r Choose one of the expressions in A to fill in the missing words in this feedback to a student
from oue of her teachers.

16.2 Use the words in the box to form eight different phrases that arc useful for academic

I ó.3 From the point of view of meaning, which expression in each set doesn't belong and why?
f. in general, by means of which, as a rule, on the whole
2 as rcgards X, as far as X is concerned, with the exception of X, with respect to X
3 as a whole, in addition to, for the most part, in geneial
16.4 Choose the best expression to complete each sentence.

C From the poinr of view of

in the economy but,