WATER TUNNEL FLOW VISUALIZATION

OVER GEOMETRIC SHAPES

SAMPLE

San Jose State University

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
AE 162 Aerodynamics
Professor Mourtos

February 22, 2007

Abstract

The flow characteristics over three bodies; a delta wing model, airfoil, and fore-body,
were observed through the experiment performed. The only independent variable, the
angle of attack, was measured by means of a protractor and the points of separation,
initiation of turbulence, and stall were determined. These characteristics were compared
to the those around a model X-29A measured at the NASA Dryden Research Center. The
various reasons for given flow patterns were discussed, and their cause determined.

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 Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Theory 4

Experimental Setup and Procedure 9

Experimental Results 11

Discussion 17

Conclusion and Recommendations 19

References 20

Appendix 21

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Introduction

In aerospace engineering, it is often important to have a firm understanding of flow

patterns around various bodies. Flow visualization allows an engineer to accurately
measure when and where certain flow conditions occur, such as separation and
turbulence. In this experiment, the closed circuit water tunnel in Engineering Lab 107
was used to generate the pathlines using dyes injected into the water flow at the leading
edge of each body. The following objectives were developed as a guideline for the
execution of the experiment.

Experimental Objectives:
1. Determine which bodies produce turbulent flow.
2. Determine the angle of attack in which:
a. Flow separation is initiated over the body.
b. Separation occurs at the quarter chord for the airfoil and delta wing model.
c. The flow transitions from laminar to turbulent (if flow becomes turbulent).
d. The flow becomes fully turbulent.
e. The flow becomes fully separated.

The independent variables that can be controlled in the water tunnel for flow
visualization are the angle of attack, yaw, and the pitch. For this experiment, the only
independent variable that is to be considered is the angle of attack. Angle of attack is to
be measured from a set horizontal reference frame to the chord line of the geometric
configuration under consideration. The angles are to be measured in degrees by a
protractor. The observed conditions are to be recorded by means of a camera. The
dependent variable is the length at which separation occurs. The set parameters of the
water tunnel are the temperature and density, assumed to be at standard conditions, and
the free stream velocity – these parameters are not to be altered.

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Theory

Viscous forces are the result of the attraction between fluid molecules and a surface. This
results in a resisting force against the direction of flow. In addition, due to no-slip
condition, the fluid particles in contact with the surface have zero velocity, and there is a
discrete distance in the normal direction through which the fluid accelerates until it
reaches the free-stream velocity. This finite distance is known as the boundary layer.
The gradient of the flow velocity in the normal direction from the surface is proportional
to the shear force exerted between the fluid and the body over which it flows given by the
equation below:
∂u
τ=µ
∂y
The result of this shearing force slows down the velocity of the fluid, increasing the
pressure, creating an adverse pressure gradient. This pressure gradient builds up until it
reaches a critical point, where velocity becomes zero and the flow begins to separate
from the surface. Immediately beyond this region, the flow begins to re-circulate which
increases the size of the separation. This can be seen below:

Figure 1. Boundary layer growth and separation.

http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/Skin_Friction/TH11G3.htm

Two ways to analyze the mechanics of fluids are the Eulerian and Lagrangian methods.
The Eulerian method is centered around the properties of fluid particles passing a given,
or fixed, point in space and are recorded with time. In the Lanrangian method, changes
are considered to occur as a fluid particle travels along a trajectory, or pathline. A
pathline is a line drawn through the flowfield in such a way that it defines the path that a

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given particle of fluid has taken. It is the trajectory that a fluid particle would make as it
moves around with the flow.

A streamline is a line drawn through the flowfield around a body that’s local velocity
vector is tangent to the surface area at all points along the geometry, and does not
indicate magnitude or velocity. Streamlines are used to study the flow field over an object
and allows for instantaneous visualization. A streakline is the locus of points of all the
fluid particles that have passed continuously though a particular spatial point in the past.
The downstream can be visualized by injecting dye at a given point in the flow.

The water tunnel utilized in this experiment has uniform, steady, incompressible flow. In
uniform flow, the velocity does not change along a streamline and the streamlines are
straight and parallel to the body. The flow through an open pipe or flow through an open-
channel can be assumed uniform. Some examples of non-uniform flow include vortex
flow such as that exhibited by tornados, and converging flow such as flow through a
nozzle or converging duct. In steady flow, the velocity at a given point on a streamline
does not change with time. Mass flow rate problems such as flow through a steam
turbine, flow through a pipe, and flow over an airfoil are examples of steady flow
conditions. Some examples of unsteady flow would be a pressurized water gun and if a
pipe is opened and closed.

Flow can be characterized in one, two, and three dimensions. Flow is one dimensional if
the flow parameters at a given instant in time only vary in the direction of flow and not
across the cross-section. This can be exhibited from flow over a flat plate where the flow
only has components in the x-axis. Flow through a pipe and flow in a river and the flow
field well before and after an airfoil can be assumed to be one-dimensional. Two
dimensional flow is where the components of flow exist in two axes. Therefore a
velocity vector can be broken into an x-component and y-component at some angle.
Viscous flow between two parallel plates, flow over a wedge, flow at a wing midsection
and twin vortex flow are examples of two-dimensional flow. Likewise, three dimensional
flow is flow that translates in three axes. A splatter of rain on the pavement, flow at the
wingtips of an airfoil, flow over a cone, and any turbulent flow are examples of three-

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dimensional flow. For a homogeneous fluid, incompressibility can be associated with
constant density and in the presence of a zero velocity divergence. Air at velocities
below the speed of sound, and water are both examples of incompressible flow.
Compressible flow is exhibited in high velocity ideal gasses such as air at supersonic
speeds (speeds greater than Mach 0.3).

A flow can exhibit different characteristics dependent upon the boundary layer that
develops over the surface of a body. Laminar flow is characterized by a smooth
appearance and occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between
the layers. This is usually at relatively low Reynolds numbers. Some laminar flow
examples are the flow of honey or thick syrup being poured from a container and oil
being pumped through a pipe, the flow under a submarine in water or a gap filled with
glycerin between two concentric glass cylinders. Turbulent flow is characterized by
intense mixing and unsteady, erratic flow and occurs at Reynold’s numbers above 2300.
It is a chaotic flow regime that can include low momentum diffusion, high momentum
convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. Some
examples are the flow in the wake of a ship, the wake of a golf ball flying through the air,
and the smoke from a smoke stack with strong winds.

Boundary layer effects are another factor in characterization of flow. A boundary layer is
a very thin layer of fluid at the plate surface over which the velocity changes from zero to
the freestream velocity due to the shearing resistance created by a boundary that distorts
surrounding non-viscous flow. The boundary layer helps create drag and lift, and a
majority of the heat transfer to and from the body takes place within the boundary layer.
In a viscous fluid the velocity at the surface is zero (no-slip condition), whereas with the
flow of an inviscid fluid, the surface velocity need not be zero. Because of viscous
effects, a thin layer next to the surface occurs, forming the boundary layer. The primary
effect of a boundary layer is the creation of drag forces from the viscosity created on the
surface of the body.
Separation of a boundary layer can be caused by an unfavorable pressure gradient
that forces the fluid particles to detour away from the body. With the low velocity in the
boundary layer, the fluid particles can only go so far against the adverse pressure gradient

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until they are forced to detour from the surface. As the pressure begins to recover over
the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the
surface. Such separation causes a large increase in the pressure drag, since it greatly
increases the effective size of the wing section. Unfavorable pressure gradient can also
occur on blunt objects and cross sections with sharp edges because the flow cannot
negotiate the turn at the sharp edges, therefore separation from the body occurs.

The laminar boundary layer is more prone to separation because more efficient
mixing occurs in a turbulent boundary layer, which in turn reduces the boundary layer
thickness and increases the wall shear stress, preventing the separation that would occur
for a laminar boundary layer under the same conditions. Boundary layers can be
controlled by free stream velocity, diameter, and fluid kinematic viscosity through the
Reynolds number. For example, one way to control boundary layer transition is to shape
the surface in such a way that the pressure distribution on its surface delays the onset of
turbulence. Another way is to make the surface porous and to apply a reduced pressure to
the surface so that part of the boundary later is drawn away through the porous surface.
By controlling the boundary layer transition on a surface, the drag on the body can be
manipulated or minimized. This would be a way to reduce drag on an object such as
plane, ship, or a golf ball for example.

A way that there is to delay boundary layer separation would be to trip the
boundary layer into a turbulent flow since it is harder for a turbulent flow to separate
compared to a laminar flow. Delaying boundary layer separation can be achieved by
creating vortices – these vortices help the boundary layer stay attached. The vortex
generators on the surface of a wing serve that purpose. The holes on a golf ball and the
fuzz on a tennis ball also delay boundary layer separation.

Prediction of results:
There were three geometric body configurations placed in the water tunnel for the
experiment: a forebody (which exhibits a somewhat conical shape), an airfoil, and a delta
wing plane model. It was predicted that the flow over the airfoil would be mostly

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laminar and exhibit stall characteristics at an angle of attack of 15 degrees. The flow
over the forebody would be laminar, and due to its conical shape, will have some three
dimensional relief effects and such that separation would occur at an angle greater than
15 degrees. In consideration of the delta wing model’s geometry and the abrupt changes
in area (since it is not just an airfoil, wedge, or cone), would cause the flow to be
turbulent and for it to have boundary layer seperation at an angle of attack of five
degrees.

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Experimental Setup and Procedure

Instruments :

Eidietic’s Flow Visualization Water Tunnel Model 0710

Protractor
Ruler
Tape
Pen
Level
Sting Mount - tool connected to water tunnel used to increase/decrease angle of
attack of each model

Experimental Setup:

The water tunnel was set up by the lab technician. There was no setup required by
the group members who performed the lab. When a body needed to be changed to
perform the flow visualization over the shape, this was also done by the lab technician.
He would insert the specified model and attach the tubes that contained dye. The dye is
excreted from holes located at specific points on the different bodies. This is how the
flow is able to be visualized.

Procedure:

To begin the experiment, the lab technician inserted the delta wing model into the
water tunnel test section and connected the dye to the model (See Fig 1). Once the model
was in place a piece of transparent tape was placed on the outer surface of the test
section. This tape was then used to determine the zero angle of attack by drawing a
straight line with a level which coincided with the model, which was parallel to the
bottom surface of the test section. The water tunnel was then turned on and the test
commenced.
To carry out the specified objectives, the delta wing model’s angle of attack was
increased in increments of five degrees. This was done by moving the sting mount,
located at top of test section, (See Fig. 2) the necessary number of notches which
specified an angle of five degrees measured by the protractor. At specified angle

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increments, pictures were taken of the model. The pictures taken displayed the flow
characteristics of separation, turbulent flow, and point at which the model stalled. These
pictures will be explained and referenced in the Experimental Results.
The same procedure was performed for the airfoil and the fore-body.

Fig. 2 Delta Wing Model in Test Section Fig. 3 Sting Mount

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Results:
The results were captured using a digital camera. The images of each notable
event in the flow field are displayed and discussed below.

Delta Wing Model

The first model that was tested was the delta wing aircraft model. The original
procedure entailed adjusting the angle of attack on each model by a finite value, and
observing the flow reaction to the adjustment. This proved to be very inefficient, as the
method of measuring the angle of attack was inherently inaccurate, and much care was
needed to take the measurements accurately. It was quickly decided that the angle of
attack would be adjusted, and when a notable flow phenomena was observed, the angle
would be measured. The lowest angle that could be steadily achieved was a 3 degree
angle of attack. The model would become unstable at a zero angle of attack, and would
begin to pitch downward. At a 3 degree angle of attack, the flow (as shown below) was
laminar

Laminar Flow
Transitional Flow

Figure 4. Delta wing model @ α = 3°

and fully attached. There are very small trailing vortices immediately behind the trailing
edges, and the flow in that region can be considered to be transitional, and not completely
turbulent.

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 At 8 degrees, the flow begins to separate on the trailing edge, and vortices begin
to form over the wing (red). It is also interesting to note that the vortices which occur
near the leading edge cause the reattachment of the flow further down stream. There are
also obvious regions of recirculation, where the path lines are diverted from various
regions (green and blue). This is also the first point at which turbulent flow can be
observed in the flow field.

Vortices

Area of Recirculation

Reattachment
Turbulent Flow

Figure 5. Delta wing model @ α = 8°

Finally, at 20 degrees, the flow becomes separated at the entire length of the
leading edge, and the body becomes stalled. This is more pronounced near the midsection
of the wing (red). There are as a result large areas of recirculation, and the path lines are
almost completely diverted from the surface, going only along the edge of the wing
sections (green and blue). The flow is almost entirely turbulent along the length of the
model, with a very small transitional region near the very tip (green and blue).

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 Area of Recirculation
Separation Occurs

Transitional Flow
Separated Vortices

Figure 6. Delta wing model @ α = 20°

Airfoil
The second model which was tested in the water tunnel was section of a NACA 0008
airfoil, with an 18cm chord length. At 3 degrees, the flow was completely attached and

Laminar Flow
Path line Dispersion

Figure 7. NACA 0008 Airfoil model @ α = 3°

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laminar. However, there was some flow disturbance from the wall boundary layers,
causing a slight dispersion of the path lines near the trailing edge.
At an angle of 10 degrees, the flow began to separate at the trailing edge. This occurs at

Transitional Flow

Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow

Figure 8. NACA 0008 Airfoil model @ α = 10°

around 13 cm from the leading edge. It can be seen that the flow has three distinct
regions, the laminar, transitional and turbulent areas. It is in the turbulent region that the
flow separates.
At 18 degrees, the flow is completely separated, and the airfoil is in a stall. The
path lines become completely obscured from the vortices, and only faint traces of dye can
be seen. It was difficult to record this angle at first, because the separated region would
climb to the leading edge as the angle of attack was increased, however, at around 18
degrees, the point of separation would instantly jump to the leading edge. At 15 degrees,
the point of separation is around a third of the chord length from the leading edge.

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 Attached Region

Separated Region

Figure 9. NACA 0008 Airfoil model @ α = 18°

Forebody Model
The a semi-conical forebody was also tested in the water tunnel. At the initial angle of 3
degrees, the fluid remained attached, but became very turbulent at the nose of the body.

Turbulent Flow

Figure 10. Forebody model @ α = 3°

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At an angle of attack of 10 degrees, the flow did not transition into turbulence, and
remained laminar and attached to the body. It flowed around to the top of the body, and
continued off the top, remaining laminar.

Laminar Flow

Figure 11. Forebody model @ α = 10°

The flow remained mostly laminar, and attached until an angle of 35 degrees. At this
angle of attack, the flow separated on the downstream side, creating a large number of
vortices, which are clearly visible. Thus the forebody can be considered stalled.

Turbulent Flow

Flow Separation

Figure 12. Forebody model @ α = 35°

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Discussion
The predictions for the outcome of the experiment did not completely match the
results. The airfoil performed as was expected, with separation occurring at a slightly
higher angle than was predicted, at 18 degrees instead of 15. The flow was mostly
laminar until an angle of 10 degrees (Figure 8), where turbulence would begin to occur at
the trailing edge.
The forebody had some interesting flow characteristics at low angles of attack.
The flow was turbulent and separated at very low angles of attack (Figure 10), but as the
angle was increased, the flow ordered itself, and became laminar (Figure 11). Then, again
as the angle of attack was increased, the flow would become turbulent at the trailing
edge, and become separated (Figure 12). It would seem that the rapid deceleration of the
flow around the conical edge of the forebody trips the flow, causing a disturbance which
generates turbulence. At a higher angle, it would seem that, the velocity gradient is less
pronounced, as the flow is not tripped, and maintains itself laminar for the entire length
of the body. The angle at which the flow separated was surprising, as it was much higher
than the airfoil and delta wing model. When compared with other high angle of attack
experiments which used a forebody, it is clear that the results are reasonable [3]. As
shown in the two figures below, the flow around the forebody of this model X-29A at 20°

Figure 13. Model X-29A @ α = 20° ref [3].

is attached, and laminar. (Although there is a vortex created by the tip spike of the X-29
forebody, the flow on the rest of the forebody is attached.) However, the flow around the

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X-29A’s forebody remain attached at much higher angles of attack than 35°. This may be
a result ofAttached
the moreflow
flushed dimensions of the X-29’s forebody, and because that
experiment was conducted at 3 in/s instead of 4.7 ft/s. Therefore the Reynolds number
was an order of magnitude smaller for the X-29 model, and the critical Reynolds number,
necessary for the propagation the Tollmien-Schlichting waves and the initiation of
transition, was not reached. Therefore the separation angle of 35° is quite reasonable.

Figure 14 Model X-29A @ α = 20° ref [3].

The predictions for the delta wing model were completely in error. Initially, it was
assumed that because of the numerous feature interfaces of the model, the flow would
have numerous points of recirculation, and therefore separation. The flow does create
regions of recirculation, however, the entire flow is not separated, and instead, the
apparent ‘center body” is larger, and the flow can be seen to remain attached, but follow
the contour of the region of recirculation (Figure 5). The separated vortices from the
leading edge of the model dissipate easily, and become reattached, possibly increasing
the attachment of the flow near the trailing edge. In any event, the flow remains attached
to some extent until 20°, where the flow will detach at the leading edge.

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Conclusion and Recommendations
The visualization of the flow around various geometries is very important in
aerospace engineering design and analysis. Without it, it impossible to fully understand
the fluid movement and mechanics of a given flow, and can result in poor design choices.
It is often critical to know precisely where a flow will begin to transition, or where an
area of recirculation may occur. Even numerical methods fail, in this respect, to give
precise details of the turbulent phenomena. The visualization provides results which even
flight test data can not produce. That is why even today, water tunnel flow visualization
remains an important tool in aerospace research.
Furthermore, this experiment could be continued by the regulation of the flow
velocity in the test section, allowing the exact analysis of the affect that the Reynolds
number has on a particular flow. In addition, more dye taps could be added to the models,
to identify the size and shape of recirculating regions. Finally, the effects that altered yaw
may have on the flow remain an important detail which was not investigated.

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References

1. Anderson, D., John Jr. (2007). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 4th ed, McGraw-
Hill, New York

2. Anderson, D., John Jr. (2005). Introduction to Flight, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill, New
York

3. Cotton, Lt. Stacey J. and Lisa J. Bjarke. NASA. Flow-Visualization Study of the
X-29A Aircraft at High Angles of Attack Using a 1/48-Scale Model (1994)
Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
http://www1.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/88321main_H-1918.pdf

4. Crowe, T., Clayton, Elger, F., Donald and Roberson, A., John (2005).
Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed, John Wiley and Sons, Danvers MA.

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Appendix

Select Images from Reference 3.

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