Dams and reservoirs

Dams

Definition of Dams
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dams
Classification of Dams
Types of Dams
 What is a Dam?

A dam is a structure built across a stream,

river or estuary to retain water.

Dams are made from a variety of

materials such as rock, steel and wood.
Dams
Dams
 Structure of Dam

Spillway

Freeboard

Sluiceway
Gallery

Heel
Toe
 Definitions

Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side

Toe: contact on the downstream side
Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest
Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking
operations.
Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the
construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water
of the reservoir to downstream side
Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used
to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
 Advantages of Dam

Dams gather drinking water Water Supply

for people.

Dams help farmers bring Irrigation

water to their farms.

Dams help create power Hydroelectric

and electricity from water.
Dams keep areas from
flooding.
Flood Control

Dams create lakes for people Recreation

to swim in and sail on.
Navigation
 Disadvantages of Dam

Dams detract from natural settings, ruin nature's work

Dams have inundated the spawning grounds of fish
Dams have inhibited the seasonal migration of fish
Dams have endangered some species of fish
Dams may have inundated the potential for
archaeological findings
Reservoirs can foster diseases if not properly
maintained
Reservoir water can evaporate significantly
Some researchers believe that reservoirs can cause
earthquakes
Three Gorges Dam
Three Gorges Dam
Three Gorges Dam

Type: Concrete Gravity Dam

Cost: Official cost $25bn - actual
cost believed to be much higher
Work began: 1993
Due for completion: 2009
Power generation: 26 turbines on
left and right sides of dam. Six
underground turbines planned for
2010
Power capacity: 18,000
megawatts
Reservoir: 660km long,
submerging 632 sq km of land.
When fully flooded, water will be
175m above sea level
Navigation: Two-way lock system
became operational in 2004.
One-step ship elevator due to
open in 2009.
Three Gorges Dam

Sluice Gates
 Three Gorges Dam

Shipping Locks

Shipping Locks
Hoover Dam
 Hoover Dam
Location: Arizona and Nevada, USA
Completion Date: 1936
Cost: $165 million
Reservoir Capacity: 1.24 trillion cubic feet
Type: Arch/ Gravity
Purpose: Hydroelectric power/flood control
Reservoir: Lake Mead
Materials: Concrete
Engineers: Bureau of Reclamation

The Hoover Dam is a curved gravity dam. Lake Mead

pushes against the dam, creating compressive forces
that travel along the great curved wall. The canyon
walls push back, counteracting these forces. This
action squeezes the concrete in the arch together,
making the dam very rigid. This way, Lake Mead can't
push it over.

Today, the Hoover Dam is the second highest dam in

the country and the 18th highest in the world. It
generates more than four billion kilowatt-hours a
year, that's enough to serve 1.3 million people!
 Dams in Thailand

Bhumibol Dam
[ The Largest Concrete Arch Dam in Thailand ]

Name : Bhumibol Dam

Location : On Ping river at Sam Ngao district, Tak province
Type : Concrete Arch Gravity Dam (largest in Thailand of this
type)
Size : 154 meters high and 486 meters long at the crest
Year Completed : 1964
Storage Capacity : 13,462 million cubic meters
Electricity Generating Capacity : 535 MW
Annual Energy : 1,200 GWh
 Dams in Thailand

Sirikit Dam

Name : Sirikit Dam

Location : On Nan River at Tha Pla district, Uttaradit province
Type : Earth fill dam
Size : 113.6 meters high and 800 meters long at the crest
Year Completed : 1974
Storage Capacity : 9,510 million cubic meters
Electricity Generating Capacity : 500 MW
Annual Energy : 1,000 GWh
 Dams in Thailand

Srinagarind Dam

Name : Srinagarind Dam

Location : On Kwae Yai river at Ban Chao Nen subdistrict, Si
Sawat district, Kanchanaburi province
Type : Rockfill dam with impervious core
Size : 140 meters high and 610 meters long at the crest
Year Completed : 1980
Storage Capacity : 17,745 million cubic meters
(largest storage capacity
in Thailand)
Electricity Generating Capacity : 720 MW
Annual Energy : 1,140 GWh
 Dams in Thailand

Vajiralongkorn Dam

Name : Vajiralongkorn Dam

Location : On Kwae Noi river at Tha Khanun subdistrict, Thong
Pha Phum district, Kanchanaburi province
Type : Rockfill dam with facing slab
Size : 92 meters high and 1,019 meters long at the crest
Year Completed : 1984
Storage Capacity : 8,860 million cubic meters
Electricity Generating Capacity : 300 MW
Annual Energy : 760 GWh
 Dams in Thailand

Lam Takong Dam

Name : Lam Takong Dam

Location : On Lam Takong river at Sikiew district, Nakorn
Ratchasima province
Type : Earth fill dam
Size : 92 meters high and 1,019 meters long at the crest
Year Completed : 1969
Storage Capacity : 310 million cubic meters
Irrigation Command Area : 100,000 rai
 Classification of Dams

Classification based on function

Storage Dam
Detention Dam
Diversion Dam
Coffer Dam
Debris Dam
 Typical Storage Dam

Vajiralongkorn Dam

Srinagarind Dam
 Typical Storage Dam

Tha Thung Na Dam

Maeklong Dam
 Classification of Dams

Classification based on hydraulic design

Overflow Dam/Overfall Dam

Non-Overflow Dam

Classification based on material of construction

Rigid Dam
Non Rigid Dam
 Classification of Dams

Classification based on structural behavior

Gravity Dam
Arch Dam
Buttress Dam
Embankment Dam
 Gravity Dam

Gravity dams are dams which resist

the horizontal thrust of the water
entirely by their own weight.

Concrete gravity dams

are typically used to
block streams through
narrow gorges.
 Gravity Dam

Cross Section Plain View

Material of Construction:
Concrete, Rubber Masonry
 Arch Dam

An arch dam is a curved dam

which is dependent upon arch
action for its strength.

Arch dams are thinner and

therefore require less
material than any other
type of dam.

Arch dams are good for sites

that are narrow and have
strong abutments.
 Arch Dam

Cross Section Plain View

Material of Construction:
Concrete
 Buttress Dam

Buttress dams are dams in which the

face is held up by a series of
supports.

Buttress dams can take many

forms - the face may be flat or
curved.
 Buttress Dam

Cross Section Plain View

Material of Construction:
Concrete, Timber, Steel
Embankment Dam

Embankment dams are massive

dams made of earth or rock.

They rely on their weight to

resist the flow of water.
 Embankment Dam

Cross Section Plain View

Material of Construction:
Earth, Rock
 Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam

Topography-Valley Shape

A Narrow V-Shaped Valley : Arch Dam

A Narrow or Moderately with U-Shaped
Valley : Gravity/Buttress Dam
A Wide Valley : Embankment Dam
 Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam
Geology and Foundation Condition

Solid Rock Foundation : All types

Gravel and Coarse Sand Foundation :
Embankment/Concrete Gravity Dam
(H≤15 m)
Silt and Fine Sand Foundation :
Embankment/Gravity Dam (H≤8 m)
Non-Uniform Foundation : -
 Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam

Climate conditions
Availability of construction materials
Spillway size and location
Environmental considerations
Earthquake zone
Overall cost
General considerations
Gravity Dam
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam

Gravity or weight of dam

Hydrostatic force
Uplift force
Ice force
Earthquake forces
Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam

Free-body diagram of cross

section of a gravity dam
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam
Weight of Dam

Gravity or weight of dam

W  

When W= Weight of dam

 = Specific weight of material
 = Volume of dam
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam
Hydrostatic Force

Hydrostatic Force

I. Horizontal hydrostatic force

Hh   w h A x

II. Vertical hydrostatic force

Hv   w  w
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam
Uplift Force

Uplift Force

 w (h1  h2 )t
U
2

Uplift Force
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam
Ice Force

Ice Force

Ice Force
 Gravity Dam
Forces on Gravity Dam
Earthquake Force

Earthquake Force
E d  m(0.5 g to1.0 g)

E w  0.555k wh2
Arch Dam
 Arch Dam

I. Constant radius arch dams

for U-shaped valleys
have vertical US face
constant extrados radii for U-shaped valley
suitable to install gates at the US face

II. Constant angle arch dams

for V-shaped valleys
have curved US face
no possibility for gate installment
Arch Dam
Section
Arch Dam
Section
 Arch Dam
Reaction Forces on Arch Dam

hr
t
 allow Arch Dam with an Overflow
2
Spillway
B
k 
2Sin( / 2)
Arch Dam
Example Profiles of Existing Dam
Embankment Dam
Earth-Fill Embankment Dam

A earth-fill dam in
Australia.
Embankment Dam
Rock-Fill Embankment Dam
 Embankment Dam

Earth Dams:
are the most simple and economic (oldest dams)

Types:
1.Homogeneous embankment type
2.Zoned embankment type
3.Diaphragm type
Embankment Dam
Homogeneous Embankment Dam
Embankment Dam
Zone-Based Embankment Dam
Embankment Dam
Diaphragm Earth Dam
Embankment Dam

Rock fill Dam with RC facing

Embankment Dam
Slip Failure of Earth Dam
Buttress Dam
 Buttress Dam

Buttress Dam
: is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports.

Buttress
:a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another
supporting structure.

This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation

rocks are little weaker.
 Buttress Dam
Shapes of Buttress Dam

Typical Sections of
Buttress Dams
 Buttress Dam

Multiple-Arch Dam
(Buttress Dam)
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Timber Crib Dam

A timber crib dam in

Michigan.
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Steel Dam

Red Ridge steel

dam in Michigan.
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Stone Masonry Dam

Stone Masonry dam.

Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Coffer Dam

A coffer dam during the

construction of locks at
the Mongomery Point
Lock and Dam.
 Dam Failure

Tailing Dam at Aznalcollar Mine, Spain

April 25, 1998: the tailings dam at the Aznalcollar

mine near Sevilla, Spain failed. This has had BIG
societal implications -- the toxic waste has killed
many fish and birds and flooded thousands of
hectacres of farmland.

February 26, 1999 marks the 27th anniversary of the failure of another
tailings dam on Buffalo Creek, West Virginia. 125 peoople were killed
and 4,000 were left without homes. The dam failure was compounded
by the fact that it was waste that was escaping; the waste caught fire
and an explosion eventually occured.
 Types of Dam

Stone Masonry 10%

Concrete 11%

Rockfill 3%

Earthfill 58%
Other 16%
Timber Crib 2%
 Dam Failure

Teton Dam, Idaho

June 5, 1976: the failure in the Teton Dam led to flooding in the
cities of Sugar City and Reburg in Idaho. The dam failure killed 14
people and caused over $1 billion in property damages.

The dam failed because the bedrock was not strong enough to
support the structure. Currently the dam is once again used for
hydroelectric power.
 Dam Failure

Folsom Dam, USA

July 17, 1995 : a spillway gate of Folsom Dam failed, increasing

flows into the American River significantly. The spillway was
repaired and the USBR carried out an investigation of the water
flow patterns around the spillway using numerical modelling.

No flooding occured as a result of the partial failure, but flooding

is still a major concern for this area. It seems that the Folsom Dam
may be due for a height increase as an answer to this concern
 Chapter 7. Dams
• Dam Basics
– Purposes of Dams
– Components of Dams
– Types of Dams
– Dam Operations
• Benefit-Cost Analysis
• Impact of Dams
• Dams and Locks for Navigation
Purposes of Dams
 A management tool used to control, regulate, and
deliver water for a variety of purposes:
 Store water for dry periods
 Prevent flooding
 Increase river depth to aid navigation
 Stock watering and irrigation
 Fish farming
Figure 7.1 Primary purposes of dams in the United States.
Figure 7.2 Age of dams in the United States.
Figure 7.3 Principal parts of a dam.
 Important Terms and Concepts
 Types:
 Gravity Concrete Dam
 Buttresses
 Concrete Arch Dam
 Earthfill Dam
 Core of large rocks
 Clay cutoff walls
 Stone surface (rip rap)
 Storage (pools):
 Dead Pool (not PC...)
 Inactive Pool
 Conservation Pool
 active or joint-use
 Flood Pool
 Surcharge Pool
 Freeboard
 Other Terms:
 Face: Exposed surface of dam
 Abutments: sides of dam
 Appurtenances: pipes, gates, etc.
 Dam Crest: Top of dam
 Toe: base of dam
 Parapet wall: along top
 Spillway: for emergency releases
 Outlet Gate: Adjustable spillway
 Firm Yield: dependable capacity
 Powerhouse: location of
generators
 Headrace: Canal leading up to
powerhouse
 Tailrace: Canal leading away from
powerhouse
Figure 7.4 Basic dam designs. Note the rip-rap placed on the upstream face
of the earthen embankment dam to prevent erosion from waves.
Figure 7.5 Classification of principle storage zones in a cross section of a
multipurpose reservoir.
Figure 7.6 Notice the cement blocks that are being poured during
construction of Hoover Dam and the tremendous width of the structure at its
base.
Figure 7.7 The dramatic concrete arch design of Hoover Dam securely
holds the impounded waters of Lake Mead.
Figure 7.9 Grand Coulee Dam is a gravity concrete dam.
Figure 7.10 Hydroelectric turbines at Grand Coulee Dam.
Workers inspect a hydroelectric turbine runner blade at Fort Loudoun Dam,
near Lenoir City, Tennessee.
Benefit - Cost Study
 Costs  Benefits
 Land Purchase  Cheaper electricity
 Dam Construction  Fewer floods
 Dam Operation  More irrigation water
 Power lines  More recreation
 Irrigation systems  Easier navigation
 Navigation aids  Increased property
 Environmental impacts values
Benefit - Cost Analysis
 Benefit - Cost Ratio:
 Ratio of Benefits to Costs: r = B / C
 r > 1 means more benefits than costs
 Net Value:
 Benefits minus costs: NV = B - C
 NV > 0 means more benefits than costs
 Rate of Return:
 Discount rate that makes B(rr) = C
 rr > market rate is a good investment
Issues:
 Time-Value of Money
 Today’s Costs vs. Tomorrow’s Benefits
 Must Discount the value of future benefits
 The Discount rate is like the interest rate
 Incorporates the risk of the project, and the alternative
uses of the money, such as investing the money
somewhere else.
Impacts of Dams
 Barriers to fish and boat movement
 Salmon in the west, Shad in the east
 Must build locks to move boats around dams
 Sediments build up in reservoir
 Farmland along the Nile and Mississippi Rivers
depended on these for soil improvement, and the
Delta needs these to keep the ocean out
 Many cities, farms, and people must be relocated
FERC Relicensing
 The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
regulates private dams (such as Georgia Power
dams).
 In order to get or renew a permit, the operator has
to explain how the dam benefits the public.
 FERC can give the original permit to anyone.
 When renewing a permit, FERC can give it to the
builder, or to anyone else they choose.
 Many Georgia Power dams must have their permits
renewed, and are finding ways to improve their
performance so they can get their permit renewed.
Figure 7.12 This scene in Wanxian, the largest of the relocation cities
affected by Three Gorges Dam, called Sanxia Ba in China (San meaning
“three,” Xia meaning “Gorge,” and Ba meaning “Dam”).
Figure 7.13 This tributary of the Yangtze River flows through the narrow
canyon called Xiao Sanxia (Lesser Three Gorges) and will be flooded after
completion of the Three Gorges Dam.
Dams and Locks for Navigation
 Problem with dams blocking rivers
 Historical use of rivers by boats to transport goods.
 With a new dam in the way, the barge operators are put
out of business.
 Protests build for providing a way around the
obstruction.
Figure 7.14 Main-river dams form a staircase of reservoirs that stretch the
entire length of the Tennessee River.
Figure 7.15 Chickamauga Lock and Dam, located on the Tennessee River
near Chattanooga, Tennessee, is a major lock in the TVA navigation system.
Rhine - Danube Canal
Main (Rhine) - Danube Canal: Elevations on the section from
Würzburg to Passau going through 53 stepwise locks
Interesting Websites
 Panama Canal Video
 Canal Video
 Allatoona
Dam
Buford Dam

By Alex Otto Nantahala Dam

Athens Poultry Industry
 Employs
 150 workers per shift (three shifts) at about $10/hr
 Several dozen supervisors at about $20/hr
 This is a payroll of over $15,000,000 per year
 Water Use
 They process about 200,000 birds per day
 This requires about 7 gallons per bird
 Which is 500 million gallons per year
 Water value
 is 3 cents per gallon
 not counting taxes and other community benefits.
Atlanta, Georgia
“the fastest-spreading human
settlement in history"

Time Magazine
March 22, 1999
Carter’s Lake

Lake Allatoona

Lake Lanier

Atlanta
 Lake Allatoona
 Northwest Atlanta, Bartow and Cherokee Counties
 Created by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
 Filled in December 1950
 Watershed area is 1,110 mi2
 Lake volume is 367,500 acre-feet
 Lake area is 12,010 acres
 Maximum depth is 145 ft
Lake Purposes
1. Flood control
2. Navigation
3. Hydroelectric power generation
4. Water supply
5. Water quality
6. Recreation
7. Fish and wildlife management
 Lake Water Quality Issues
• Lake Sedimentation
– Reduction in storage capacity
– Impairment of
• navigation
• recreation
• aquatic habitats
• Regulatory Controls
– Stormwater regulations
– Erosion and sediment laws
 Lake Lanier
10,000 Sediment Rating Curve
Suspended Solids Concentration, mg/L

1,000

100

West Fork Little River near Clermont

10
Chestatee River near Dahlonega
Chattahoochee River at Cornelia
Chattahoochee River at Norcross

1
0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Discharge, Q / Qo
Lake Allatoona Tributaries
Sediment Budget
 Annual sediment loads, w/o bedload
 Etowah River: 25,300 tons
 Little River: 10,000 tons
 Noonday Creek: 1,100 tons
 Blankenship Sand
 Operates on the Etowah and Little Rivers
 Removes over 120,000 tons of sand and silt
 85% are sand product
 15% are silt materials
Sand Removal
Each semi load contains:
23 tons of sediment
98% sand
2% clays
253 pounds of organic matter
10 pounds of nitrogen
5 pounds of phosphorus
2 pounds of regulated metals (mostly Ba, Cr)
This frees up almost 4000 gallons of storage
 Silt Removal

Each semi load contains:

23 tons of sediment
35% sand
55% silt
10% clays
2600 pounds of organic matter (10x sands)
50 pounds of nitrogen (5x sands)
12 pounds of phosphorus (2.5x sands)
12 pounds of regulated metals (5x sands)
Reservoirs
 A reservoir is an artificial lake called man-made reservoir. It can be
formed by building a dam across a valley, by excavating the land or
by surrounding a piece of land with dykesand diverting a part of the
river flow into the reservoir. The water is stored in the reservoir
and can be used for irrigation, hydro-power or as a water source for
domesticor industry use. Man-made reservoirs are also very
effective constructions to control unexpected floods (see also
stormwater management).

 A reservoir is fed by precipitation, rainwater runoff or from a

constant flow of a river. Water loss can occur due to evaporation
(especially in arid regions) and depending on the reservoir bottom
due to percolation (small reservoirs are often lined). Sediments
from rivers or surface runoff can reduce the storage volume of a
man-made reservoir significantly (FAO 1992).
Reservoirs
Reservoirs
 Water stored in a valley usually has a higher level than the valley
bottom downstream of the dam. Because of this difference in level,
the valley can be irrigated by a gravity system or other distribution
systems. Water can be taken from the reservoir via a concrete or
steel pipe.

 This pipe connects the reservoir to an irrigation canal downstream.

A valve is usually located on the upstream end of the pipe to
control the discharge of water into the canal (FAO 1992). The
kinetic energy of reservoirs is often used to produce electricity (see
also hydropower small-scale and hydropower large-scale).
Comparison of the riverbed landscape between upstream and
downstream reaches of the Yasugawa Dam in the Yasu River in central
Japan. The dam is as old as 53 years and the distinctive riverbed
armouring can be observed. White part of rocks indicates thick
accumulation of organic matter originated from the reservoir. Source:
TAKEMON (2006)
Reservoirs
 Where no such water-body previously existed the presence of a
reservoir in a drainage basin and the abstraction of significant water
amounts for storage upstream significantly impacts the watercourse,
the flora and fauna, and the human inhabitants in the drainage basin.

 These potential impacts should be identified and thoroughly examined

prior to reservoir construction, in order to comprehensively assess the
total value of the reservoir project.

 Procedures to identify and properly evaluate potential environmental,

social and economic consequences of reservoir construction involve so-
called ‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ (EIA). Such an assessment is
now obligatory by law in many countries for all new dam constructions
(UNEP 2000).
Reservoirs
 Ecological impacts of reservoir dams have been reported from
various aspects such as barrier for migratory animals like
anadromous fish, eutrophication of reservoirs by plankton
blooming, decreasing flow volumes in tail waters, stabilisation of
flow regimes by flood peak cut, changes in thermal regimes of river
water, river bed degradation and increase in substrate grain size by
sediment trapping, etc. (TAKEMON 2006).

 Furthermore big dams and extraction of water (e.g. for spate

irrigation) can create riparian conflicts (see water conflicts). Also
read the paragraph “Impact on Environment” in the rivers
factsheet.
Basic Design Principles
Adapted from UNEP (2000)
 Like lakes, reservoirs range in size from pond-like to very large
water-bodies (e.g. Lake Powell, U.S.A.). The variations in type and
shape, however, are much greater than for lakes. The term
‘reservoir’ includes several types of constructed water-bodies
and/or water storage facilities:

 1. Valley reservoirs – created by constructing a barrier (dam)

perpendicular to a flowing river.

 2. Off-river storage reservoirs – created by constructing an

enclosure parallel to a river, and subsequently supplying it with
water either by gravity or by pumping from the river.
Reservoirs
Basic Design Principles
Adapted from UNEP (2000)
 The latter reservoirs are sometimes called embankment or bounded
reservoirs, and have controlled inflows and outflows to and from
one or more rivers.

 In addition to single reservoirs, reservoir systems also exist, and

include cascade reservoirs - consisting of a series of reservoirs
constructed along a single river, and inter-basin transfer schemes –
designed to move water through a series of reservoirs, tunnels
and/or canals from one drainage basin to another.
Pumping from a Reservoir for
Irrigation
 The fields located around the reservoir upstream of a dam or surrounding a
natural lake are higher than the reservoir or lake's water table. Here
irrigation is only possible with the help of pumping stations, manual or
motorised pumping.

 The water level in the reservoir is usually highest at the end of the rainy
season, and lowest at the end of the dry season or the irrigation season.
Pumps installed at reservoirs and lakes must be able to handle these
fluctuations, which are not only vertical, but even more pronounced
horizontally, because the water recedes back to the lowest parts of the
reservoir.

 A dead branch of a river can also be made to function as a reservoir. The

branch is filled with water during the wet season and closed off during the
dry season so that the stored water may be used. Due to the low water
level, pumps are normally needed to irrigate fields from such a reservoir.
Pumping from a Reservoir for Irrigation

 A small reservoir in the hills of Tepoztlán (Morelos, Mexico), which is mainly filled
by precipitation catchment. The water is extracted by gravity and is protected by a
fence to avoid contamination from animals or unauthorised use. The reservoir is
sealed with an impermeable liner. Source: B. STAUFFER (2009)
Operation and Maintenance
 Because reservoirs are man-made water-bodies, they are more amenable to
artificial operation and regulation than lakes. As previously noted, operational
possibilities unique to reservoirs include the ability to discharge known
volumes of water at predetermined times, and selective discharge of water from
different water layers within the reservoir. This must be planned carefully as it
directly impacts the environment as described above. Also read the document
“Reservoir Operations and Managed Flows” (WMO and GWP 2008).

 Dams, especially the very large ones, must be checked regularly to ensure their
stability and security. Furthermore, many man-made water reservoirs are
affected by high sedimentation rates.

 The accumulation of sediments in the reservoir reduces the main reservoir

asset i.e. its volume capacity. Moreover sediments can negatively affect
pumping and hydropower equipment. Therefore the designers should
consider the soil erosion and sediment transport (CHANSON and JAMES
1998). There are several approaches to minimize or deal with sedimentation.
Operation and Maintenance
 When a reservoir serves different functions it is nearly impossible to operate
each function at its maximum level. For example, a reservoir that provides
irrigation, power generation (see small scale and large scale hydropower), flood
control, and recreational use may cause conflicting demands by its users
(WATERENCYCLOPEDIA 2011).

 Health Aspects
 Faecal pollution and other contamination of reservoirs has to be prevented by
wastewater treatment and buffer zones in case of non-point sources of
pollution (see also the factsheets on lakes or invalid link). If the reservoir is also
used as a source of drinking water, please also check water purification as a
measure to protect human health.
 It should also be considered, that surface water sources can lead to mosquito
breeding..