Funato Hiroki Fulltext

Modeling and Analysis of
Near-field Probes and Electromagnetic

Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure
Hiroki Funato
A thesis submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy at
Tokyo Metropolitan University
2014
首都大学東京博士（工学）学位論文（課程博士）
論文名近傍電磁界プローブと PCB-筐体構造における電磁界
放射のモデル化と理論解析（英文）
著者船戸裕樹
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上記の論文を合格と判定する
平成年月日
首都大学東京大学院理工学研究科教授会
研究科長
DISSERTATION FOR A DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENGINEERING
TOKYO METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
TITLE ： Modeling and Analysis of Near-field Probes and

Electromagnetic Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure
AUTHOR： Hiroki Funato
EXAMINED BY
Examiner in chief
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QUALIFIED BY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
TOKYO METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
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Abstract
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is essential to achieve safety and reliability in the
development of electronics. However, the rapid growth of electronics has led to a variety of
issues and challenges in the field of EMC. This thesis focuses on two major challenges for
today’s EMC: one is overcoming problems caused by the complexity of system, and the
other is the changes in requirements for EMC due to the miniaturization of electronics in
high frequency over GHz. To keep contributing to the growth of electronics, measurement
and simulation technologies for EMC must be developed and improved. In this thesis,
modeling on the basis of physical structure of various probes for near-field measurements
is presented in order to optimize probe design. Measurement techniques to improve the
accuracy and the spatial resolution are also proposed and verified. A calculation model for
estimating electric field radiation from PCB-chassis structure, which is a typical
configuration representing the complex system as stated above, is then proposed using
three different approaches and discussed.
This thesis consists of two main chapters. The first covers measurement technologies, and
the second covers the modeling and analysis of the radiation from PCB-chassis structure.
Subsection 2.1 clarifies the effect of the electric near-field on the magnetic near-field probe
and provides the equivalent circuit of the probe with consideration of this effect. In
subsection 2.2, the dual-loop magnetic field probe is proposed to achieve more accurate
measurements in the system that has electromagnetic disturbances from other
components around the probe. Subsection 2.3 describes a new double position/signal
difference (DPSD) method proposed to obtain a tangential electric near-field as well as an
improved position/signal difference (PSD) method for more accurate measurements.
Chapter 3 describes modeling and analysis on the electric-field radiation from the
PCB-chassis structure. Subsection 3.1 provides measurement results of an electric
far-field and reveals the increase in the radiation caused by integrating components. In
subsection 3.2, a specialized thin current probe is proposed and applied for measuring the
current flowing through the screw between PCB and chassis. It is revealed that the screw
current stimulates the cavity consisting of PCB with chassis. Subsection 3.3 describes
cavity resonator modeling using a double summation method with the screw current as
the stimulus. Subsection 3.4 describes a radiation model using an equivalent source from
a parallel-plates structure with consideration of asymmetric sizes for PCB and chassis. In
subsection 3.5, an inductive network method is employed to calculate the cavity for fast
calculation time, and the results are verified. Subsection 3.6 describes the modeling of a
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PCB-chassis structure using the multilayered finite difference method (MFDM), which
can be integrated with a SPICE circuit and can be performed without measured screw
current as a stimulus. Subsection 3.7 explains the model-based analysis for reducing
radiation from the PCB-chassis structure.
As stated, this thesis describes the modeling and the improvement techniques for
near-field measurements as well as the theoretical modeling and analysis of the
PCB-chassis structure. These studies contribute to realizing EMC design for miniaturized
electronics at high frequency with consideration of system-level behavior.
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Preface
EMC has a short history as a field of study. IEEE, which is the world’s largest
organization dedicated to the development of technologies on electronics, established the
EMC society in 1978, although it had originated from the radio frequency interference
group back in 1957. The EMC came about after multiple wireless communication devices
had been produced. Since then, as the technologies on electronics have been developed,
the achievements of EMC have become more important. Thus, EMC is considered an
essential discipline in electrical engineering, which itself is based on other fundamental
sciences.
Hence, during my life as a researcher, I studied electronic devices during my master’s
degree at university and have been engaged in EMC since joining Hitachi. Throughout my
research, whenever I was about to lose direction, I always tried return to my starting
point: the definition of "engineering". "Engineering" is defined as the application of
scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge to design, build, maintain, and
improve structures, machines, devices, and systems 1 . Based on this definition, my
understanding is that engineering should create “value” by utilizing fundamental sciences.
So, what do we mean by "value"? The meaning or definition of value depends on the
viewpoint: those of industrial companies, people who use the technologies, the
environment surrounding us. It may be difficult to define all the applications, but we must
always try to clarify what value the technology can create and how the technologies can be
used for people and their environment. I believe these questions should motivate our
research.
With such considerations, this thesis summarizes all the work I have done during my time
at Tokyo Metropolitan University. I hope this study will contribute to creating “value” in
the future.
1 Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org
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Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 12
2. Modeling and Improvement of Near-field Measurements ....................................... 16
2.1. Equivalent Circuit of Magnetic Near-Field Probe in GHz Band and
Improvement of Spatial Resolution .............................................................................. 17
2.1.1. Evaluation of Sensitivity to Magnetic and Electric Near-Field ................. 18
2.1.2. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Electric Near-field ........................... 22
2.1.3. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Magnetic Near-field ......................... 26
2.1.3.1. Effective Height for Magnetic Near-field Measurement ..................... 27
2.1.4. Application of Position Signal Difference Method ...................................... 30
2.2. Measurement-Based Modeling of Dual Loop Magnetic Near-field Probe ........ 32
2.2.1. Fabricated Probes for Evaluation ............................................................... 34
2.2.2. Modeling of Probes ....................................................................................... 36
2.3. Modeling and Improvement of Electric Near-field Measurements................... 43
2.3.1. Introduction of Position/Signal Difference Method .................................... 44
2.3.1.1. Probe Structure and Theory of Proposed Double Position/Signal
Difference Method .................................................................................................. 45
2.3.1.2. Measurements and Validation of PSD and DPSD Method ................. 48
2.3.2. Accurate Modeling with Fringe Capacitance ............................................. 52
2.3.3. Proposal and Validation of Improved PSD Method .................................... 56
2.3.4. Role of Probe Displacement (dp) for DPSD .................................................. 58
3. Modeling and Analysis of Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure ......................... 60
3.1. Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure ............................................................. 60
3.2. Proposal and Application of Screw Current Probe ............................................ 65
3.2.1. Structure of Screw Current Probe .............................................................. 65
3.2.2. Measurements of Screw Current ................................................................ 67
3.3. Cavity-Mode Modeling using Double Summation Method ............................... 69
3.4. Calculation of Radiation from Parallel-Plate Structure ................................... 70
3.4.1. Asymmetric Size Coefficients ...................................................................... 72
3.5. Fast Calculation using Inductive Network Method .......................................... 76
3.6. Modeling by Multilayered Finite Difference Method ........................................ 79
3.7. Investigation on the Reduction of Radiation ..................................................... 83
3.7.1. Additional Bypass Capacitor at Screw ....................................................... 84
3.7.2. Model-Based Analysis for the Reduction of Radiation ............................... 86
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4. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 93
5. Appendix A: Stand-alone Electric-field Probe ........................................................... 95
5.1. Prototype design and function test .................................................................... 95
5.2. 3D Simulation and calculation ......................................................................... 100
5.3. Electric field measurement inside enclosure ................................................... 102
6. Appendix B: EM Simulation of On-Glass Antenna with Vehicle Body .................. 105
6.1. Background of simulation................................................................................. 105
6.2. Simulation model .............................................................................................. 106
6.3. Comparison with measurement ....................................................................... 110
7. Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 113
8. Acknowledgements................................................................................................... 119
9. List of related publications ...................................................................................... 120
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List of figures
Figure 1. Schematic process of the components integration ............................................ 14
Figure 2. Magnetic field strength of mobile electronics.................................................... 15
Figure 3. Structure of probes .............................................................................................. 19
Figure 4. Fabricated probe (left: Type A, right: Type B) ................................................... 19
Figure 5. Measurement setup ............................................................................................ 20
Figure 6. Direction of induced current for electric field and magnetic field ................... 20
Figure 7. Evaluation results of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|) and by
magnetic near-field (|VH|) for type A ................................................................................ 21
Figure 8. Evaluation results of |VH | and |VE| for type B............................................... 22
Figure 9. Probe height dependence of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|) ...... 22
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of equivalent circuit for electric near-field (type A) ..... 23
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of equivalent circuit for electric near-field (type B) ..... 24
Figure 12. Calculation and measurement results of |VE| for type A ............................ 25
Figure 13. Calculation and measurement result of |VE| for type B .............................. 26
Figure 14. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type A) ......................... 27
Figure 15. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type B) ......................... 27
Figure 16. height dependence for magnetic near-field inside loop ................................. 28
Figure 17. Calculation result of effective measurement height (heff) with loop center
height (hcenter) ....................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 18. Calculation and measurement result of induced voltage by magnetic
near-field (|VH|) for type A ................................................................................................ 29
Figure 19. Calculation and measurement result of induced voltage by magnetic
near-field (|VH|) for type B ................................................................................................ 30
Figure 20. Schematic diagram of spatial resolution improvement method................... 31
Figure 21. Calculation results of induced voltage ratio for ∆S1 to ∆S2 ............................ 31
Figure 22. Comparison between calculation and measurement using type B
with/without applying subtraction .................................................................................... 32
Figure 23. Schematic of problem in actual application................................................... 33
Figure 24. Schematic structures of two dual loop magnetic near-field probes.............. 34
Figure 25. Magnetic near-field and far-field coupling to dual loop probes. ................... 35
Figure 26. Measurement setup for probe evaluation ...................................................... 36
Figure 27. Measurement results of |S21| for probes A and B ......................................... 36
Figure 28. Equivalent circuit of dual loop magnetic near-field probe............................ 37
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Figure 29. Schematic of magnetic flux paths during S21 and S22 measurements ........... 38
Figure 30. simulation model of a dual loop magnetic near-field probe .......................... 38
Figure 31. Simulation results for magnetic near-field distribution during S21 and S22
measurements..................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 32. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe B ............................... 40
Figure 33. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe B .............. 40
Figure 34. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe A .............. 41
Figure 35. Equivalent circuit for probe A that considers capacitive coupling between
the probe and the microstrip line ...................................................................................... 42
Figure 36. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe A ............................... 42
Figure 37. Comparison of calculation and measurement results for |S21| for probe A
when the electric near-field is considered ......................................................................... 42
Figure 38. Configuration of calculation for different probe type .................................... 43
Figure 39. Comparison of calculated scanned results between probes .......................... 43
Figure 40. Schematic structure of printed monopole electric near-field probe ............. 45
Figure 41. Schematic of position/signal difference method ............................................ 47
Figure 42. Capacitive couplings to the probe in position/signal difference method...... 47
Figure 43. Setup for electric near-field measurement .................................................... 48
Figure 44. Normalized magnitude of induced voltage at h = 0 and 0.35 mm ................ 49
Figure 45. PSD and DPSD results ................................................................................... 49
Figure 46. HFSS simulation model of microstrip line for electric near-field analysis.. 50
Figure 47. Measured and simulated magnitude of electric near-field component ........ 50
Figure 48. PSD applied result and simulated normal component of electric near-field51
Figure 49. DPSD applied result and simulated tangential component of electric
near-field 51
Figure 50. FSV applied results for simulated and PSD/DPSD ...................................... 52
Figure 51. PSD applied results with different probe heights comparing to simulated
normal component of electric field .................................................................................... 52
Figure 52. Probe and setup for PSD/DPSD measurements ............................................ 53
Figure 53. PSD measurement results with changing shift parameter dp at 1 GHz ...... 54
Figure 54. Fringe capacitance model between probe element and trace ....................... 55
Figure 55. Calculated FWHM wfw compared to measurements with various dp ........ 56
Figure 56. Procedure of proposed method........................................................................ 57
Figure 57. (a) Definitions of parameters and (b) Comparison between conventional PSD
and proposed method ......................................................................................................... 57
Figure 58. DPSD measurement results at different dp comparing to Ex obtained by
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electromagnetic simulation. (a) dp = 0.1 mm, Ex at z = 0.45 mm (b) dp = 0.4 mm, Ex at z =
0.75 mm (c) dp = 0.7 mm, Ex at z = 1.05 mm ...................................................................... 58
Figure 59. (a) Configuration for measurements and simulation (b) Comparison of
peak-to-peak distance dt between measurements at various dp and simulation results 59
Figure 60. 3.5-inch hard disk drive chassis and PCB for evaluation ............................. 61
Figure 61. Schematic circuit diagram for evaluation board ........................................... 61
Figure 62. Pattern layouts of evaluation board ............................................................... 62
Figure 63. Setup for electric far-field measurements ..................................................... 62
Figure 64. Measured vertical electric far-fields for four different screw connections,
PCB without a chassis, and PCB mounted on a chassis but with no screw ................... 64
Figure 65. Measured horizontal electric far-fields for four different screw locations,
PCB without a chassis, and PCB mounted on a chassis but with no screw ................... 64
Figure 66. Difference in measured electric far-fields between the PCB only and the
PCB mounted on a chassis for vertical (left) and horizontal (right) electric far-fields. . 65
Figure 67. Schematic diagram of screw current measurement ...................................... 66
Figure 68. Fabricated screw current probe...................................................................... 67
Figure 69. Frequency characteristics of induced power for fabricated junction current
probe by 4.48 mA current ................................................................................................... 67
Figure 70. Measurement results of screw current for each screw under operating ..... 68
Figure 71. Magnetic near-field distribution on PCB with connection for each screw... 68
Figure 72. Calculation model for the radiation (a) Schematic diagram of the parallel
plane cavity resonator (b) Equivalent magnetic current loop ......................................... 71
Figure 73. Electromagnetic simulation model used to calculate the asymmetric parallel
plane coefficient .................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 74. Calculated vertical and horizontal electric far-fields at a distance of 3 m for
different chassis sizes ......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 75. Asymmetric size coefficient for horizontal electric far-field with different
screw locations .................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 76. Comparison of calculated and measured vertical electric far-fields for four
different screw locations .................................................................................................... 75
Figure 77. Comparison of calculated and measured horizontal electric far-fields for four
different screw locations. ................................................................................................... 78
different screw locations. ................................................................................................... 78
8
Figure 80. Multilayered equivalent circuit of PCB with a chassis................................. 80
Figure 81. Comparison of calculated and measured frequency spectra of screw current
for four different locations of the screws connecting the PCB and the chassis. ............. 81
Figure 84. Additional bypass capacitor located close to the screw for experiment ....... 84
Figure 85. Frequency spectra of electric far-field with/without additional bypass
capacitor. 85
Figure 86. Improvement of radiated emission with additional capacitors .................... 86
Figure 87. Measurement results of screw current for screw 1 and 4 with connections of
both screw 1 and 4 with/without 1000 pF capacitors ....................................................... 86
Figure 88. Calculated impedance distribution with no screw connection ..................... 88
Figure 89. Calculated screw current corresponding to the impedance at each node .... 88
Figure 90. Calculated impedance distribution with single screw connection ............... 89
Figure 91. Total screw current at 0.3 GHz with different screw connections ............... 89
Figure 92. Calculated horizontal electric far-field with different screw connections ... 90
Figure 93. Measurement results of radiated electric field.............................................. 91
Figure 94. Reduction of the calculated screw(s) current and the measured radiation . 92
Figure 95. Schematic circuit diagram of prototype probe ............................................... 96
Figure 96. Pattern layout design of prototype printed circuit board ............................. 97
Figure 97. Prototype stand-alone electric-field probe ..................................................... 97
Figure 98. Setup for testing function of prototype device ............................................... 98
Figure 99. Converted received power to the electric field for various frequencies ....... 99
Figure 100. Directivity of prototype probe in different planes ................................... 100
Figure 101. 3D simulation model created in CST Microwave Studio ........................ 101
Figure 102. Comparison of the simulated directivity (normalized with the maximum
electric field strength) with the measurement results................................................... 102
Figure 103. Comparison between calculated received power as a function of electric
field strength and measurement results ......................................................................... 102
Figure 104. Schematic of experiment setup for the measurement of electric field inside
enclosure with small slit .................................................................................................. 103
Figure 105. Comparison of experimental electric field measurements inside an
enclosure by prototype and conventional probes ............................................................ 104
Figure 106. GPS antenna simulation model ................................................................ 106
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Figure 107. Left: small cut glass model. Right: windshield model ............................. 107
Figure 108. Left: return loss of antenna. Right: VSWR of antenna ........................... 107
Figure 109. Radiation pattern in y-z plane (Left), and in x-z plane (Right) .............. 108
Figure 110. Vehicle model consists of parts used in simulation ..................................... 109
Figure 111. Left: return loss of antenna. Right: VSWR of antenna ............................... 109
Figure 112. Radiation pattern in y-z plan (Left), and in x-z plane (Right) ................... 109
Figure 113. Radiation pattern in y-z plan (Left), and in x-z plane (Right) ................... 110
Figure 114. GPS antenna location on windshield used for measurement ......................111
Figure 115. Left: radiation pattern in y-z plan. Right: radiation pattern in x-z plane..111
Figure 116. Elevation angle dependence of linear average gain for measurement result
and simulation result in x-y plane ...................................................................................111
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List of tables
Table 1 Scope of this thesis ................................................................................................. 15
Table 2 Summary of this thesis .......................................................................................... 17
Table 3 Derived parameters................................................................................................ 25
Table 4 Derived Values for RLC mesh ............................................................................... 80
Table 5 Comparison of different approaches ..................................................................... 83
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1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Electromagnetic compatibility is mandatory for all the electronics on the market in order
to ensure the devices or systems function without electromagnetically interfering with
each other. EMC regulations are globally standardized to validate performance before the
product comes onto the market. EMC can be categorized into two parts: emission and
immunity. Emission is defined as the electromagnetic noise generated by the device, and
the conducted or radiated noise must be lower than the specified limit. Immunity means
to check that the device/system functions even it is exposed to the various sorts of
electromagnetic disturbances. The work in this thesis is mainly related to the emission of
EMC, although the improvements of and technologies for the emission are generally also
directly applicable to the immunity.
The challenges of EMC in developments of electronics are to reduce countermeasures and
realize EMC design. In the product development process, a prototype is typically
fabricated before the final design is fixed in order to validate its function/performance. If
the prototype fails to comply with the EMC requirements, then the root cause must be
found and the design changed appropriately. However, the time needed to investigate and
the huge man-hours needed to modify the design increase the product development time
as well as product development cost, which could result in critical problems such as longer
time-to-market. Therefore, the root-cause needs to be clarified and determined effectively
and speedily when the device/system fails to meet requirements. Moreover, it is important
to design the product for not only the basic function but also EMC behavior in order to
achieve further optimizations.
Technologies to overcome such problems can be classified into two types. One is
measurement. The most important aspect to improve electronics from the viewpoint of
EMC is to understand the phenomena i.e. fact-finding or clarification of mechanism, since
this understanding allows effective and optimized design. Measurement is a direct
method for revealing what is occurring in the device or system. There are generally three
things to be clarified from the EMC viewpoint: noise source, propagation path, and
radiation part. Required or appropriate methods depend on the objective of the
measurements. By revealing those points, proper countermeasures and feedback to the
design can be determined. In other words, those countermeasures or the design changes
cannot be eliminated by only improving measurement since the measurements can be
performed only after prototyping. Therefore, simulation technology is also crucial. There
are two main advantages of employing simulation-based analysis. One is that the
12
1. Introduction
simulation can increase understanding of the behavior of electromagnetic fields since the
simulation is able to provide and visualize the field distribution at arbitrary locations to
which even the measurements cannot be applied. The other advantage is that the
simulation can provide the estimation results of EMC performance by using only design
information before prototyping, which can reduce the risk of failure after the fabrication of
the sample. Also, even when the countermeasures are required, the simulation can
effectively be applied without modifying the actual sample to verify the ideas by sweeping
design parameters. However, such simulations always require the model to be validated.
Therefore, it is concluded that both measurement and simulation are essential
technologies and necessary for EMC development of electronics.
A number of studies have been done on measurement and simulation modeling so far,
especially for integrated circuits (IC) and printed circuit boards (PCB). For instance, a lot
of research has been done on electromagnetic near-field measurements around IC or PCB.
Modeling and simulation have also been investigated mainly for those components in
order to clarify the conducted path as well as the electromagnetic radiation from the
components. However, in recent years, even if the components such as the LSI or PCB
have been designed properly at component-level, the EMC issue can sometimes be
observed at system-level, which means integrated components. This is because the
integration of components can change the RF behavior of components or generate an
unexpected path or radiation from the system. Figure 1 shows a schematic example of the
integration of components. EMC compliances or requirements described above generally
define each component level, but they cannot exactly simulate each system at
component-level testing. Therefore, designing components with considerations of
system-level EMC behavior has become more important.
Two other recent trends in electronics are obtainment of higher frequency and shrinkage
of devices. Since the operation of electronics is becoming faster, noise generated by those
electronics are reaching frequencies higher than the GHz band as shown in Figure 2.
Therefore, to adopt such a high frequency band, even more accurate measurement and
simulation must be realized and maintained by considering the high frequency
characteristics. Also, the number of physically small mobile electronics such cell phones or
tablets has been increasing, and the electromagnetic interferences between digital circuit
and RF components have become a major issue in such high density packaging electronics
[1][2]. Thus, measurement technologies must be capable of higher spatial resolution to
identify finer sources or paths of electromagnetic propagations.
As described above, the main challenges of today’s EMC are application to system-level,
accurate measurements at high frequency, and high spatial resolution for application to
13
1. Introdu
uction
sm
mall integra
ated devicess. This theesis covers both apprroaches: m
measurementt and
moodel-based calculation
c for these cchallenges, as summarrized in Tabble 1. Note
e that
“ca
alculation” iss used inste
ead of “simu
ulation” to av
void misund
derstanding in the table
e. The
PC
CB-chassis structure
s is the typical configuratio
on of the inttegration ass a system and
a is
useed for the investigation
i n in this th
hesis. The modeling
m an
nd calculatiion techniqu
ues of
eleectric-field radiation
r forr just PCB or just the
e chassis su
uch as nearr-field to farr-field
tra n have been widely stud
ansformation died by otherr research grroups and soo are not inccluded
in this thesis, as shown in
n Table 1.
Figurre 1. Sch
hematic proocess of the components
s integratioon
14
1. Introduction
70
Lower power &
50 Higher frequency
Mgnetic field [dBA/m]
High density packaging

30
Wireless LAN
10
Bluetooth
-10
Cell phone Calculations are based on:
-30 Digital TV
1. Half-wave dipole antenna
UWB 2. Plane wave (o=120p)
-50 3. General spec of measurement
GPS (Spectrum Analyzer 8561EC、
-70 LN1000A、SMA cable)
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 4. Signal to Noise Ratio > 10dB
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 2. Magnetic field strength of mobile electronics
Table 1 Scope of this thesis
Chassis
Target PCB PCB + Chassis
Enclosure
Measurement Clarification of source and its

Higher accuracy, higher spatial resolution
(chapter 2) contribution to the radiation
Calculation
Near-Far transformation Modeling of radiation
(chapter 3)
15
2. Modeling and Improvement of Near-field Measurements
2. Modeling and Improvement of

Near-field Measurements
Electric and magnetic near-field measurements are crucial in the field of EMC. They are
generally utilized for identifying radiation sources or noise propagation paths [3]- [5]. Also
a number of studies for calculating and estimating electric field radiation from electrical
devices from near-field distribution has been done so far [6]-[9]. Magnetic near-field
measurements using a scanning system were firstly reported by Whiteside and R.W.P.
King in 1964 [10]. Since then, as technologies on electronics grow, requirements for
measurement technologies have also been changing as describe in chapter 1. Following
sections in this chapter describe various modeling and measurement techniques for
near-field, which are all based on the requirements for such growth of electronics. Table 2
describes the scope of this thesis with problems focused on in the studies. This chapter
covers the three different measurement problems: increase of the measurement error in
high frequency due to the electric near-field for magnetic near-field measurement in
section 2.1, the error due to the disturbance from distant source in section 2.2 and the
quantitative measurement condition for electric near-field measurement in section 2.3
respectively with the coverage of PCB as well as chassis as the target toward the
realizations of higher accuracy and higher spatial resolution in high frequency band for
near-field measurements.
16
Table 2 Summary of this thesis

Chassis
Target PCB PCB + Chassis
Enclosure
Clarification of radiation
Purpose Higher accuracy, higher spatial resolution
behavior
Field Electric field Magnetic field Current
Error due to Change of the gap between

Error due to
Problem Unclear measurement condition electric near- PCB and chassis due to the
disturbance
Section 2.3 field 2.1 2.2 insertion of probe
dual loop
improved
Method PSD DPSD PSD Thin current probe
Measure- PSD
Probe B Probe A
ment Probe
/Method Separation
Higher Higher
Higher of Cancel of the
Objective spatial spatial No modification of the gap
accuracy horizontal disturbance
resolution resolution
component
Equivalent circuit
Method Capacitive coupling model Conventional
Effective
Modeling Effective permiability
height
Objective Optimized measurement condition Optimized probe structure -
Calculati Near-Far transformation

Method Cavity radiation model
on (not studied in this thesis)
2.1. Equivalent Circuit of Magnetic Near-Field Probe in GHz Band and

Improvement of Spatial Resolution
A number of studies have reported magnetic near-field probes for high frequencies (e.g.,
over 1 GHz) for various applications [11][12]. Besides these, an electro-optic probe has
been proposed for frequencies above 1 GHz [13]. A miniaturized loop probe has been
fabricated and used to measure current distributions in large scale integration (LSI)
circuits [14][15]. For such applications, we proposed simplified lumped equivalent circuit
models for the loops of magnetic near-field probes to enable the probe characteristics to be
calculated [16]. A major source of error in measurements using loop probes is the voltage
induced by the electric near-field since the probe has to be positioned very close to the
target device or PCB.
In this chapter, we first describe the fabrication of two types of magnetic near-field loop
probes that have different structures of transmission line and loop element. Frequency
characteristics of induced voltage due to the electric and magnetic near-field of the probes
are then evaluated separately and we propose a lumped equivalent circuit to analyze the
characteristic differences between the probes. Parameters of the equivalent circuit are
theoretically calculated and the frequency responses are compared to the measurement
17
results. Since all the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the probe are calculated based
on the structural information of the probe, the probe structure can be designed using the
equivalent circuit with consideration of high frequency characteristics.
Another important parameters for near-field measurements is, as already described, the
broadband spatial resolution. Due to the continually increasing levels of integration of
electrical components, higher spatial resolutions are required [17][18]. The spatial
resolution in near-field measurements is basically determined by the size and structure of
the probe. However, the required spatial resolution is typically not the same over the
entire surface of the target device; dense regions require a higher resolution than sparse
regions. Therefore, different probes need to be prepared for different requirements, which
is not a very efficient approach. In addition, miniaturized probes such as those fabricated
using semiconductor processes are difficult to manufacture. To overcome these difficulties,
the probe/signal difference (PSD) method proposed by Kantor and Shvets for electric
near-field measurement is applied to magnetic near-field measurements for the first time
[19][20]. This method achieves higher spatial resolution by subtracting measurement
results obtained at two different probe heights above the target surface. Near-field
measurements at an arbitrary resolution can be achieved by varying the heights of the
two measurements. One advantage of this method is that the probe does not need to be
physically miniaturized in order to obtain a high spatial resolution. Only fine control of
the probe height is required, which allows the use of a conventional loop probe during
measurements, leading to greater simplicity and efficiency.
2.1.1. Evaluation of Sensitivity to Magnetic and Electric Near-Field
Figure 3 shows the two types of magnetic near-field probe structures that have been
fabricated in order to evaluate the effect on the sensitivity due to the difference of
shielding around the loop. As shown in the figure, type A has no shielding around the loop
while type B has shield. The shielding part for type B has been design to have
characteristic impedance as 50 ohm of strip line structure. The loop area for magnetic flux
across is 1 mm by 1 mm square for both types. The transmission line part which is
between the loop and the connector for cable is also design as 50 ohm strip line which is
designed by using the 2 dimensional transmission line impedance calculation tool Lipar,
which is based on MoM (method of momentum), and its length is 17 mm. The SMA
connector used for the probe covers the frequency up to 10 GHz. The probe has been made
of three layered FR-4 based printed circuit board that has GND layer for top and bottom
with signal layer for middle.
18
2.
2 Modelingg and Imprrovement off Near-field
d Measurem
ments
1800
0 µm
51
10 µm
Cu 100 µm 330
0 µm
FR4 600
0 µm Shield GND
D
SMA
connecctor
v
via via
15 mm
m 1 mm 1 mm
1 mm 1 mm
Type A Type B
Figure 3. Structure of
o probes
Fig
gure 4. Fabricated
F p
probe (left: Type
T A, righ
ht: Type B)
gure 5 shows the measu

Fig urement setu
up for the ev
valuation of induced volltage to the probe
by near-field. In this se
ection, the targeting trrace used for
f the proobe evaluatiion is
microstrip linee with 50 m
m line width
h. The port 1 of network
k analyzer (A
Agilent, 8510C) is
con
nnected to the MSL and
a the porrt 2 is connected to the
t probe w
which positiion is
ma
anipulated by
b near-field
d scanner. W
With setting the probe close
c to the MSL, magn
nitude
and phase of S21 with frrequencies ffrom 45 MH
Hz to 10 GH
Hz were meaasured. Mag
gnetic
nea
ar-field prob t have the loop paralllel to the trace to get tthe magnetic flux
be was set to
acrross the loop
p. In the me
easurementts, the probe
e height from
m the surfaace of MSL to
t the
cen
nter of the looop was set to
t 1.1 mm foor type A while the heigh
ht of type B iis set to mak
ke the
ind
duce voltagee due to the magnetic
m neear-field beco
ome same as type A.
19
magnetic near-field probe

Network Analyzer
Agilent 8510
port 1 port 2
f = 45 MHz ~ 10 GHz
Vs = 0 dBm hp
50 Ω
chip resister
100 mm
micro strip line
Figure 5. Measurement setup
In this evaluation, induced voltage due to the electric near-field VE and magnetic
near-field VH are separately extracted by following procedure as shown in Figure 6. Fixing
the probe height, induced voltage to the probe has been measured twice: original and 180
degree rotated. By this way, induced current due to magnetic near-field IH is considered to
be differential to the probe although the induced current due to the electric near-field IE is
considered to be common mode. Therefore, the induced current with probe at original
angle IS0 can be described as IS0 = IE - IH, and at rotated IS180 is IS180 = IE + IH. From these
characteristics, the induced voltage VH and VE can be separately evaluated by the addition
and the subtraction of these two results as following equations.
(1)
IH IH
180 degree
rotation
IE IE
H H
current current
Figure 6. Direction of induced current for electric field and magnetic field
20
Figure 7 shows the frequency dependence of the probe A for the induced voltage due to the
magnetic near-field VH and electric near-field VE. In the result, VE increased and becomes
similar level as VH with the difference less than 6 dB between them. The result indicates
that the magnetic near-field measurement results of 50 ohm MSL using the probe type A
could include the error due to the electric near-field up to 6 dB. Figure 8 shows the
evaluated VH and VE results with same manner as type A. Notable aspect is that the
results for type B has obvious dips around at 3.5 GHz and 9 GHz, which result in
|VH|/|VE| > 6 dB. It has to be noted that these results are based on the 50 ohm MSL and
the results should depend on the impedance of target trace.
Figure 9 shows measurement results of the probe height dependence of |VE| for type B.
The probe height hp is varied from 0.6 mm to 1.4 mm with 0.2 mm step. The results
suggest that the dip frequencies at 3.5 GHz and 9 GHz have been independent from the
height, which means that the dips depend on only the probe characteristic not on the
coupling with the targeting race. Therefore, modeling and design of the probe including
the dip should be able to suppress the effect due to the electric near-field.
80
|VH|
|VH|, |VE| [dBV]
70
60 ≦6dB
|VE|
50
40
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 7. Evaluation results of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|) and by

magnetic near-field (|VH|) for type A
21
80
|VH|
|VH|, |VE| [dBV]

70
≧6dB
60
50
|VE|
40
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 8. Evaluation results of |VH | and |VE| for type B
80
hp = 0.6 mm
70 0.8 mm
|VE | [dBV]
60
50 1.0 mm
1.2 mm
40 1.4 mm
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 9. Probe height dependence of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|)
2.1.2. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Electric Near-field
Lumped element equivalent circuit model of the probe including the MSL to describe the
measured results of VH is created as shown in Figure 10 for probe type A. Electric
near-field coupling to the probe is expressed as capacitive coupling Cs to describe the
electric flux from MSL to the loop element of the probe. The value of Cs was calculated
using Linpar which is the transmission line analysis software based on the method of
momentum (MoM) [21]. The transmission part of the probe is divided into 8 parts of
LCRG ladder of which wavelength is shorter than the one tenth of the wavelength at
upper frequency 10 GHz. Self-inductance at the transmission part and the loop element
22
Lts, Ltg, Lsv, Lsh and Lex are calculated using following equation which is for rectangular
conductor [22]
(2)
where, l is the length, W is the width of conductor and thickness t has to be t << W. Lsv is
the partial inductance for the vertical part of loop element, Lsh is the horizontal part, Lex
is also the partial inductance of the trace connecting the loop with GND via. The
capacitance C and the conductance G are calculated with using Linpar. The coupling
coefficient k1 between signal and GND traces for transmission line and k2 between GNDs
are calculated by three dimensional electromagnetic analysis. Cc is the stray capacitance
between the pad for 50 ohm termination chip resistor (1.6 mm by 0.8 mm) and GND,
which value is calculated as the parallel plate capacitance using the pad size. Lc is the
parasitic inductance of SMA connector for the connection to the cable and the value is
obtained from impedance measurement result of the connector itself.
microstrip line
50
loop
Lsv Rsv Cc
transmission line
8 ladder Lex Lsh

k2 Ltg Rtg k2 Ltg Rtg
Rex Rsh
k1 Ct Gt k1 Ct Gt
Cs
Lts Rts Lts Rts
k1 k1 Lsh Lsh
Ct Gt Ct Gt
Rtg Rsh Rsh

Ltg Ltg Rtg
Lsv Rsv
50 VE 0 dBm 50 Lc
connector
network analyzer
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of equivalent circuit for electric near-field (type A)
23
Figure 11 shows the equivalent circuit for type B. Type B has the shielded loop which is
different from type A. Therefore, the capacitance and conductance Cl and Gl for loop
element have been added. Other elements for the loop Lsv, Lgv, Lsh and Lgh are calculated
using the equation (2) same as type A. Also since the shielded GND of the loop is close to
the MSL, the capacitance between the shielding and the MSL is considered as Cg. These
Cl, Gl and Cg are calculated using also the Linpar. Table 1 shows the derived values for
each parameter.
microstrip line
loop 50
Lgv Rgv
k1
Cl Gl Cc
k2 Rsv Cg
Lsv
transmission line Rgh k1 Cl Gl Cg
8 ladder Rgh
Lgh
Rgh Lgv Rgv
k2 Ltg Rtg k2 Ltg Rtg
Lgh
Lgh
Cs
k1 Ct Gt k1 Ct Gt
Lsh Lgh
Lts Rts Lts Rts Rgh Rgh
k1 Ct Gt k1 Gt Lgv Rgv Cg
Ct k1
Ltg Rtg Cl Gl Lgh
Ltg Rtg k2 Rsv
Lgh Lsv
Rsh k1 Cl Gl Cg
Rgh
Lgv Rgv
50 VE 0 dBm 50 Lc
connector
network analyzer
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of equivalent circuit for electric near-field (type B)
24
Table 3 Derived parameters

Type A Type B Type A Type B
Lsv 0.35nH 0.42nH Lts 0.68nH 0.66nH
Rsv 9.6mΩ 4.4mΩ Ltg 0.33nH 0.57nH
Lsh 0.14nH 0.16nH Ct 0.16pF 0.14pF
Rsh 4.8mΩ 2mΩ Gt 56kΩ 62kΩ
Lex 0.24nH - Rts 7mΩ 6.2mΩ
Lgv - 0.35nH Rtg 0.5mΩ 1.8mΩ
Rgv - 0.9mΩ Cs 0.02pF 0.02pF
Lgh - 0.13nH Cg - 0.01pF
Rgh - 0.6mΩ Cc 0.5pF
Cl - 0.1pF Lc 3nH
Gl - 88kΩ k1 0.51 0.57
k2 0.58 0.42
Calculated results of VE using the equivalent circuit model described above are compared
with measured results in Figure 12 and Figure 13 for types A and B, respectively. A
notable aspect in these results is that the calculation for type A has no dip although that
for type B does due to the resonance around 4.2 GHz and 8.8 GHz, which shows good
correlation with measurements. However, the measured dips are 3.6 GHz and 9.1 GHz,
which are slightly different from the calculations. It is considered that the accuracy for
these dips can be improved by considering the frequency dependency of permittivity of the
board or by considering the parasitic parameters for the via between signal trace and
GND.
80
70
|VE|[dBV]
60
50
40 measurement
calculation
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 12. Calculation and measurement results of |VE| for type A
25
80
measurement
70 calculation
|VE|[dBV]
60
50
40
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 13. Calculation and measurement result of |VE| for type B
2.1.3. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Magnetic Near-field
Next, the equivalent circuit for the calculation of induced voltage due to the magnetic
near-field VH is studied. Figure 14 and Figure 15 show the equivalent circuit for type A
and B respectively. The values for parasitic parameters are all same as the equivalent
circuit as described. The induced voltage at loop due to the magnetic flux is expressed as
Vloop. The induced voltage e can be described using the magnetic flux across the loop  as e
= -d/dt. In the static state at AC, phasor expression is as follows using angular frequency
,
(3)
It can be also expressed as
(4)
where,  is permeability, S is the loop area. However, since the magnetic flux across the
loop is not uniform, the distribution of magnetic field has to be considered for accurate
calculation.
26
loop
transmission line Lsv Rsv
8 ladder Lex Lsh
Ltg Rtg Ltg Rtg Rex Rsh

k2 k2
VH 50 k1 Ct Gt k1 Ct Gt Vloop
Lts Rts Lts Rts Lsh

k1 k1 Lsh
Ct Gt Ct Gt
Rsh Lsv Rsv Rsh
Ltg Rtg Ltg Rtg
Figure 14. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type A)
loop Lgv
k1
k2 Cl Gl
Lsv Rsv
transmission line Rgh k1 Cl Gl
8 ladder Lgh Rgh
Rgh Lgv
Ltg Rtg Ltg Rtg
k2 k2 Lgh Lgh
VH 50 k1 Ct Gt k1 Ct Gt Vloop
Lsh Lgh
Lts Rts Lts Rts Rgh Rgh
k1 Ct Gt k1 Ct Gt Lgv
k1 Lgh
Ltg Rtg Ltg Rtg Cl Gl
Lgh k2 Rsv
Rsh Lsv
Rgh k1 Cl Gl
Lgv
Figure 15. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type B)
2.1.3.1. Effective Height for Magnetic Near-field Measurement
Because the loop is placed very close to the target current, the magnetic field in the loop is
not uniform as shown in Figure 16. The distributed field must be considered for accurate
calculation. In this study, considering the signal and return current as shown in Figure 16,
the total magnetic flux with consideration of such non uniform field is calculated and the
height which gives same total flux without consideration of non-uniform field is defined as
effective probe height heff derived from following equation.
27
(5)
where, a is the distance between the bottom of loop and signal current, b is the distance
between top of loop and the signal current, w is the distance between signal current and
return current. For this calculation, it assumed that the target trace length is long enough
than the probe height and the magnetic field H from the current I is calculated using the
relation H = I/2r. From the equation, heff can be expressed as
(6)
Figure 17 shows the calculation result of heff with w = 0.3 mm, loop size is 1 mm by 1 mm
using equation (6) comparing the height of loop center hcenter. The calculated heff is 0.4 mm
when a is 0.1 mm while the hcenter is 0.6 mm, which difference is almost 30 %. This result
indicate that consideration of field distribution inside loop avoid the error 30 %.
height
Magnetic a b
field
w
MSL current
Figure 16. height dependence for magnetic near-field inside loop
28
Effective height: heff [mm]

Loop center: hcenter
1 hcenter
0.5
heff
0.1
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5
Loop height: a [mm]
Figure 17. Calculation result of effective measurement height (heff) with loop center height
(hcenter)
By using the heff and the equivalent circuit, induced voltage due to the magnetic field VH
are calculated as shown in Figure 18 and Figure 19 for types A and B, respectively. Both
results show good correlations, and the maximum difference is 5 dB around 7.5 GHz for
both types. Since the difference is observed at higher frequency, it could be caused by
unconsidered parameters such impedance mismatching at the connector.
80
70
|VH| [dBV]
60
50
40 measurement
calculation
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 18. Calculation and measurement result of induced voltage by magnetic near-field
(|VH|) for type A
29
80
70
|VH| [dBV]
60
50
40
measurement
calculation
30
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 19. Calculation and measurement result of induced voltage by magnetic near-field
(|VH|) for type B
2.1.4. Application of Position Signal Difference Method
The spatial resolution of magnetic near-field measurement depends on the loop size of
probe. It is obvious that the smaller size of loop can measure the field with higher spatial
resolution. However, as described, the probe characteristics rely on its structure and it is
complicated due to many parasitic parameters. Therefore it is not efficient to fabricate
probes for the specific spatial resolution required for each measurement. Here new
measurement technique to control spatial resolution without fabricating probes on the
basis of position/signal difference (PSD) method is described. PSD method can be done by
subtracting two measured results obtained at two different probe heights as shown in
Figure 20, which method has been proposed by Kantor and Shvets for electric field
measurement [19]. It can be applied for magnetic near-field measurement by following
assumption. When the loop area at probe height A defined as S1, induced voltage due to
the magnetic field across the loop depends on the S1. With slight shift z of probe and
considering the magnetic field across the loop S2, subtracted results can be separately
described as S1 and S2 as shown in Figure 20 since the common loop area SC disappear.
This can be express as following equations.
(7)
30
2.
d Measurem
ments
S2
∆S2
SC
S1
∆z
Poosition A Position B ∆S1
F
Figure 20. Schematicc diagram oof spatial re
esolution im
mprovement method
In the equatioon, the induced voltage due to the S2 can be neglected w
when it is sm
maller
enoough than th
he induced voltage
v due to the S1. The
T ratio of these
t induceed voltages due
d to
S1 and S2 is shown
s in Fig h various z from 30 m to 500 m w
gure 21 with with the condition
tha
at the probe height is fix
xed to 0.1mm
m and the loo
op size is 1 mm m which is same as
m by 1mm
typ
pe A and B.. The targett trace lenggth is assum h than the probe
med to be longer enough
heiight in this calculation.
c The figure ssuggests tha n 17 dB for z = 30
at the ratio is more than
m and 13 dB even for z = 500 m. T
m Therefore, it is suggested
d that negleecting the efffect of
S2 can be lesss than 2 dB, which is litttle effect forr the measurrements.
Figure 21. Calcula

ation resultts of induced atio for ∆S1 tto ∆S2
d voltage ra
Th
he PSD meth
hod is then applied
a to a
actual magne
etic near-fie
eld measurem
ment for the
e first
tim
me. The fabrricated prob
be type B w
was used forr the measu
urement. Th
he target wa
as the
sam m-wide signal trace. The probe heeight was fix
me MSL as above that had a 500- xed to
0.1 osition, and  z was set to
1 mm for thee original po t 30 m, wh
hich is the coondition in which
w
31
the ratio of S1 to S2 is 17 dB. The probe manipulator used for the measurement was
EMV-200 from Peritec, Inc. (formerly Hitachi Displays, Inc.). The positioning accuracy of
the manipulator is within 4 m, which is sufficiently small and accurate enough for this
measurement.
Figure 22 shows the measurement results of magnetic near-field using the probe type B
with and without applying the PSD. The results are normalized to the peak value at
position = 0 mm. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) without PSD is 2.4 mm, and it
was improved to 1.4 mm by applying the PSD, which is a 40 % improvement. Also, the
result with PSD shows good agreement with the result calculated with a 30 m loop. By
applying the PSD, the effective probe height heff in Figure 17 improved from 0.9 mm for the
original to 0.53 mm with PSD. This indicates that equivalent loop size is miniaturized by
using the PSD method. By employing the PSD method, the spatial resolution can be
controlled by changing the probe shift value, and this enables the equivalent loop size in
one-time near-field scanning to be varied depending on the portion of target PCB.
1 With
Original subtraction
Normalized amplitude
0.5
0.1
0.05
:Calculation
:Measurement
0.01
-1 0 1
Position [mm]
Figure 22. Comparison between calculation and measurement using type B with/without
applying subtraction
2.2. Measurement-Based Modeling of Dual Loop Magnetic Near-field Probe
The error due to background electromagnetic fluctuations is not problematic for

measurements of single PCBs or LSI circuits because experiments are generally
performed in shielding chambers and a manipulator is sometimes used to scan the probe
across the surface of the device being tested. Furthermore, other devices in the vicinity of
the device being tested are turned off when performing measurements in a shielding
chamber; this ensures relatively low background noise to enable accurate measurements
32
2.
d Measurem
ments
to b
be performeed.
Hoowever, in actual systems that ccontain man
ny electroniic devices (e.g., autom
motive
hicles), it is usually extrremely difficcult to opera
veh ate just one device due tto the comp
plexity
of the system. Consequen
ntly, in maggnetic-near field measu
urements off actual sysstems,
agnetic field
ma ds from other devicess besides the
t target device coulld cause crritical
meeasurement errors. For hybrid electtric vehicles, the main electronics
e (w
which includ
de the
verter and/or converter)) generate h
inv high magnetic fields around the sysstem, which could
ressult in inacccurate meassurements a n Figure 23. Shielding the probe is
as shown in i one
pottential way to overcom
me this probllem. Howev
ver, a shield
ding conducttor can adve
ersely
afffect the senssitivity and the
t spatial rresolution off the probe, especially
e att high freque
encies,
and an improp
perly design
ned probe coould reduce
e the quality
y of measurrements. An
nother
sollution is to use
u a probe that
t has twoo coils conne
ected in seriies with oppoosite polaritties to
preevent disturrbance from
m a distant source, wh
hich gives high
h immun
nity only ag
gainst
bacckground magnetic
m distturbance [4] . This techn
nique uses a simpler proobe. Howeve
er, the
proobe design has
h not been
n investigateed sufficientlly.
In this section ures, namely two
n, the invesstigation on two probess with differrent structu
sep
parate and serially connected feerrite-core coils is de We studied them
escribed. W
exp
perimentally
y and theo
oretically too understan
nd the details of maagnetic nearr-field
meeasurementss and to dete
ermine the ooptimal prob
be design.
Fig
gure 23. Schematic oof problem in actual ap
pplication
33
2.2.1. Fabricated Probes for Evaluation
Two different probe structures were prototyped and evaluated. Figure 24 schematically
depicts the two probes. Probe A in the figure consists of two ferrite-core coils stacked
vertically, while probe B has a coil with two cores that are positioned adjacent to each
other. In both probes, the two coils are serially connected. The cores are made from ferrite
(HF-90, TDK) and have dimensions of 8.2 mm (thickness) by 20 mm by 20 mm (see Figure
24). In both probes, there is a 5-mm gap between the cores. Three coil turns are made from
wire (AWG 20) with an insulating outer layer. In both probes, two coils are connected in
series to cancel out the voltages induced by magnetic fields from distant sources that
generate a uniform magnetic field (see Figure 25). To determine the magnetic near-field
generated by the current flowing in the target or a conductor, probe A measures the
difference between the voltage induced in the upper and lower coils. Therefore, the
distance to the source of the magnetic near-field is determined by the gap between the two
coils. Probe A generally has a lower sensitivity than probe B since probe B measures the
sum of the voltages induced by the magnetic near-field in the two coils without
subtraction. However, the spatial resolution in the scanning plane is determined by the
gap between the two coils for probe B, whereas the resolution can be controlled by
changing the probe scanning step for probe A. By considering these features of the probes,
an appropriate structure has to be selected based on the required sensitivity and spatial
resolution for a specific application. In this study, two separate cores are used, but a single
core would give a better sensitivity unless the two coils are not balanced.
3 turns Ferrite
20 mm
5 mm 20 mm 3 turns
8.2 mm
20 mm 2 mm
10 mm 10 mm 8.2 mm 5 mm
Probe A Probe B
Figure 24. Schematic structures of two dual loop magnetic near-field probes
34
Magnetic field
disturbance Magnetic near-field
Enclosure
Current PCB
Surface current
(distributed)
Probe A Probe B
Figure 25. Magnetic near-field and far-field coupling to dual loop probes.
The frequency characteristics of the magnetic near-field were measured using a

microstrip line and a network analyzer (8753D, Agilent) (see Figure 26). The
measurement frequency range was 30 kHz to 0.1 GHz, which includes the low-frequency
service bands (e.g., AM and FM) since the present study focuses on large-scale systems
such as automotive systems and such systems often have major problems in low-frequency
bands. The microstrip line board has a 0.5-mm-wide signal line on the top layer and a
GND plane on the back with a 1.6-mm-thick FR-4 board. The two port S-parameters were
measured for an input power of 0 dBm using two probes at the center of the microstrip
line (MSL) board. Probe A contacted the board; thus, the gap between the probe wire and
the MSL signal line is considered to be the same as the wire insulation thickness, which is
less than 1.0 mm. Figure 27 shows the measurement results for a magnitude of S21 for
both probes. As expected, the measurement results indicate that probe B has a better
sensitivity than probe A. The slope at low frequencies is 20 dB/decade, but it decreases
around 10 MHz because the impedance of the probe inductance increases and the voltage
drop at the probe inductance becomes dominant. The two magnetic near-field probes with
canceling structures for distant disturbances exhibit different frequency characteristics.
This difference needs to be explained theoretically and calculations need to be performed
to design an appropriate probe that satisfies the target specifications and to determine
what the probes measure.
35
Network analyzer (8753D)
Port 1 Port 2
Probe
50 ohm termination
Microstrip line
Figure 26. Measurement setup for probe evaluation
-20
-30
Probe B
|S21| [dB]
-40
Probe A
-50
-60
-70
105 106 107 108
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 27. Measurement results of |S21| for probes A and B
2.2.2. Modeling of Probes
Figure 28 shows a simplified equivalent circuit of the probe for the voltage VH induced by
the magnetic near-field across the loop. The induced voltage VH can be expressed as in the
equation (4), VH = e0NSH where S is the area of the loop, N is the number of turns, and H
is the magnetic field strength across the loop. The effective permeability e is a key
parameter for describing the probe characteristics; it can be calculated from the probe
inductance LC using the theoretical expression for the inductance. The probe inductance LC
was first determined from the measurement result for the input impedance obtained
using the S22 parameter. However, the magnetic field distribution around the probe must
be considered in this process.
36
50  Network
analyzer
CS
Probe
VH LC
Figure 28. Equivalent circuit of dual loop magnetic near-field probe
Figure 29 shows a schematic diagram of a probe with magnetic flux across the coil. The
magnetic field distribution when the probe is excited by port 2 of the network analyzer is
assumed to be the same or very similar to that the probe detects for the magnetic
near-field generated by MSL excited by port 1 for probe B. However, the magnetic field
distribution for probe A when it is excited by port 2 (i.e., the magnetic field distribution
when measuring the input impedance of probe) is assumed to differ from that when the
probe measures the magnetic near-field from MSL (see Figure 29). Therefore, the effective
permeability e for calculating VH can be extracted using the probe inductance LC obtained
from the S22 result, just as for probe B. These assumptions regarding the magnetic field
distribution have been confirmed by 3D electromagnetic simulation software HFSS from
ANSYS. The model shown in Figure 30 has been constructed with some simplifications
(e.g., direct excitation of the tracing edge without using a connector). Two ferrite-cored
coils are modeled and set at the same locations as in the measurements. Simulations were
performed at 0.1 GHz for both probes. Figure 31 shows the magnetic field distributions
obtained for the cross-section of the center of the MSL board. As expected, the magnetic
field distributions obtained by exciting the probe (during S22 measurement) and by
exciting the MSL (during S21 measurement) for probe B are very similar, whereas they
clearly differ for probe A.
37
2.
d Measurem
ments
Stimulus source of netwoork

analyzer for S21
S measurem ment
Magnetic field
fi
during S222
measuremeent
PCB Currrent
Probe A Magneticc Probee B

near-fieldd
by target currrent
Figu
ure 29. S
Schematic o magnetic flux paths during
of d S21 and
a S22 meassurements
Figure 30. op magneticc near-field probe

Simulattion model oof a dual loo
Figuree 31. Sim

mulation results for maggnetic near-field distribution duriing S21 and S22
measurem
ments
38
Based on these results, e to obtain the VH can be calculated from the probe inductance LC
just for probe B. Figure 32 shows the frequency dependence of the input impedance of
probe B. Probe B has a calculated inductance LC of 900 nH and a stray capacitance CS
parallel to the inductance of 5 pF. Next, to obtain the induced voltage VH, the effective e
was calculated from the measured LC. Theoretical expressions for the coil inductance are
given below in terms of the core length DL [23].
(8)
where
(9)
With
(10)
(11)
(12)
Here, r is the core radius; it is calculated by assuming that the cross-sectional area of the
rectangular core (20 mm by 8.2 mm) is equal to that of the cylinder core, which has r = 7.2
mm. From these equations and the calculated coil inductance LC = 900 nH, the effective e
was calculated to be 6.4. Using the effective e, the induced voltage VH for probe B was
obtained using equation (1). Figure 33 compares the calculation results obtained using the
effective e with the measurement results. This figure shows a good correlation at
frequencies over 1 MHz. The same approach cannot be applied to probe A since the
magnetic field distributions at the core during S22 measurements (i.e., the input
impedance measurement) and during S21 measurements (i.e., the magnetic near-field
measurement) obviously differ. Therefore, the effective e for a single-core coil is used for
probe A since the dominant magnetic flux path contributing to VH for probe A contains just
one core (see Figure 29 and Figure 31), which is similar to the situation for a single-core
coil. e for a single-core coil can be theoretically obtained, but here it has been obtained
from the input impedance. The obtained e of 6.8 was used to calculate the frequency
dependence of S21 for probe A, as shown in Figure 34. It agrees well with the measurement
39
results except for the resonance near 40 MHz. Generally, the non-uniformity of the
magnetic field across the loop and the effect of electric near-field are major sources of error
in magnetic near-field measurements [16][17]. In this case, the peak around 40 MHz is
considered to be due to the electric near-field because the non-uniformity of the magnetic
field across the loop affects frequencies below 10 MHz, where the slope is 20 dB/decade. In
addition, the difference from the measurement results below 1 MHz is assumed to be due
to the frequency dependence of the effective permeability e. In this study, a constant e
was used in the calculations, whereas in reality it could vary with frequency; we intend to
investigate the frequency dependence of the coil inductance in a future study.
104
Magnitude of impedance []
－: Calculation
3 : Measurement
10
102
101
100
105 106 107 108 109
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 32. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe B
-20
－: Calculation
-30 : Measurement
|S21| [dB]
-40
-50
-60
-70
105 106 107 108
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 33. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe B
40
-20
－: Calculation
-30 : Measurement
|S21| [dB]
-40
-50
-60
-70
105 106 107 108
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 34. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe A
The peak observed around 40 MHz in the frequency response to the magnetic near-field of
probe A is considered to be a resonance due to the electric near-field, which can be
described as capacitive coupling between the coil winding and the signal trace. Figure 35
shows the equivalent circuit for probe A used to calculate the voltage VE induced by
capacitive coupling CC. The coil inductance is divided into two components in order to
consider the capacitive coupling CC. The coil inductance was estimated to be 1.1 H by
fitting the measured input impedance of the probe shown in Figure 36. The parallel
capacitance of the coil CY was estimated to be 10 pF by fitting the measured resonant
frequency at 48 MHz. Figure 37 shows the calculation results of S21 for probe A with
consideration of VE when CC is varied between 0.3 pF and 1 pF; these calculations reveal a
peak at 40 MHz and a dip around 80 MHz, which provide better correlation with the
measurement results. The voltage induced by capacitive coupling becomes comparable to
the voltage induced by the magnetic near-field and significantly affects the result above
the resonant frequency. Thus, it is important to reduce the capacitive coupling by
miniaturizing the probe for high-frequency applications (the present study considers only
low-frequency applications). The remaining disparity from measurements at frequencies
over 40 MHz for probe A is assumed to be due to unconsidered stray capacitance around
the probe and also the frequency dependence of the effective permeability, as described
above. We intend to investigate this in a future study.
41
50  VE
Probe
CY CY
1.1  1.1 
CC
50  Microstrip line
1.41 V 50 
Figure 35. Equivalent circuit for probe A that considers capacitive coupling between the
probe and the microstrip line
105
Magnitude of impedance []
－: Calculation
104 : Measurement
103
102
101
100
105 106 107 108 109
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 36. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe A
-20
CC = 1 pF
-30 0.5 pF
|S21| [dB]
-40
0.3 pF
-50
-60 Measurement
-70
105 106 107 108
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 37. Comparison of calculation and measurement results for |S21| for probe A when
the electric near-field is considered
With the configuration shown in Figure 38, the calculations of probe scanning over 1 mA
current for different probe structures studied above have been conducted comparing with
42
the result by conventional single loop. The source as disturbance is considered as 100 mA
at 1 meter away from the targeting current. Figure 39 shows the calculated results for
different probe structures. The results without disturbance give obvious peak around
center. However, in the results with disturbance, the result for single conventional loop
shows the deterioration of signal-to-noise ratio clearly, which could lead to incorrect result.
As demonstrated such typical calculation, the probes investigated in this section can be
advantageous for the measurement under strong magnetic disturbances.
Probe A Probe B scan

100 mA(source of disturbance)
Hx1
Probe
Hx2 Hz1 Hz2 1000mm 500mm
z 1mA 1mA 1mA
x GND plane
x=0
Figure 38. Configuration of calculation for different probe type
without disturbance with disturbance
 40  40
Single loop
 60  60
Level [dBm]
Level [dBm]
 80  80
Single loop
 100  100 Probe A
Probe B Probe A Probe B
 120  120
 100  80  60  40  20 0 20 40 60 80 100  100  80  60  40  20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Probe position [mm] Probe position [mm]
Figure 39. Comparison of calculated scanned results between probes
2.3. Modeling and Improvement of Electric Near-field Measurements
Electric near-field measurements using a scanning system were first published by Barrett
and Barnes in 1950 [24]. Since then, major research topics have included sensitivity
improvements and extension of such measurements to higher frequencies [25]-[28].
Besides these, an electro-optic probe has been proposed for frequencies above 1 GHz [29].
One of the most important parameters for electric near-field measurements is the
43
broadband spatial resolution. As described in introduction, due to the continually

increasing levels of integration of electrical components, higher spatial resolutions are
required also for electric near-field measurements [30]-[32]. In this section, quantitative
model of electric near-field measurements is proposed. On the basis of that, various
techniques to improve the measurements in terms of spatial resolution are described.
2.3.1. Introduction of Position/Signal Difference Method
The spatial resolution in electric near-field measurements is basically determined by the

size and structure of the probe. However, the required spatial resolution is typically not
the same over the entire surface of the target device; dense regions require a higher
resolution than sparse regions. Therefore, different probes need to be prepared for
different requirements, which is not a very efficient approach. In addition, miniaturized
probes such as those fabricated using semiconductor processes are difficult to
manufacture. To overcome these difficulties, the probe/signal difference (PSD) method
proposed by Kantor and Shvets can be used [19][20]. This method achieves higher spatial
resolution by subtracting measurement results obtained at two different probe heights
above the target surface. Near-field measurements at an arbitrary resolution can be
achieved by varying the heights of the two measurements. One advantage of this method
is that the probe does not need to be physically miniaturized in order to obtain a high
spatial resolution. Only fine control of the probe height is required, which allows the use
of a single conventional monopole probe during measurements, leading to greater
simplicity and efficiency. However, there are still some issues that need to be addressed
with regard to the PSD method. First, the theoretical mechanism needs to be clarified
quantitatively. Since the measurements are made in the electric near-field region, the
probe characteristics must be described based on near-field considerations. Second, the
extracting process of the polarization of the measured electric near-field also needs to be
studied. Although a method has been proposed [19] that allows extraction of the normal
and tangential electric field components, theoretical support and validation studies are
still insufficient. We have proposed and validate a PSD method for carrying out
high-spatial-resolution magnetic near-field measurements using a small loop probe, and
have provided a theoretical validation for this method in section 2.1.
In this section, electric near-field measurements using the PSD method are carried out
based on capacitive coupling considerations between the probe and target device. The PSD
method is then extended to a double position/signal difference (DPSD) method that allows
the normal and tangential components of the electric near-field to be separately
44
2.
d Measurem
ments
dettermined. The
T proposed
d method is validated both
b experim
mentally and
d using full-wave
sim
mulations.
2.3.11.1. Probe Structure and

a Theoryy of Propossed Double Position/SSignal
Differeence Metho
od
Th
he electric neear-field pro abricated ussing a three-layer
obe used in tthe present study was fa
B) as shown in Figure 40
priinted circuitt board (PCB 0. The PCB was
w made frrom FR-4. Th
he 1st
and 3rd layerss contain a 2-mm-wide ground, an
nd the 2nd layer
l contaiins a signal trace
witth a width of
o 0.28 mm and
a a thickn ut 50 m. Alll the conducctors are ma
ness of abou ade of
cop
pper. The len
ngth of the probe tip is 1 mm, and this is the part that deetects the ellectric
nea
ar-field. Theere is a gap
p of 0.35 mm
m between the
t probe tip
p and the eedge of the signal
s
tra
ace. The thicckness of th
he FR-4 diellectric layer is 0.3 mm, which givess a characte
eristic
5  for the transmissioon line. The length of th
impedance of 50 he transmisssion line is 34 mm
and it is conneected to the cable
c SMA cconnector.
Fig
gure 40. Schematic structure
s off printed mo
onopole elecctric near-fiield probe
Th
he PSD meth
hod is a posst-processingg method th
hat uses two
o different eelectric nearr-field
meeasurementss obtained at different p ning system has a
probe heightts. A typical probe scann
ma
anipulator th
hat is capab
ble of high-rresolution po
ositioning in
n the heightt direction, which
w
allows the twoo different heights to be precisely se
et. Assuming
g that the fiirst measure
ement
is m
made at possition A and the second m
measuremen
nt at position B in Figurre 41, subtra
acting
thee second meeasurement from the firrst gives the
e difference due to the eelectric nearr-field
dettected only by e tip. The coontributions from other parts of thee probe effecctively
b the probe
can
ncel out sin ht upward sshift of the probe has little
nce the sligh l effect except in th
he tip
45
region.
Figure 41 illustrates the electric near-field coupling between the probe tip and the target
conductor (e.g., circuit board trace). The electric near-field that the probe measures
contains both normal and tangential components. The PSD method mainly measures the
coupling between the probe tip and the target conductor, which is considered to reflect the
normal electric near-field component. Considering this coupling to be capacitive, the
measured electric current I due to the electric near-field can be expressed as [26]
(13)
where C is the capacitance between the probe tip and the target conductor, and A is a
probe constant. In Eq. (14), the measured current includes a dependency on a
probe-structure related constant. However, if the same probe is being used for the
measurements, the constant A is fixed, and the capacitance is the only variable. The
currents measured at two different probe heights I1 and I2 are then expressed in Eq. (2),
where the different capacitances are illustrated in Figure 42.
(14)
Cz1 is the capacitance between the target and the probe tip, which is related to the normal
component of the electric near-field. Cxa and Cxb are the capacitances between the sides of
the probe and the target, and are assumed to be related to the tangential component. Cxa is
associated only with the tip region of the probe that is shifted between measurements. In
contrast, Cxb is associated with side regions of the probe other than the lower tip region,
and is assumed to be unchanged between measurements. Thus, in the second
measurement, Cxa disappears and only Cxb remains. By applying the PSD method, the Cxb
component is removed, so that only the terms Cz1-Cz2 and Cxa remain, as shown in Eq. (16)
and Figure 42.
(15)
Here, Cz1-Cz2 is related to the normal component of the electric near-field, whereas Cxa is
considered to be related to the tangential component. Since the difference in probe height
46
2.
d Measurem
ments
bettween the tw
wo measurem
ments is suffficiently sm
mall to regard
d Cxb as bein
ng unchange
ed, Cxa
is a
also expecteed to be very
y small so th
hat the term Cz1-Cz1 domiinates.
Probe
GND
Signal
h
Targett
h=0
Original P
Position A Position B Subtractted
Figure 41. Scchematic of position/sig

gnal differen
nce method
d
Figurre 42. Ca
apacitive cou
uplings to tthe probe in
n position/signal differeence method
d
Neext, in orderr to obtain the

t tangenttial compone
ent of the electric
e nearr-field, the DPSD
D
meethod is prop
posed. This method sim
mply involve
es subtractin
ng the PSD result (I1-I2) from
thee measured current I2 att position B..
(16
6)
Ba
ased on the assumption
a that Cxa and
d Cxb are botth related to the tangent
ntial component of
thee electric near-field,
n the
t normal componentt can be eliminated w
when 2·Cz2-Cz1 is
neg
gligibly sm
mall. Since these capa
acitances arre determin
ned by thee probe he
eights,
meeasurementss can be carrried out witth a suitablle choice of probe
p heigh
hts to ensure
e that
2·C
Cz2-Cz1 is neegligibly sm
mall. One oof advantag
ges of this method iss that only
y two
meeasurementss are require
ed, which is also the casse for the PS
SD method.
47
2.3.1.2. Measurements and Validation of PSD and DPSD Method
Actual measurements were next carried out using a fabricated printed monopole probe.
The measurement setup is shown in Figure 43. A network analyzer (Agilent 8753D) was
used, connecting port 1 to the microstrip line and port 2 to the probe to measure the S21
characteristics. A microstrip line was used as the target, and had a 500-m-wide trace
with a 50  characteristic impedance and a 50  chip resistor termination. The probe was
manipulated by a probe scanning system specially designed for near-field measurements.
The S21 measurements were made at two different probe heights of h = 0 mm and 0.35 mm
at a frequency of 1 GHz. The probe scanning pitch was 0.063 mm. Figure 44 shows the S21
magnitude normalized by the maximum value at h = 0 mm. It can be seen that the
measurement results at h = 0 mm appear narrower than those at h = 0.35 mm, which is
reasonable. Both the PSD and DPSD methods were then applied, and the results are
shown in Figure 45. Based on the assumptions described above, the PSD results represent
the distribution of the normal component of the electric near-field and the DPSD results
represent the tangential component distribution.
Network analyzer (8753D)
Port 1 Port 2
Probe
50 
Microstrip line termination
Figure 43. Setup for electric near-field measurement
48
0.8
0.6
h = 0 mm
0.4 h = 0.35 mm
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Position
Position[mm]
[m]
Figure 44. Normalized magnitude of induced voltage at h = 0 and 0.35 mm
1
0.8
0.6 PSD
DPSD
0.4
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Position
Position[mm]
[m]
Figure 45. PSD and DPSD results
Three-dimensional full-wave electromagnetic simulations were performed in order to

validate the measurement results. The simulation model is shown in Figure 46. The
simulation software used was HFSS from ANSYS. The physical dimensions of the model
are exactly the same as those for the actual board.
Figure 47 shows a comparison between the measurement results for a probe height h =
0.35 mm, the edge of signal trace height is 0.7 mm, and the simulation results for a
position 0.7 mm above the trace. It can be seen that is reasonably good agreement
between them, which validates the concept that the measurement results contain both
normal and tangential components of the electric near-field. Figure 48 shows a
comparison between the experimental PSD applied results and simulated results for the
normal component of the electric field. Again, good agreement is obtained. Figure 49
shows a comparison between the experimental DPSD applied results and simulated
49
2.
d Measurem
ments
ressults, which confirms th

hat the tangeential compo
onent can be
e extracted aas predicted using
thee proposed DPSD
D meth
hod. Moreoveer, in order to conduct the quantittative compa
arison
witth simulated
d results, fe
eature selecttive validatiion (FSV) has been useed for the re
esults.
FS
SV is the alg
gorithm to show how coorrelate betw
ween two results by usin
ing score [33
3][34].
Fig
gure 50 show
ws the FSV applied ressults for eacch PSD/DPSD applied rresults comp
paring
witth simulateed results ab
bove. GDM tot is the score representing the correlation
n. The
ressults suggest that it give
es good correelation altho
ough the res
sults for origginal and PS
SD are
rellatively better.
Figuree 46. HFS

SS simulatiion model off microstrip
p line for ele
ectric near-ffield analyssis
1
:Simulationn
0
0.8 :Measuremment
0
0.6
0
0.4
0
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Position [mm]
Position [[m]
Figu
ure 47. M
Measured an
nd simulated
d magnitud
de of electricc near-field componentt
50
1
:Simulation
0.8 :Measurement
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Position[mm]
Position [m]
Figure 48. PSD applied result and simulated normal component of electric near-field
1
:Simulation
:Measurement
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Position
Position[mm]
[m]
Figure 49. DPSD applied result and simulated tangential component of electric near-field
51
2.
d Measurem
ments
Figuree 50. FSV

V applied reesults for sim
mulated and PSD/DPS
SD
Fig
gure 51 givees the PSD applied
a resu
ults with diffferent probe heights shoown in the figure.
f
It a
also includes the norma ed by HFSS simulation at h =
al componentt of electric field obtaine
h1. It clearly shows
s that the
t changin ht of h1 related to the eelectric nearr-field
ng the heigh
heiight.
Figure 51. PSD

D applied results with d
different probe heights
s comparingg to simulatted
normal coomponent of
o electric field
2.3.22. Accuratte Modeling

g with Frin
nge Capacittance
As described in previous section,

s elecctric near-fie
eld measurem
ment can bee expressed using
52
2.
d Measurem
ments
cap
pacitive coup
pling model. In this secction, quantiitative fringe capacitancce model bettween
thee probe and target trace is describeed. The prob
be and measurement seetup used fo
or the
moodeling and validations are shown iin Figure 52 yered printeed circuit board is
2. A three-lay
useed for the monopole
m ellectric near--field probe.. The surfacce layers haave a 2-mm
m-wide
groound and th
he inner laye
er has a sign
nal elementt tip, which is 0.28-mm wide, 1-mm
m long
and 18-m th
hick. The conductors arre made of copper and the substraate is FR-4
4 with
0.3
3-mm between the layerrs. The prob
be is connectted to port 2 of network
k analyzer 8753D
8
and the microsstrip line (M
MSL) with a 5
50-ohm term
mination is connected to port 1 durin
ng the
meeasurementss. The freque
ency respon se of S21 is th
hen observed
d at 1 GHz w
with scannin
ng the
proobe along th
he x-axis, as
a shown in Fig. 1, at 0.1-mm step
ps. The meaasurements were
perrformed at various
v be heights too obtain the
prob e PSD-proce
essed result IPSD based on
o the
folllowing defin
nition of PSD
D.
(17
7)
wh
here the mea e is expresseed as electricc current based on the cconsideration
asured value n that
ue to the el ectric near-field . The probe heigh
thee current is induced du ht hp for I1 in
i the
nd the heig
meeasurementss is fixed to 0 mm, an ght for I2 is
s set to hp + dp, wherre the
dissplacement dp is varied from
f 0.1 to 0
0.7 mm.
Figurre 52. Prrobe and settup for PSD

D/DPSD mea
asurementss
gure 53 sh
Fig hows an example
e of the PSD-p
processed results
r for different probe
dissplacements dp. It can be seen that the full wid
dth at half maximum
m (FW
FWHM) wfw, which
w
is generally used
u to eva
aluate the sspatial resolution of th
he measureements, is varied
v
dep
pending on the dp. Sincce the dp is the key parrameter for PSD, it is vvery importa
ant to
un
nderstand th
his aspect.
53
Normalized amplitude of IPSD

dp = 0.1 mm
0.8 0.4 mm
0.7 mm
0.6 wfw
0.4
0.2 Microstrip line
0
-1 0 1
x-position [mm]
Figure 53. PSD measurement results with changing shift parameter dp at 1 GHz
We assume the amplitude of the signal detected by the probe can be described by focusing
on several of the fringe capacitances, as shown in Figure 54. The figure shows the
definitions of the capacitance between each portion of the probe tip and the trace, where Cs
is the capacitance between the side of probe and the surface of the trace and Cb is between
the bottom of the probe and the side of the trace. These fringe capacitances are calculated
using the following equations [35].
(18)
where,
(19)
where Wp is the width of the probe tip (0.28 mm),  is the permeability, s is the separation
of the probe from the trace edge, and h is the probe height. Le is the length of the probe tip
element (1 mm) for the calculation of Cs and the thickness of MSL (50 m) for Cb, Wm is
the trace width of MSL (0.5 mm) for Cs and the thickness of the probe element (18 m) for
Cb. Therefore, Cs and Cb can be calculated as
(20)
54
2.
d Measurem
ments
Cf is the capaccitance betw

ween the co rners of the
e probe tip and the traace, which can be
pressed as foollows [35].
exp
(21
1)
gure 55 indicates the calculated FW

Fig WHM using the
t fringe ca
apacitance m
model above while
com
mparing it to
t the meassurement reesults with different
d dp. The differeence betwee
en the
callculated and
d measured results is w
within 13%, which is a good
g correlaation. The no
otable
pect is that selecting a greater
asp g dp va
alue makes the spatial resolution
r w
worse for PSD
D due
to the increasee in fringe capacitance b
between the
e probe elem
ment and thee trace. It iss clear
froom the equattions above that
t this frin ance depends on not onlyy the shape of the
nge capacita
proobe tip but also
a the dime
ensions of th
he targeting trace. There mportant to select
efore, it is im
er to obtain the require
an appropriatee dp in orde ed spatial re
esolution wiith respect to
t the
nest trace in the device under
fin u testin g, which can
n be derived using the m
model addresssed.
Figure 54. Fringe capacitance model betw

ween probe element
e and
d trace
55
Full widh at half maximum wfw[mm]

1.5
Calculation
1
Measurement
0.5
wfw
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Displacement dp [mm]
Figure 55. Calculated FWHM wfw compared to measurements with various dp
2.3.3. Proposal and Validation of Improved PSD Method
It was revealed that the fringe capacitance between the probe element and target is the
factor that causes the degradation of the spatial resolution discussed in the previous
section. Since the fringe capacitance to the side of the probe is considered to correspond to
the tangential component of the electric near-field, it is important to use a smaller dp
displacement value for the measurement of the normal component of an electric field.
However, the limit of the finer displacement is normally decided due to the performance of
the manipulation hardware and its repeatability/stability, e.g., the probe manipulator
used for this study can handle a displacement value dp down to 100 m in order to
maintain good repeatability. Therefore, it is required to eliminate the fringe capacitance
without needing the finer displacements of probe. The new measurement technique for
eliminating the fringe capacitance is proposed in this section. Figure 56 shows the
procedure for taking the measurements. It requires two sets of PSD results obtained by
using the same displacement dp, which are defined as IPSD1 and IPSD2. When taking into
account that the remaining fringe capacitance Ca is nearly equal to Cb, only the
capacitances related to the normal component remain by subtracting IPSD2 from IPSD1, as
can be determined using the following equation.
(22)
where I1, I2, and I3 are the measured results at different probe heights. The fringe
capacitance to the corner of the probe tip is neglected since it is sufficiently small. As in
56
2.
d Measurem
ments
thee equation, this method

d can be proocessed usin
ng the three
e sets of ressults I1, I2, and
a I3
acq
quired using
g the same displacemen
d nts dp. The processed res
sult when ussing the pro
oposed
meethod is shoown in Figu
ure 57 (b) w
with the com
mparison to
o convention
nal PSD an
nd the
norrmal component of elecctric field Ez obtained by
y electromag
gnetic simullation at z = 0.35
mm
m as defined
d in Figure 57 (a), wheere dp was set
s to 0.1 mm for IPSD1 aand IPSD2 an
nd the
sep
paration of the
t probe tiip from the trace was 0.35
0 mm. It is obvious tthat the pro
oposed
meethod shows better matcching with tthe simulate
ed Ez than th
he conventioonal PSD wiithout
usiing the finerr displaceme
ents of probee. The only disadvantag
d e of using th
his method is that
thee signal leveel is also red
duced by thee repeated su
ubtractions, but this woould not beco
ome a
serrious problem
m since the field of interrest is norm
mally strong for EMC app
plications.
Figure 56.
5 Proceedure of pro
oposed meth
hod
Figure 57. (a) Deefinitions of parameterss and (b) Co

omparison between
b con
nventional PSD
P
an d proposed method
57
2.3.4. Role of Probe Displacement (dp) for DPSD
Since the probe displacement dp is a common parameter for PSD and DPSD, it is very
important to understand its meaning and effect not only for PSD but also for DPSD. The
DPSD measurement results can be obtained by using the process in the following
equation along with the same definitions as in Eq. (1).
(23)
DPSD is also the post process for eliminating the normal component of the electric
near-field coupling between the probe tip and targeting trace, and the fringe capacitance
remains. Therefore, we believe changing the probe displacement dp is equivalent to
changing the measurement height of the tangential electric field. This assumption is
verified by comparing the DPSD processed results at different dp to the tangential
component of electric field Ex obtained from an electromagnetic simulation at the
corresponding heights. The results are shown in Figure 58, where the definition of the
parameter is as shown in Figure 59 (a). In order to compare these results, the
peak-to-peak distances dt as shown in the inset of Figure 59 (b) were evaluated as one
feature parameter and summarized in Figure 59 (b). From this comparison, the change in
probe displacement dp provides a good correlation to the change in observation height for a
tangential electric field Ex.
p of IDPSD
Normalized amplitude of IDPSD
Normalized amplitude of IDPSD
1 1 1
Measured Ex obtained
0.8 by DPSD by simulation 0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2

MSL
0 0 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x-position [mm] x-position [mm] x-position [mm]
Figure 58. DPSD measurement results at different dp comparing to Ex obtained by

electromagnetic simulation. (a) dp = 0.1 mm, Ex at z = 0.45 mm (b) dp = 0.4 mm, Ex at
z = 0.75 mm (c) dp = 0.7 mm, Ex at z = 1.05 mm
58
2.
d Measurem
ments
Figure 59. (a) Configuratio

C on for measu
urements and simulatiion
arison of peak-to-peak distance dt between measurementts at variou
(b) Compa us dp
and
d simulation
n results
59
3. Modeling and Analysis of Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure
3. Modeling and Analysis of

Radiation from PCB-Chassis
Structure
Several techniques and design guidelines have been developed for reducing
electromagnetic interference (EMI), especially for printed circuit boards (PCBs). Such
techniques are based on the characterization of noise sources, paths, and radiation
[36]–[40]. However, in product development of electronic devices, electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) problems that exceed these requirements/regulations at the system
level are sometimes encountered even when each component has been designed properly
based on EMC design guidelines or rules. Such system-level problems are generally found
at a very late stage in product development and can thus cause major problems in terms of
the timing and/or cost of product launching [41]. Some of the most important components
that need to be accounted for when considering the system-level EMC behavior are GND
connections between a PCB and an enclosure or a metal chassis since they can increase
the radiation [42][43]. Several approaches have been studied to reduce or minimize
emission in order to overcome system grounding problems [44]–[46]. Grounding
configurations also affect the immunity performance [47], [48]. A rapid, quantitative
design method based on characterization of PCB–chassis systems is required to
implement all EMC considerations for complex circuit and grounding structures. In this
chapter, specially designed current probe to determine the contributions of the GND
current to the radiation is proposed followed by the measurements of radiation from
PCB-chassis structure which is the typical configuration of integrated components as
indicated in table 2. Then the analytical modeling to clarify and understand the radiation
behavior as well as the guideline to lower the radiation is studied.
3.1. Radiation from PCB-Chassis Structure
A 3.5” hard disk drive with a PCB mounting on its chassis was used for these
measurements (Figure 60). The chassis has dimensions of 147 mm (length) × 102 mm
(width) × 22 mm (thickness), while the PCB is 93 mm in width and 47 mm in length. The
spacing between the PCB and the chassis is approximately 1 mm, although the chassis
surface is not perfectly flat. The PCB used for the measurements has a specially designed
60
circuit for the experiment that simulates typical problems that are likely to occur in an
actual product. The circuit is schematically depicted in Figure 61 and has a 10-MHz
crystal and an oscillator, as well as high-speed buffers (74AC541). Bypass capacitors
between the power supply and GND are located close to the buffers and the connector of
the power supply harness to suppress power bus noise. The PCB is a four-layered board
that consists of a top layer for mounting components, GND, Vcc, and a bottom layer as
shown in Figure 62. The spacing between the GND and Vcc layers is 0.15 mm, while the
spacings between the GND and top layers and between the Vcc and bottom layers are 0.22
mm. An external battery is connected to supply 5 V through a 90 mm long twisted wire
harness clamped with common-mode chokes to eliminate its contribution to the radiation.
The PCB has a screw (length: 5 mm; radius: 1 mm) that connects the PCB GND to the
chassis at four different locations (see Figure 61)
102 mm
95 mm
Screw1
147 mm
50 mm
Screw3 Screw2
Screw4
Figure 60. 3.5-inch hard disk drive chassis and PCB for evaluation
0
0 0 74AC541
787RH3 ×7 0  10pF
10MHz
ferrite 74AC541
core s GND 10pF
0.1  F
10  F 0.1  F 0.1  F 10pF 10pF
0.1  F
Vcc 5V
Figure 61. Schematic circuit diagram for evaluation board
61
3. Modelin
ng and Ana
alysis of Ra
adiation fro
om PCB-Ch
hassis Stru
ucture
Figure 62. Pattern

n layouts of evaluation board
Fig
gure 63 show
ws the measurement seetup. The ve
ertical and horizontal
h eelectric field
ds 3 m
froom the device were me
easured at ffrequencies of from 30 MHz to 1 GHz by an
n EMI
w powere d on. The device was pllaced on a ro
recceiver while the device was rotating tablle and
thee peak values of the ele
ectric field w
were measu ating the tabble through 360°.
ured by rota
Fig
gure 64 and Figure 65 respectively
r show the ve
ertical and horizontal
h ccomponents of the
freequency speectra of the measured electric field. Both fig
gures includ
de the mea
asured
speectra for the PCB with
hout a chasssis and for the PCB wiith the chasssis connectted by
scrrew 1, togeth
her with the envelope oof the spectrra for all th
he configurat
ations to faciilitate
mparison of the configurrations.
com
Fiigure 63. Setup for eelectric far-field measu

urements
62
The measured electric field from the PCB without the chassis shown in Figure 64 exhibits
two peaks at approximately 0.12 and 0.3 GHz up to 32 dBµV/m. These peaks are
considered to be related to the circuit because the board size is electrically smaller than
the first resonance of the PCB. The spectrum of the PCB mounted on the chassis but with
no electrical connection is almost identical to that of the PCB without a chassis (see
Figure 64). This indicates that capacitive coupling between the PCB and the chassis
makes a negligible contribution to the radiation in this frequency range. Comparison of
these results with a screw connection reveals that the peak at approximately 0.3 GHz
increased to 45 dBµV/m for screws 1 and 4 (see Figure 64), but that the peak at around
0.12 GHz changed little. When measurements with a single screw connection were
performed, other screws were replaced with non-conducting screws. The horizontal
electric field measurement results shown in Figure 65 exhibit the same tendency whereby
a peak around 0.3 GHz is increased by more than 20 dB by screws 1 and 4, whereas they
make little contribution to the peak at 0.12 GHz. Figure 66 shows the difference in the
measured electric far-field between the PCB only and the PCB mounted on a chassis for
each screw connection. The results clearly indicate that the radiation due to the mounting
of the PCB on the chassis is primarily 0.3 GHz radiation rather than 0.12 GHz radiation,
which means that the 0.12 GHz component for the cavity between the PCB and the
chassis is slight. Since the cavity between the PCB and the chassis is the target to be
modeled in the following section, the highest peak at 0.3 GHz is the peak to be estimated.
Another remarkable aspect of the measurement results is that the peak level at 0.3 GHz
depends on the position of the screw that connects the PCB GND to the chassis. The
highest electric field was obtained with screw 4, while the lowest was with screw 2; the
difference was up to 8 dB for both vertical and horizontal far fields. This increase in the
emission on adding the chassis represents a possible problem that could be observed in an
assembled system during EMC testing. The PCB circuit design is typically optimized at
the PCB level using PCB design guidelines since it is difficult to predict the
assembly-level EMC behavior during circuit design. However, as mentioned above, it is
becoming increasingly important to consider the EMC of an assembled system at the PCB
design level (although PCB designers are not responsible for fully integrated system
design).
63
60 60
PCB without chassis Screw 1
50 50
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
40 40
30 30
20 20
0.1 1 0.1 1
Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz]
60
50
Ev [dBV/m]
Screw 4 Screw 1
40 Screw 3
Screw 2
PCB without chassis
30
20 PCB mounted on chassis

but no electrical connection
0.1 1
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 64. Measured vertical electric far-fields for four different screw connections, PCB
without a chassis, and PCB mounted on a chassis but with no screw
60 60
PCB without chassis Screw 1
50 50
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
40 40
30 30
20 20
0.1 1 0.1 1
60
Screw 4 Screw 1
50 Screw 3
Screw 2
Eh [dBV/m]
40 PCB without chassis
30
20 PCB mounted on chassis

but no electrical connection
0.1 1
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 65. Measured horizontal electric far-fields for four different screw locations, PCB
without a chassis, and PCB mounted on a chassis but with no screw
64
5
Screw4 Screw1 Screw4
15
4
Screw2 Screw1
Screw3
Ev [V]
Eh [V]
3 10
Screw2
2 5 Screw3
1
0
0.1 1 0.1 1
Figure 66. Difference in measured electric far-fields between the PCB only and the PCB
mounted on a chassis for vertical (left) and horizontal (right) electric far-fields.
3.2. Proposal and Application of Screw Current Probe
This section describes the measurement technique focusing on the relationship between
PCB design and radiated emissions from the chassis. As described in introduction,
measurement technique to reveal RF behavior of integrated system is important. We
assume the screw current flowing through the screw which connects the PCB GND with
chassis is the key to estimate the radiation from such structure. The thin current probe
for the measurement of screw current is proposed and used for the investigation on the
PCB-chassis structure in this section.
3.2.1. Structure of Screw Current Probe
The current that causes radiated emissions from the chassis must flow through the screw
connecting the PCB GND to the chassis GND. To verify this assumption, we fabricated a
specially thin current probe to measure the screw current by placing the probe between
the PCB and the chassis without changing the gap as shown in Figure 67. The external
diameter of the probe was 12 mm, the internal diameter 8 mm, and thickness 1 mm. The
probe has a 9-turn coil to detect magnetic fields originating from current through the
screw, connected to a thin coaxial cable running to the spectrum analyzer. We fabricated
the thin-current-probe by the standard PCB process and were able to measure current
through the screw during actual board operations without modification of setup. Figure 68
shows the actual fabricated screw current probe. The surface of the probe is covered with
resist and insulating tape to prevent contact with the PCB pattern. Capacitive coupling
between the probe and PCB pattern can be neglected because the output from probe was
hardly changed when the probe was set to plastic screw. Figure 69 shows the frequency
65
dependence of the magnitude of output power from the probe as a dot, measured with
network analyzer using a 0 dBm calibrated signal source to estimate the probe
characteristics. The solid line in Figure 69 shows the calculation results for inductance L =
9 nH for the loops and the size of one turn for magnetic field detection for an area S
measuring 1 mm by 3 mm. The output voltage V of the probe can be calculated from the
relation as in following equation, where N is the number of turns and 50 is termination
impedance of network analyzer. The calculation results in Figure 69 are consistent with
estimates.
(24)
chassis
PCB
chassis current Radiation
screw
GND
PCB current
To spectrum analyzer
8 mm
12 mm
1 mm
Magnetic field
To chassis
Figure 67. Schematic diagram of screw current measurement
66
3. Modelin
ng and Ana
alysis of Ra
adiation fro
om PCB-Ch
hassis Stru
ucture
Figure 68.
6 Fabriicated screw
w current prrobe
-20 measuurement
theory
y
Output power [dBm]
-40
-60
-80
0.1 1 10 100 10000

Frequency [MHz]
Figure 69. Freq

quency chara
acteristics oof induced power
p for fa
abricated jun
nction curre
ent
probee by 4.48 mA
m current
3.2.22. Measureements of Screw

S Currrent
Fig
gure 70 show
ws the frequ
uency spectrra of the scrrew currentt measured w
with a fabriicated
thiin-current-p
probe. In thiis measurem e used for aall but one screw
ment, plasticc screws are
eleectrically con
nnected to the GND when current measurementss were performed.
t chassis G
Th
he unit of magnitude
m is converteed from volltage to am
mpere usingg the calibrration
coeefficient. Th
he peak frequ
uency aroun
nd 0.3 GHz and the env
velope shapee of the specctrum
aree similar to the EMI sp
pectrum. Th
he results su
uggest that the
t current that causess EMI
flow
ws from thee chassis PC
CB GND to tthe chassis through the
e screw. Figu
ure 71 show
ws the
meeasurement results for magnetic
m neear-field disttributions measured at 11.5 mm abov
ve the
PC
CB at 0.32 MHz
M with th
he configura
ation of eacch screw con
nnection. Th
he measurem
ments
weere performeed using 1 mm
m by 1 mm
m single loop probe with setting of th
he probe to detect
d
67
tangential component of magnetic near-field. These results can visualize the sources of
EMI on PCB, and slightly higher current distributions and density around the screw, but
it is difficult to estimate the path of current flowing into chassis. It is not best way to
determine the current path of EMI from chassis in this case.
As described, conventional magnetic near-field scanning can help to locate the EMI source
on PCB but the screw current probe can be more straightforward technique for identifying
the path of chassis EMI currents. Based on the measured screw current, including
magnitude, phase, and position allows the modeling and the estimation of radiation from
the chassis by using an appropriate model of chassis.
500 500
Screw1 Screw2
100 100
Current [A]
Current [A]
50 50
10 10
5 5
102 103 102 103

Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz]
500 500
Screw3 Screw4
100 100
Current [A]
Current [A]
50 50
10 10
5 5
102 103 102 103

Figure 70. Measurement results of screw current for each screw under operating
0 112 dB(A/m)
50 50
screw1
40 40
20 20
screw2
0 20 40 60 80 95 0 20 40 60 80 95mm
50 50
40 40
20 20
screw3
screw4
0 20 40 60 80 95 0 20 40 60 80 95mm
Figure 71. Magnetic near-field distribution on PCB with connection for each screw
68
3.3. Cavity-Mode Modeling using Double Summation Method
The PCB-on-chassis structure is a common configuration in real products, and it has been
demonstrated that the cavity model can be used to describe the RF behavior for the
configuration [54], [55]. Regarding the parallel plane structure, a lot of studies in terms of
EMC have been made so far for high frequency behavior [53], application for integration
with enclosure [56], lossy structure [57], arbitrary shape of parallel plates [58], populated
conditions [59], and so on. Recently, meshed equivalent circuit modeling has also been
studied for multilayered structure [60]. Another important aspect to achieve better EMC
performance at system level is to provide not only radiation estimation but also a design
guideline/direction to show how to lower the radiation. Since the study of EMC is a more
industry-related field, just the analysis is sometimes not sufficient from the engineering
point of view.
In this section we describe the approach to obtain the electric field radiation using the
measured screw current. This approach assumes the board-chassis is a cavity and uses
theoretical expression of an impedance network for the cavity-mode model. Modeling the
cavity resonator is one theoretical approach for characterizing rectangular PCB power bus
structures [61]. The impedance (Z) distribution between the two plates is given by the
solution of the two-dimensional Helmholtz equation [53] and is used to calculate the edge
voltage V.
(25)
The constant mn depends on indices as follows:
(26)
where sinc(x) = sin(x)/x and xi, yi, xj, and yj are the coordinates of the ith and jth ports in the
69
plane, respectively.  denotes the permeability, which is assumed to equal that of vacuum
0, and  is the angular frequency. kxm and kyn are respectively the coefficients for the mth
and nth modes and are given by
(27)
The electric field distribution along the boundary of parallel plates shown in Figure 72 (a)
can be obtained by using the impedance distribution above with screw current as the
source. In this study, the screw current measured in the previous section is used as the
source.
3.4. Calculation of Radiation from Parallel-Plate Structure
For this parallel plate structure with an electrically small separation, the radiation from
the edge field can be calculated from the equivalent magnetic current at the boundary [52].
Figure 72 shows the calculation model used in this study (width: 47 mm; length: 93 mm;
separation: 1 mm; relative permittivity: 1). The frequency range considered is 30 MHz to 1
GHz, which is lower than the first resonance for the present case. The tangential
magnetic field is set to zero; this approximation is valid when there is a small gap h
between the PCB and the chassis. We used an equivalence principle that was based on
Huygens’ equivalence principle and had reportedly been used for a PCB power bus
structure [53]. The electric current is considered to be zero (J = 0) at the edge of the
parallel planes; consequently, the magnetic current was used as the source. The magnetic
current at the edge was obtained from the electric field E , the magnitude of which can be
calculated from the voltage V at the edge and the separation h as V/h. The PCB conductor
planes and the chassis are regarded as perfect conductors and the four sides of the PCB
have no tangential magnetic field. Therefore, the magnetic current M can be expressed
as
(28)
where n̂ is a normal unit vector on the boundary surface. Equation (5) was used to
obtain the tangential magnetic currents at the four side walls and the vector potential F
was then calculated using Equation (27) as given in [52]:
70
(29)
where r is the distance from the origin to the field observation point, r' is the distance from
the origin to the source, and  is the angle between r and r'. The electric far-field E is
defined in terms of the vector potential F for magnetic sources and A for electric
sources by using Equation (28) as given in [52]:
(30)
By using the approximation J ≈ 0, A is set to 0. Therefore, the electric field can simply be
expressed as
(31)
(a) a = 93 mm
b = 47 mm PCB
(xj, yj)
Screw (xi, yi)
Current: IS Ez
h = 1 mm Vi
Chassis
(b)
a = 93 mm
z Observation
y point
b = 47 mm
M・h  r
r’ 
x
0 
Figure 72. Calculation model for the radiation (a) Schematic diagram of the parallel plane
cavity resonator (b) Equivalent magnetic current loop
71
3.4.1. Asymmetric Size Coefficients
The electric field radiation was calculated for parallel planes of the same size, which is
applicable when modeling most PCB power-ground structures using the cavity resonator
model. Since the electric field source at the edge of the parallel planes in the calculation is
vertical, the radiated electric far-field will predominantly be vertical. However, the
horizontal component of the measured electric field shown in Figure 65 and Figure 66 is
higher than the vertical component. This is assumed to be due to the chassis plane being
100 mm longer than the other parallel plane. Most PCB–chassis systems have
asymmetric dimensions, which should be considered when calculating the far-field. In the
present study, the radiated electric field was calculated by using a correction coefficient
that incorporates modification of the far-field due to the asymmetric dimensions; the
coefficient is obtained using the three-dimensional electromagnetic simulation software
HFSS.
Figure 73 shows the three-dimensional model used in the simulation of the electric
far-field. It is a simplified model that has just two different sizes of parallel perfectly
conducting planes (separation: 1 mm) and a 1 A current source as the excitation source.
Frequencies used in the simulation were in the range 0.01 to 1 GHz. The electric field was
evaluated at 3 m from the device over 360° in the x–y plane, just as in the measurements.
To avoid introducing unintentional errors due to the mesh used in this simulation, a finer
mesh was employed until the calculation results became stable and did not vary greatly.
In the simulation, the asymmetric dimension was evaluated by changing the extension
length of the chassis Lex (see Figure 73). Figure 74 shows the variation in the vertical and
horizontal components of the electric field when the extension length of the chassis Lex was
varied from 0 to 100 mm with the excitation source at the center of plane 1. The results
shown in Figure 74 reveal that the vertical field varies little, whereas the horizontal
component varies drastically with the asymmetric dimension. When Lex = 100 mm (the
approximate size of a hard disk drive chassis), the horizontal component exceeds the
vertical component. These simplified simulations reveal that the horizontal component
can exceed the vertical component due to the asymmetric dimensions of the parallel plane.
Therefore, in the present study, the changes in the horizontal electric field due to
extension of the chassis length were implemented using the correction coefficient CE in
far-field calculations:
Ec  E 1  CE  (32)
72
3. Modelin
ng and Ana
alysis of Ra
adiation fro
om PCB-Ch
hassis Stru
ucture
wh
here Ec is the
t horizonttal electric ffield conside
ering the correction coeefficient, wh
hich is
callculated from
m the origin
nal horizonttal electric field
f E. Fig
gure 75 show
ws the calcu
ulated
freequency depeendence of the correctioon coefficientt CE for four different exxcitation loca
ations
(S1 to S4); the dependence
d was calcula
ated using th
he same dim
mensions as the device under
u
tesst (i.e., Lex = 100 mm). Th
he results in
ndicate that excitation at location S2 gives the hiighest
corrrection coeffficient, alth
hough otherr locations give
g similar values of aapproximately 0.3
GH
Hz. Since thee source loca
ated at S2 is cclosest to th
he center of the
t PCB, thee radiated ellectric
fielld for paralllel planes wiith equal sizzes is considerably lowerr than that aat the other three
sou
urce location
ns. Thereforre, the asym
mmetric dim
mensions affe
ect the resul
ult much mo
ore for
asy
ymmetric pa
arallel plane
es. Since thee calculated coefficient depends
d onlly on the ph
hysical
dim
mensions off the device, far-field ccalculations to evaluate
e the effect of changin
ng the
dessign of the PCB
P or circcuit can be p
performed more
m rapidly
y than full-w
wave simula
ations
witth all of the circuitry at every desiggn change.
Figure 7
73. Electrromagnetic simulation model used
d to calculatte the asym
mmetric para
allel
plane coeffiicient
100 00
10
Horizontal E-field [V/m]
Lex = 100 mm
m
Vertical E-field [V/m]
Lex = 100 mm
10-1 50 mmm 0-1
10 50 mm
10 mm 10 mm
m
10-2 0-2
10 0 mm
10-3 0-3
10
0 mm
10-4 0-4
10
10-5 0-5
10
0.001 0.1 1 0.01 0.1 1
Frequ
uency [GHz] Freequency [GHzz]
Figure 7
74. Calcu
ulated vertical and horrizontal elecctric far-fields at a distaance of 3 m for
fferent chassis sizes
diff
73
Asymmetric size coefficient CE

102 Screw 2
101 Screw 4
Screw 3 Screw 1
100
0.01 0.1 1
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 75. Asymmetric size coefficient for horizontal electric far-field with different screw
locations
Using the calculated coefficient CE, the electric field at 3 m from the device was calculated
and compared with the measurement results (see Figure 76 and Figure 77 for vertical and
horizontal components, respectively). Comparison of the results of the vertical component
for S1 and S2 reveals that the calculation results for these two screw locations clearly differ.
Furthermore, for all four screw locations, the horizontal component exceeds the vertical
components when the correction coefficient is used, which agrees with the measurement
results. The reason why the peak at about 0.12 GHz does not appear in the calculations is
thought to be because the cavity which was modeled here does not contain the 0.12 GHz
component, as mentioned above. At frequencies over around 0.4 GHz in the calculation
results especially for screw location S2, there is a maximum deviation of over 10 dB for the
magnitude. This error is considered to be due to the asymmetric size coefficient and its
implementation which is the correction for maximum electric far-field strength but the
radiation at those higher frequencies may have deviations on radiation angle due to the
asymmetric size of planes, which was not considered in the coefficients. Another possible
cause may be the simplified simulation model because the coefficients were derived with
flat rectangle parallel planes but actual product has more complex chassis structure.
Since the simple image magnetic current on the boundary of cavity for asymmetric edge
cannot express the results observed in these measurements, imperfect cavity wall on the
side or the effect of electric current on the corner of asymmetric chassis may need to be
considered for more accuracy.
The approach described here requires full-wave simulation only one time to prepare the
coefficients and it can be useful for this kind of PCB-chassis system such as hard disk
drive that has standardized dimension and has no frequent change of shape. On the other
hand, from the practical point of view, such a full-wave simulation could include most of
radiation behavior without the combination of an analytical expression such as the
radiation from cavity wall. However, breaking down the behavior into detailed functions
74
to understand the mechanism that how big the contribution of asymmetric size, screw
location and how big the contribution of the radiation from cavity itself is most important
to get feedback to design knowledge.
70 70
Screw 1 Screw 2
60 Calculated 60
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50
Calculated
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
Screw 3 Screw 4
60 Calculated 60 Calculated
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
different screw locations
75
70 70
Screw 1 Calculated Screw 2
60 60
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50
Calculated
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
Screw 3 Calculated Screw 4 Calculated
60 60
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
3.5. Fast Calculation using Inductive Network Method
The other approach to obtain electric field strength at the boundary of cavity for the
estimation of radiation is impedance network calculation with screw current as stimulus.
From previous study the current flowing through screw connecting PCB and chassis is
considered to be the excitation source for radiation. Also the current probe specially
designed for screw with small gap was described as shown in Figure 67. It is placed
between the PCB and the chassis and is used to measure the magnetic near-field around
the screw with little interference to the system. By making this probe sufficiently thin, the
probe does not alter the gap between the PCB and the chassis.
In this section, inductive network method which is applicable when the physical size of
cavity resonator is electrically smaller than first resonance is employed [54]. The interest
frequency 0.3 GHz is lower than the first resonance due to the device size. The advantage
of inductive network method is fast calculation time, which is important when it is applied
for actual product design.
The voltage Vi at the observation point due to the current IS is described as following
equation [54].
76
(33)
where GA is the Green's function for the static magnetic vector potential, which is as follow
based on the condition that the aspect ratio b/a should be greater than 1, where a and b are
width and length of PCB respectively.
(34)
where,
(35)
C0 is the parallel planes capacitance with consideration of fringing at the open boundaries.
(36)
The advantage of inductive network model employed here is shorter calculation time than
conventional double summation method as stated above. In case of these calculations the
result for one screw location can be obtained more than hundreds times faster than
conventional method. From the equations above with measured screw current in Figure
70 as stimulus, electric vertical and horizontal far-field radiations for different screw
locations were calculated as in Figure 78 and Figure 79. Electric far-field calculation
from cavity resonator model used is same approach described in section 3.4 as well as
asymmetric size corrections. In calculated results, the peak at 0.3 GHz and the order
depending on the screw locations showed good agreement with measured far-field. For
horizontal polarization in Figure 79 over 0.4 GHz contains more error than lower band
possibly due to the asymmetric size coefficients as described. Overall results obtained by
screw current measurements with inductive network model showed similar accuracy to
the results of double summation method.
77
70 70
Screw 1 Screw 2
60 Inductive network 60
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50 Inductive network
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
60 Screw 3 60 Screw 4 Inductive network
Inductive network
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
30 Measured 30 Measured
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
different screw locations.
70 70
Screw 1 Inductive network Screw 2
60 60 Inductive network
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
Inductive network
60 Screw 3 Inductive network 60 Screw 4
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
different screw locations.
78
3.6. Modeling by Multilayered Finite Difference Method
As describe above, it is revealed that the cavity consists of PCB with screw current as
stimulus can be considered as the source of radiation. Also the study clarified that the
radiation from the PCB-chassis system can be calculated the electric field distribution
between the PCB and the chassis along the PCB edge as the source of radiation. In this
section we introduce the multilayered finite difference method [49] to obtain the
distribution. The PCB planes and chassis were created as a meshed plane with RLC
passive components as shown in Figure 80. The plane contains 9×4 mesh. The size of one
mesh is about 10 mm, which is one tenth the wavelength at the highest frequency of 1
GHz. Table 4 lists the parameters of the passive elements used for signal tracing and
planes; they were calculated using the following equations (37) obtained from [49] with
separation between layers h. In Table 4, Rp is the resistance of the cell, Cp is the
capacitance between the GND and Vcc, Cc is the capacitance between the Vcc and chassis,
Lp is the inductance of the Vcc and Lc is that for the chassis treating the GND as a
reference, k is the coupling factor for the inductances, and Gp and Gc are the conductance
between planes. Rpe, Lpe, Cpe, Lce, and Cce are parameters at the boundary of planes
corresponding to the parameters described above, which were calculated for half of the cell
[50]. In addition, the screw was modeled as having 1.8 nH inductance, which was
calculated as that for a circular cylinder model [51].
(37)
Figure 80 also shows the equivalent circuit parameters derived from its dimensions. The
chassis was modeled as one of the layers, but only the part of it that was coupled to the
PCB was implemented in the meshed equivalent circuit model since the coupling between
the PCB plane and the chassis outside the counter surface was assumed to have a
negligible effect on the electric field strength at the boundary.
79
3.5 nH 2 nH
P1 P2 P3
1 nH 14 nH 10 pF 10 pF
8 nH 1 
0.1 F 0.1 F 0.1 F 0.1 F

5 nH
8 nH 1 
74AC541
1 nH 10 pF 10 pF
3.5 nH 2 nH
G1 G2 G3
93 mm
Screw 1
Screw 3 Screw 2 P1 P2 P3 GND

47 mm
Screw 4
Cpe Cp
Gp Gp
Lpe Lp Vcc
Rpe G1 G2 G3
Rp
Gc
Cce Cc k
Gc
Lce Chassis
Lc
Rpe Rp
Figure 80. Multilayered equivalent circuit of PCB with a chassis
Table 4 Derived Values for RLC mesh
Symbol Value Symbol Value

Rp 0.017  Rpe 0.034 
Lp 0.18 nH Lpe 0.36 nH
Cp 30 pF Cpe 15 pF
Lc 1.44 nH Lce 2.88 nH
Cc 1.1 pF k 0.38
Cce 0.6 pF Gp 2.8 k
Gc 50 M
To ascertain the model’s validity, we calculated the spectra of the screw current from
PSPICE equivalent circuit simulation, and measured them by using the screw current
probe as described in section 3.2. The calculated and measured results are compared in
Figure 81. The peak at around 0.3 GHz was observed in both the measurement and
calculated results. Screw 4 gives the highest screw current at 0.3 GHz, while screw 2 gives
the lowest screw current; this agrees with the equivalent circuit calculations and the
measurements. The difference between the calculated and measured values below 0.2
GHz is due to the noise floor, which appeared only in the measurement results. This good
agreement between the results is a good indication of the model’s validity. From the
80
validated model, the electric field distribution along the PCB edge can be obtained using
the difference in voltage between the PCB and the chassis layer, and its separation can be
used to calculate the radiation.
10-1 10-1
Screw 1 Calculation Screw 2
Screw Current [A]

Screw Current [A]
10-2 10-2
Calculation
Measurement Measurement
10-3 10-3
10-4 10-4
10-5 10-5
0.03 0.3 0.03 0.3
10-1 10-1
Screw 3 Screw 4 Calculation
Screw Current [A]
Screw Current [A]

10-2 Calculation 10-2
Measurement
10-3 Measurement 10-3
10-4 10-4
10-5 10-5
0.03 0.3 0.03 0.3
Figure 81. Comparison of calculated and measured frequency spectra of screw current for
four different locations of the screws connecting the PCB and the chassis.
The electric field at 3 m from the device was calculated and compared with the
measurement results (see Figure 82 and Figure 83 for vertical and horizontal components,
respectively). In calculated results, the peak at 0.3 GHz and the order depending on the
screw locations showed very good agreement with measured far-field. These results
obtained by multilayered finite difference model showed similar or better accuracy than
the results of cavity resonator model with measured screw current as stimulus.
81
70 70
Screw 1 Screw 2
60 MFDM 60
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50 MFDM
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
60 Screw 3 60 Screw 4
MFDM
Ev [dBV/m]
Ev [dBV/m]
50 50
MFDM
40 40
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
Screw 1 MFDM Screw 2
60 60
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50 MFDM
40 40
Measured Measured
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
70 70
Screw 3 Screw 4 MFDM
60 60
MFDM
Eh [dBV/m]
Eh [dBV/m]
50 50
40 40
20 20
10 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
As described above, two different approaches to calculate the cavity modeling as well as
82
the MFDM-based calculation were described. The comparison of these approaches is

described in table 5. The advantage of inductive network method and double summation
approach are that the creation of equivalent circuit is not required and it can be faster
way to know the radiation without performing radiated emission tests but this is more
suitable for later stage of product development since the actual device is necessary to
perform screw current measurements. Hence, the advantage of the MFDM is that active
or nonlinear components can easily be integrated by using SPICE circuit simulation,
which enables application at the design stage, i.e., before the prototype stage. Therefore,
as the table shows, the suitable product development phases differ for each approach, but
the results obtained from each approach were sufficiently similar as studied in this
chapter.
Table 5 Comparison of different approaches

Approach (1) (2) (3)
Suitable
Design Fabrication & evaluation
product phase
Active components
Source Screw current (IS)
(SPICE)
Frequency Less than first
Depends on cell size Broadband
limitation resonance
Impedance Double summation Inductive network*
MFDM (Sec. 3.2)
distribution (Sec. 3.4.1) (Sec. 3.4.2)
Object E-field radiation (Sec. 3.3)
No measured Fast calculation time
Advantage Fast calculation time
information required & no size limitation
3.7. Investigation on the Reduction of Radiation
In this section, the study to lower the radiation from PCB-chassis structure is described.
The theoretical modeling and calculation can provide the estimation results that how high
the electromagnetic radiation will be but it normally does not provide how to lower the
radiation. Therefore it is required to clarify the guidelines or some design concepts to
achieve the reduction of the radiation from the design point of view.
83
3.7.1. Additional Bypass Capacitor at Screw
Since it has been revealed that the screw current is the stimulus for PCB-chassis cavity in
previous section, the bypass capacitor to reduce the screw current is considered to be one
of the approach when the capacitor is placed very close to the screw. The effect of the
additional capacitor which is located close to the screw is experimentally verified in actual
measurement using the PCB which has special pads for the capacitor as shown in Figure
84 as the example of screw 1. The size of via for this special land is 0.3 mm diameter and
of anti-pad is 1.3 mm. All other configurations for measurement were same as original
setup described in Figure 63. The capacitor value used for the measurement is 1000 pF
surface mount type. The impedance specification of capacitor has self-resonant frequency
around at 160MHz due to the parasitic inductance which is about 1 nH. However, since
the impedance around the target frequency 300 MHz is still lower than the impedance
between Vcc and GND, it is considered to be effective to lower the screw current by
placing the capacitor. But it is more effective reduce the parasitic inductance for lowering
the screw current especially in high frequency.
Vcc
via to Vcc plane
bypass capacitor
screw
between Vcc and GND
GND
Figure 84. Additional bypass capacitor located close to the screw for experiment
Figure 85 shows the envelope of measured frequency spectra of electric far-field with and
without 1000 pF capacitor close to screw 1 and 4 respectively. The peak level around at 0.3
GHz is lowered down by up to 10 dB due to the additional 1000 pF capacitor for both
configurations: screw 1 and screw 4. However, another peak which is exist around at 0.13
GHz is increased by about 7 dB in the measured results, which is considered to be related
to the resonance due to the circuitry on the PCB with impedance between Vcc and GND
planes. As described, since the cavity model does not include the radiation from the
circuitry itself, the increase at 0.13 GHz cannot be calculated in the model described in
previous section. The implementation of that radiation from the PCB is part of the future
work.
84
Figure 86 shows the measured frequency spectra for the condition with connections using
both screw 1 and 4 comparing with and without 1000 pF bypass capacitors close to screws.
In the figure, the result with 1000 pF indicates almost 19 dB lower than the result
without capacitors at peak frequency 0.3 GHz. As it has been seen in the results for single
connection at screw 1 and 4, the peak around 0.13 GHz is increased by 6 dB comparing to
the original result. In order to verify these are due to the reduction of screw current,
frequency spectra of screw current with and without 1000 pF capacitors have been
measured as shown in Figure 87. The results show that the current for each screw is
lowered more than 10 dB at 0.3 GHz, which is good correlation with the radiation results.
These demonstrated results suggest that the reduction of screw current, which is
considered as the stimulus for the cavity of PCB-chassis structure, can be one approach to
reduce the radiation. Although the capacitance value was fixed to 1000 pF in this study,
the optimum value in terms of radiation should depend on the cavity and PCB design. In
order to eliminate such peak around 0.3 GHz in this case, band eliminate filter design
could be applicable instead of just bypass capacitor which is placed next to the screw.
Screw 4
(plastic screws for others)
60
Screw 4
|E| 3m away [dBV/m]
(plastic screws for others)

50
40
30
20 Screw 4
Screw 1 with 1000pF
with 1000pF
2
10 103
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 85. Frequency spectra of electric far-field with/without additional bypass capacitor.
85
60 60

50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
102 103 102 103
|E| 3m away [dBV/m] 60 Screw 1 and 4
without capacitor
50 Screw 1 and 4 with 19 dB lowered
1000pF for both 1 and 4 at 0.3 GHz
40
30
20
102 103
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 86. Improvement of radiated emission with additional capacitors

Screw current [A]
Screw 1
Screw 4
102
Screw 1
(both 1 and 4 with 1000 pF)
101
Screw 4
(both 1 and 4 with 1000 pF)
2
10 103
Frequency [z]
Figure 87. Measurement results of screw current for screw 1 and 4 with connections of
both screw 1 and 4 with/without 1000 pF capacitors
3.7.2. Model-Based Analysis for the Reduction of Radiation
In this section, the relation between the impedance between the ground and chassis and
the screw current has been investigated for the PCB-on-chassis structure to lower the
screw current that is considered as the stimulus of the cavity consists of the PCB and
86
chassis.
The impedances at each node were then investigated using the created equivalent circuit
model. Figure 88 (a) shows the impedance distribution between PCB GND and Vcc
observed at each node with no screw connection but showing the location of the screw, and
Figure 88 (b) shows the impedance distribution between GND and chassis at 0.3 GHz,
which is the peak frequency of the noise that the device under test has. For these results,
we assumed that there is some correlation between the impedance and the screw current
that is the stimulus for the PCB-chassis cavity. Figure 89 shows the calculation results of
the magnitude of the screw current at 0.3 GHz when the screw was placed at each node
corresponding to the impedance between GND and chassis at same node without any
screw connection. The results indicate that there is a correlation between impedance and
screw current: higher impedance leads to lower screw current. Also, the figure indicates
the calculation results for screw 1 to 4, which suggests screw 2 and 3 give lower screw
current than screw 1 and 4. Figure 90 (a) shows the impedance observed at each node with
screw connection at S2. Since it is shorted at S2, the impedance at S2 was the lowest. From
the correlation shown in Figure 89, it is better to place the screw at the node that has
higher impedance, i.e. the node at S3 in Figure 90 (a), in order to achieve lower screw
current. Also, Figure 90 (b) shows the result with the connection at S1, which indicates
that the impedance at S4 became the highest. Figure 91 shows the summations of screw
current at 0.3 GHz by changing the configuration of the screws. As shown in this figure,
even multiple connections, e.g. S2+S3, provide lower total current than the current of the
single screw connection S2 derived from the calculations. These model-based
investigations reveal that the single screw connection at S2 or S3 can provide lower screw
current, resulting in lower radiation from the PCB-chassis system than at S1 or S4. Also,
the screw current of the multiple connection at S1+S4 can be lower than that at S1 or S4, and
the screw current of the multiple connection at S2+S3 can be lower than that at S2 or S3.
Another notable aspect is that impedance calculations can be a guideline to decide which
screw location should be selected to achieve lower radiation from the system.
87
3. Modelin
ng and Ana
alysis of Ra
adiation fro
om PCB-Ch
hassis Stru
ucture
(a
a) Between gground layerr and Vcc lay
yer
(b
b) Between ground laye
er and chassis
F
Figure 88. Calculate
ed impedan
nce distributtion with no
o screw conn
nection
S4 S1
3
Current [mA]
2 S2
1 S3
0
2 4 6 8 10
Inpput impedancee [ohm]
Figure 89. Callculated scrrew currentt correspond

ding to the impedance
i aat each nod
de
88
3. Modelin
ng and Ana
alysis of Ra
adiation fro
om PCB-Ch
hassis Stru
ucture
(a) Betwe
een ground llayer and ch
hassis with screw
s at S2
(b) Betwe
een ground llayer and ch
hassis with screw
s at S1
Figure 90. Calculated

d impedancee distributio
on with sing
gle screw coonnection
3
Screw Current [mA]
2..5
2
1..5
1
0..5
0
S１ S4 S１+S4 S2 S3 S2+S3
Connected screw(s)
Figure 91. Total screw

w current att 0.3 GHz with
w differen
nt screw con
nnections
Fig
gure 92 show
ws the calcu
ulation resu
ults of the horizontal
h electric far-fieeld with diffferent
scrrew connectiions. As estimated from the screw cu
urrent calcu
ulations, the result for S1+S4 is
low
wer than tha
at of the sing
gle screw con
nnection of S1 or S4 at aro
ound 0.3 GH
Hz by almostt up to
10 dB. But th
he results of
o S2, S3, an d S2+S3 do not clearly show a diffference from
m the
callculations allthough the results sugggest the peak at aroun
nd 0.3-0.4 G
GHz is lowerr than
tha
at of the S1 or
o S4 configurration.
89
Lastly, the actual measurements were performed on the PCB-chassis structure in an

anechoic chamber for the horizontal component in the same manner as shown in Figure
72. The results with different screw configurations are shown in Figure 93. Figure 93 (a)
shows the connections at S1, S4, and S1+S4, and Figure 93 (b) shows the connections at S2, S3,
and S2+S3. In (a), the result for S1+S4 shows a lower peak than that of S1 or S4 by up to 8 dB,
which correlates well with the calculation results of screw current and of radiation. Also,
the results of S2 and S3 indicate a lower peak than that of S1 or S4, which is as estimated in
the calculation. Figure 93 (b) indicates that S2+S3 are slightly lower than S2 or S3 although
the calculation did not show such a clear trend. The reason is considered to be the
coupling between the PCB and the harness that is connected to the PCB at a location
closer to S3, which is not considered in this study. These relations between the calculated
screw current and the measured radiation are plotted in Figure 94 as the reduction for
each configuration with reference to S1 connection. The figure shows good correlation and
it is verified that even multiple connections S2 + S3 can be lower than single connection S3
which is correlated with screw current results. The results also suggest that the reduction
of radiation can be achieved by the appropriate selections of screw locations. In this study,
although the impedance is considered as the parameter related to the screw current, the
electromagnetic field existing in the cavity of PCB with chassis obtained theoretically in
previous section can also be used.
60
S4 S1 60
S2 S2+S3
Electric Field [dBV/m]
40 40
S3
20
S1+S4 20
0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 92. Calculated horizontal electric far-field with different screw connections
90
60 60 60
|E | 3m away [dBV/m ]
50
S1 50
S4 50
S1+S4
40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
2 3 2 3
10 10 10 10 102 10 3
Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz]
60
50
40
30
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Frequency [GHz]
(a) With S1, S4 and both S1 and S4
60 60 60
S2
|E | 3m aw ay [dB V /m ]
50 50
S3 50
S2+S3
40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
10 2 103 10 2 103 10 2 10 3
Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz]
60
50
40
30
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Frequency [GHz]
(b) With S2, S3 and both S2 and S3
Figure 93. Measurement results of radiated electric field
91
radiation with reference to S1 [dB]

Difference of screw current and
2
:Calculated screw(s) current
0 :Measured radiation
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
S4 S１+S4 S2 S3 S2+S3
Connected screw(s)
Figure 94. Reduction of the calculated screw(s) current and the measured radiation
92
4. Conclusion
4. Conclusion
This thesis covered the modeling and analysis of various measurements near-field probes
in chapter 1. To apply magnetic near-field measurements to highly integrated devices
such as mobile phones in a high frequency band over GHz, a detailed equivalent circuit
was proposed on the basis of the physical structure of the probe with consideration of
parasitic elements around a loop in section 2.1. The characteristics of induced voltage due
to electric near-field and magnetic near-field were measured and compared with the
calculated results obtained by using the equivalent circuit model. The results showed good
correlation for both electric and magnetic fields with an accuracy of 6 dB up to 6 GHz. The
calculated and the evaluated results of probes also revealed that the induced voltage due
to the electric near-field, which is generally treated as an error for magnetic near-field
measurement, can be reduced by properly designing the probe structure to have the
resonance only for electric near-field sensitivity. Furthermore, by using the fabricated
near-field probe, a position/signal difference (PSD) method that enables control of the
spatial resolution without miniaturizing the probe has been applied to magnetic near-field
measurement for the first time. It was theoretically confirmed that the PSD is applicable
for the targeting range with the fabricated 1 mm squared probe. The PSD applied results
proved that the equivalent loop size can be downsized from 1 mm to 30 m without the
fabrication of a miniaturized probe. These results in section 2.1.4 reveal that the magnetic
near-field measurements with arbitrary spatial resolution in GHz band can be realized.
The probe studied in section 2.2 is a dual loop probe that has two coils in opposite
polarities to cancel the magnetic field disturbance from surrounding electronics. It is
applicable for the magnetic near-field measurements in complex systems such as electric
vehicles. For a magnetic near-field probe that has a non-closed magnetic core, the
derivation of effective permeability is key to calculating the probe characteristics. This
thesis described the procedure to obtain the effective permeability from the impedance
measurement results of the probe. The calculated results using the established equivalent
circuit model showed good correlation with measured probe characteristics.
In this thesis, electric near-field measurements were also covered in section 2.3. First, a
double position signal difference (DPSD) method was proposed to obtain the tangential
electric near-field with arbitrary equivalent probe size on the basis of the PSD method.
The DPSD applied results using a microstrip line as DUT showed very good correlation
with simulated results of the electric near-field. Since the electric-near field
measurements using a monopole probe can be expressed as capacitive coupling between
93
4. Conclusion
the probe and DUT, the fringe capacitance model to calculate full-width at half maximum
(FWHM), which is equivalent to spatial resolution, was then analytically described. The
calculated FWHM using the analytical model provides good matching with measured
results with error less than 13 %. On the basis of the capacitive coupling model, an
improved PSD method was then proposed to obtain a more accurate normal component of
electric near-field. The proposed method was experimentally tested and obtained better
correlation with simulated results than conventional PSD.
Chapter 3 described the modeling and analysis of radiation from PCB-chassis structure. It
was clarified that mounting the PCB on a chassis increases the radiation from
PCB-chassis compared with PCB itself by up to 13 dB. The thin current probe optimized
for screw current measurements was then described in section 3.2. The probe was
proposed for investigating the correlation between the radiation from PCB-chassis
structure and the screw current. The measured frequency spectra of the screw current
showed very good correlation with those of increased radiation due to the PCB being
mounted on the chassis, which suggests that the screw current is a key parameter to
estimate how the radiation from PCB-chassis structure changes due to the integration.
A cavity resonator model using a double summation method as well as an inductive
network method was then applied to model the PCB-chassis structure in order to obtain
the electric field at the boundary of PCB, which was considered as the source of radiation.
By considering the PCB-chassis structure as a parallel plate structure of cavity, the
radiation was calculated using a magnetic current loop at the boundary edge of the cavity
as well as asymmetric size coefficient to compensate for the difference in physical size
between the PCB and chassis. The calculated results showed good correlation with
measured results with each screw connection. As an alternative method to obtain the
electric field at the boundary, a multilayered finite difference method (MFDM) was
applied to the PCB-chassis structure in section 3.6. The results of radiation obtained by
MFDM correlated quite well with measured results. In the last section, advantages of
each method were clarified and discussed. With these developed models, the techniques to
lower the radiation from PCB-chassis structure were investigated in section 3.7. The
bypass capacitor placed close to the screw was proposed and verified as an approach to
reduce the radiation. Also, it was revealed that the impedance distribution between PCB
GND and chassis correlates to the screw current and experimentally verified that the
higher impedance position provides lower screw current, which results in lower radiation.
From the results above, modeling and improvements of near-field probes and
electromagnetic radiation from PCB-chassis structure have been developed for realizing
quantitative EMC design for growing electronics.
94
5. Appendix A: Stand-alone Electric-field Probe
5. Appendix A: Stand-alone
Electric-field Probe
A technique that scans an electric or magnetic field to determine the sensitive pattern on
a printed circuit board (PCB) has been developed for investigating immunity failure. Such
studies commonly use a magnetic near-field probe to locate the propagation path of an
injected current and/or to inject current into a device by simulating electrostatic discharge
or immunity testing such as bulk current injection. However, it is much more difficult to
measure the electromagnetic field around a PCB in an enclosure than to measure the
electric field outside the enclosure when performing radiated immunity testing of a
system enclosed in a conducting case. This is because the electric field outside the
enclosure is much higher than that inside and the probe and/or cable or the measurement
equipment is sensitive to those unwanted electric fields. To overcome this problem, an
optical fiber is generally used to eliminate direct interference with the cable attached to
the probe. However, an optical cable can be used only if the device being tested has an
appropriately sized gap or hole for routing the cable and if there is sufficient space inside
the enclosure. If the enclosure does not have a wide enough gap or hole for the cable to
pass through (which is usually the case for components used in moist environments such
as automotive applications), the cover of the device will need to be opened or be modified
to permit routing of the cable, which may affect the immunity testing result. Therefore, a
measurement technique is required that does not use a cable connected to the probe. In
addition, the electric-field probe needs to be miniaturized to enable measurements to be
performed on small electronic components.
In this section, a stand-alone electric-field probe has been evaluated. The probe monitors
the maximum electric field detected by a printed bent monopole antenna and stores the
value. A prototype probe was tested by applying an electric field. In addition, the
prototype probe was used to measure the electric field inside an enclosure and the results
obtained were compared with measurements by a conventional calibrated electric-field
probe.
5.1. Prototype design and function test
In immunity testing, the frequency is generally swept while monitoring the function of the
95
device being tested. Injection at a specific frequency is repeated if a deviation is observed

with increasing injection power as a threshold test. When investigating the failure
mechanism during threshold testing, an electric field probe is required to monitor only the
electric field and not the frequency since the injection frequency is fixed. To simplify the
circuit design of the prototype probe used in the present study, the probe monitors only
the maximum electric field; it does not measure frequency data during injection.
antenna 0  2400 pF
MAX9933 PIC12F683 4 k
output
2400 1 k
1.5 V
pF
33 pF 0.01 µF 1.5 V
1 k 1 k
pre-amp MAX6008
(not populated)
Figure 95. Schematic circuit diagram of prototype probe
Figure 95 shows a schematic circuit diagram of the prototype probe. An RF power detector
(MAX9933) is used to convert the RF power detected by the antenna into a DC voltage.
The IC has a frequency range of 2 MHz to 1.6 GHz. A programmable IC (PIC; PIC12F683)
is used to monitor the output DC voltage from the power detector and to store the
maximum value measured when the device is powered up. When the external trigger for
the PIC is activated, the PIC output pulses whose widths depend on the DC voltage stored
by the PIC. Therefore, the electric field that the device detects can be determined by
checking the pulse width of the output voltage from the device. The RF power detector
provides a reference voltage of 1.25 V for the A/D converter. All the devices were powered
by a 3.0 V battery. Figure 96 shows the board layout. The board is made from FR-4 and
has dimensions of 30 mm × 30 mm. It has two sides: the top side contains ICs and passive
components and the bottom side has two 1.5 V coin batteries. The antenna used to detect
the RF power is printed on the board as a pattern. It is a bent monopole antenna and has
a total length of 30 mm. Figure 97 shows prototype probe. The shielding box for the board
is plastic covered with a Zn-coated copper sheet to prevent RF waves interfering directly
with the detection circuit. In the measurements, the device starts monitoring the electric
field and storing the maximum electric field after the device has been powered up. The
stored maximum electric field is read from the pulse width of the device output. The
actual power at the RF detector IC can be derived from the pulse output using the data
96
5. Appendiix A: Stand
d-alone Eleectric-field Probe
P
sheeet for the IC

C. Since the device has n
no metal/optical wires, it
i can be useed to measurre the
eleectric field in
nside an encclosure withoout any gaps.
Figure 96
6. Pattern layout deesign of prottotype printted circuit bboard
Fiigure 97. Prototype stand-alone

e electric-fie
eld probe
Firrst, to test the

t function of prototyp
pe unit, the device was operated in a known ellectric
fielld. Figure 98
9 shows th
he experim
mental setup
p. The experiment wass performed
d in a
sem
mi-anechoic chamber whose
w floor iis a conductting ground plane. The frequency of
o the
eleectric field was
w increase
ed from 0.25
5 to 1.5 GHzz in 0.25 GH
Hz steps and
d the electricc field
strrength was varied
v from 10 to 100 V h frequency. A bi-log anttenna located 1 m
V/m for each
t apply thee electric fielld. Both the antenna an
froom the devicce was used to nd the device
e were
possitioned 1 m above the floor.
f The eleectric field was
w calibrate
ed and a con
nventional optical
o
proobe (HI-6005
5) was place
ed next to th
he device being tested to
o measure tthe actual ellectric
97
field applied to the device. The antenna for injection was set to apply horizontal
polarization perpendicular to the xy plane of the device and the device was set to align y
axis to the horizontal polarization (see Figure 98(b)).
Anechoic chamber
Probe being tested
10 - 100 V/m
1m
Calibrated 1m
Monitor
E-field probe
(a) Antenna and probe location in anechoic chamber
antenna
case 90 0 0
antenna case antenna case
180 0
y 270 90 z 270 90 z
270 180 x 180 y
x y x
z
(b) Axes of the electric-field probe
Figure 98. Setup for testing function of prototype device
Figure 99 shows the experimental results for the received power converted from the
device output as a function of the electric field strength for various frequencies. The
received power increases exponentially with the applied electric field for frequencies up to
1 GHz. However, at frequencies over 1 GHz, the received power obtained from the output
pulse width becomes saturated below 70 V/m so that no further variation with applied
electric field strength can be observed. This is because the dynamic range of the RF power
detector is too low for the electric field strengths used. The results of this experiment
demonstrate that the device functions correctly up to a frequency of 1 GHz for electric
field strengths up to 100 V/m. The electric field strength working range could be extended
by using an additional amplitude adjustment circuit.
Next, the directivity of the device was evaluated using the same testing setup as that
shown in Figure 98. These tests were performed at 1 GHz. The angle of the antenna used
98
was fixed and the orientation of the device being tested was varied (see Figure 98(b)).
Figure 100 shows the evaluation results. The directivity is not isotropic since the antenna
printed on the PCB is just a single element of a bent monopole. The sensitivity to RF
waves applying to the xz plane is considerably lower than that in the other plane. It will
be important to improve the directivity because it directly affects the measurement
accuracy for an unknown incident RF wave. It is also important to discriminate the
polarization of the incident electric field, which can be achieved by using three antennas
for the three axes.
Converted received power [dBm]
-10
-20 ■: 1.5 GHz

□: 1.25 GHz
▲: 1.0 GHz
●: 0.75 GHz
-30 △: 0.5 GHz
○: 0.25 GHz
10 50 100
Applied electric field [V/m]
Figure 99. Converted received power to the electric field for various frequencies
99
90Received power [dBm]

120 60
20
150 30
40
Angle [deg]
180 60 0
210 330
○: x-y plane
□: x-z plane
240 300
△: y-z plane
270
Figure 100. Directivity of prototype probe in different planes
5.2. 3D Simulation and calculation
A 3D electromagnetic simulation was performed to verify the directivity of the device.

Figure 101 shows the model created in CST Microwave Studio. The PCB model consists of
only a bent monopole element with a 1 k termination resistor and the planar pattern to
simulate the GND plane on a board with no ICs or precise patterning (see Figure 101).
This is because the purpose of the simulation is to determine whether the measured
directivity of the device is theoretically reasonable. If there is electromagnetic interference
or coupling between the RF waves around the device and the PCB circuit, the simulated
directivity will differ from the measured directivity. In the simulation, the shielding box
for the board has the same dimensions as the experimental one and it is covered with a
copper sheet. FR-4 and copper are assigned to the PCB and the pattern (including the
antenna element), respectively. The 3D simulation was performed at 1 GHz and the
directivity of the device was calculated. An electric field of 100 V/m was applied as a plane
wave to the device and the voltage generated across the termination resistor was
monitored in the simulation.
Figure 102 shows the simulation results in the xy plane. The electric field strength at each
angle was normalized by the maximum electric field strength. The simulation results
show good agreement with measurements, even at the null angles of 90 and 270°. This
100
5. Appendiix A: Stand
d-alone Eleectric-field Probe
P
ind
dicates that the bent monopole anttenna with the
t shielding
g box functio
ions correctlly and
doees not have unwanted coupling to th
he PCB.
In addition, th
he dependen
nce of the recceived power on the elecctric field sttrength appllied to
thee bent monoopole anten
nna was calcculated. Forr a sinusoid
dal current distribution
n, the
recceived voltag
ge Vr from a simple mon
nopole anten
nna is given by
(38
8)
wh
here ZR is thee terminatio
on resistancee, ZA is the antenna
a imp
pedance, E iss the electricc field
strrength, L is the d  is the wav
t antenna length, and velength. Th
he antenna iimpedance ZA was
con
nsidered to be
b the same as the inputt impedance
e calculated from
f the sim
mulation since the
anttenna loss was
w assume
ed to be neggligible. The termination
n resistancee is 1 k an
nd the
wa
avelength was
w calculate
ed by consiidering the shortening effect due to the diellectric
nstant r = 4. Figure 103
con 3 compares tthe calculate
ed voltage frrom the RF p
power detecttor IC
witth the mea
asurement results.
r Theere is good agreement between th
he measured
d and
theeoretical ressults.
Figure 10
01. 3D sim
mulation moodel created
d in CST Miicrowave Sttudio
101
90normalized level
1
120 60
150 30
0.1
Angle [deg]
180 0.01 0
210 330
z y
240 300 x
270
Figure 102. Comparison of the simulated directivity (normalized with the maximum
electric field strength) with the measurement results
0
Received power [dBm]
-10
-20
■: Measured
-30 ―: Theory
10 50 100
Applied electric field [V/m]
Figure 103. Comparison between calculated received power as a function of electric field
strength and measurement results
5.3. Electric field measurement inside enclosure
The prototype device was used to measure the electric field inside an enclosure. A metal
box with dimensions of 120 mm (height) × 150 mm (width) × 200 mm (length) (see Figure
104) was used for these measurements. The box has a slit that is 50 mm long and 10 mm
wide that permits an electric field to be generated within the enclosure. It is used to
simulate an actual device that has a slit or a hole for a connector or a harness. A wired
probe cannot be used to measure the electric field inside such an enclosure in practical
102
applications because the connector generally blocks the slit or hole. The prototype probe
was placed at the center of the bottom plane inside the enclosure (see Figure 104). The
electric field was also measured using a calibrated commercial probe (HI-6005) that has
an optical cable; it was used as a reference and was located at the same position. A
vertically polarized 200 V/m electric field was applied using a horn antenna located 0.9 m
from the box surface. The measurement was performed for frequencies from 0.2 to 1.0
GHz in 0.2 GHz steps.
Figure 105 compares the measurement results of the received electric field strength
(normalized by the maximum electric field strength) obtained using the prototype probe
and the calibrated probe. Both measurements have a peak at 0.6 GHz and the electric
field strength drops to half at the dip at 0.8 GHz, which suggests good correlation between
the measurements by the prototype and conventional probes. These results demonstrate
the potential of the prototype stand-alone electric field probe.
100 mm 100 mm
150 mm
200 mm
z
50 mm 120 mm x
y probe
10 mm
probe 75 mm
z x 75 mm
0.9 m y y
z x
Horn antenna
Figure 104. Schematic of experiment setup for the measurement of electric field inside
enclosure with small slit
103
Normalized electric field strength

0.5
0.1
■: HI-6005
0.05 ○: Prototype probe
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Frequency [GHz]
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 105. Comparison of experimental electric field measurements inside an enclosure by

prototype and conventional probes
A stand-alone electric field probe was developed to measure the electric field inside an
enclosure for investigating immunity testing at high electric fields. The prototype probe
consisted of a bent monopole antenna, an RF power detector IC, and a PIC in a shielding
box. Its function was verified by directly applying an electric field to the probe. The
measurements confirmed that the probe works up to 1 GHz without saturation by the
electric field. The directivity of the probe was also evaluated. 3D electromagnetic
simulations and theoretical calculations of the probe were performed to verify its
directivity and sensitivity. The simulation and calculation results showed good agreement
with the experimental results; there was a maximum error of 6 dB for the directivity,
which indicates that the probe functions properly. Moreover, the prototype probe was used
to measure an electric field at 1 GHz inside an enclosure with a small slit. The measured
electric field strength normalized by the maximum electric field strength agreed well with
the results obtained by a calibrated commercial probe.
The stand-alone probe can measure the electric field inside an enclosure without
modifications (such as an opening hole/slit for wire routing). It can thus be utilized to
investigate immunity mechanisms.
104
6. Appendix B: EM Simulation of On-Glass Antenna with Vehicle Body
6. Appendix B: EM Simulation of
On-Glass Antenna with Vehicle
Body
This chapter describes the results of a study using electromagnetic (EM) simulation for a
GPS antenna mounted on the front windshield along with other parts of the vehicle. Due
to the rapid growth of electromagnetic simulation technology, the approach based on the
commercial simulation software is also necessary for the investigation and the
development of products. In this chapter, through electromagnetic simulation such large
scale model in high frequency, the study on the capability of the simulation is described.
6.1. Background of simulation
GPS and cellular antenna are key components for telematics application which is rapidly
growing in automotive industry. In product development for the telematics, antenna
location is one of the most important design parameter since the antenna location affects
on the antenna performance which is directly related to system performance, and it could
affect on the vehicle aesthetic design as well [62]. Usually GPS antenna prefers to be
located on the roof of vehicle from the engineering point of view since there is no
obstruction for the communication with satellite and the roof works as huge ground plane
[63], which means vehicle design e.g. difference of coupe and sedan has less effect on the
antenna performance. However, from the viewpoint of vehicle design, it is preferred to
locate the antenna inside vehicle due to some reasons such as antenna security or vehicle
appearance design etc. [64]. To find better location inside vehicle for radiation pattern of
antenna, electromagnetic simulation can be effective alternative way [65], [66]. GPS
antenna simulation with vehicle has been studied with variety of respects [67], [68] but
still needs to be investigated to clarify what the important parameter is in order to use
simulation for total design because the antenna inside vehicle is more sensitive to vehicle
parts or vehicle design than roof antenna due to the reason described above.
This chapter summarizes the study on GPS antenna simulation with more-vehicle-like
car model. In the simulation, mesh GPS antenna which we have reported [69] is used.
First the GPS performance with windshield is calculated. Second, the effects of vehicle
parts have been analyzed separately. Lastly the whole vehicle simulation results have
105
6. Appendix
A B:
B EM Simu
ulation of On-Glass
O Antenna
A wit
ith Vehicle Body
beeen compared
d with actua
al measurem
ment resultss to give the
e propriety oof the simulation
moodel.
6.2. Simulatioon model
Meeshed GPS antenna

a wh
hich is moun
ntable on gla
ass is used in
i this simu
ulation. The
e peak
gaiin direction in radiation
n pattern of this antenn
na can be con
ntrolled by jjust changin
ng the
meesh pattern without cha
anging the ssize of anten
nna, which will
w be signiificant adva
antage
wh
hen the mesh GPS ante
enna is insta
alled on win
ndshield or rear
r glass bbecause the tilt of
thoose glass aree usually diffferent betw
ween vehicles. Fig. 1 sho
ows the anteenna structu
ure in
sim
mulation moodel. The dim
mensions off antenna arre 22 mm width,
w 39 mm
m length, 10
00 µm
thiickness and antenna ellement usess copper in this simulation to be ttuned at GP
PS L1
75 GHz. In order to obtaiin the correllation with actual
freequency 1.57 a anten
nna prototyp
pe, the
anttenna is forrmed on FR
R-4 substratte but it is possible to print on wiindshield diirectly
witthout PCB depending on the neccessity of application. Due to thee mesh desiign of
anttenna and the
t small siize of elemeent, it can be
b more tra
ansparent th
han conventional
pattch antenna
a, which can
n be consideered as bene
efit in terms design because it
s of vehicle d
doees not interffere with botth driver’s eeyesight and
d vehicle app
pearance.
Figure 10
06. GPS a
antenna sim
mulation mo
odel
Sin
nce the antenna is desig
gned to be pllaced on win
ndshield, the antenna peerformance can
c be
verrified only with
w glass model.
m First the simulation has bee
en performeed with sma
all cut
gla n in figure 2 and with wiindshield model to check
ass as shown k the antenn
na characterristics
theen. Frequen
ncy range is from 0.8 G
GHz to 2.2 GHz.
G The siz
ze of cut glaass is 150 mm
m by
100
0mm. In thee windshield
d model, thee antenna iss placed at middle
m of wiindshield wiith 40
mm
m distance from
f top edg
ge of windsh
hield. The sim
mulation results of retu
urn loss (S11
1) and
VS
SWR are shoown in figure
e 3, and radiiation patterrns for RHCP
P gain (dBicc) in y-z plan
ne and
x-zz plane are shown
s in figu
ure 4 respecctively.
106
6. Appendix
A B:
B EM Simu
ulation of On-Glass
O Antenna
A wit
ith Vehicle Body
Th
he resonant frequency
f off antenna w
with cutglasss 1.64 GHz is
i slightly hiigher than target
t
1.5
575 GHz butt the result with
w windsh
hield 1.59 GH
Hz is closer. This result suggests that the
gla
ass size affects on the frequency
f ch
haracteristiccs of antenn
na impedancce and the design
d
neeeds to be opttimized with T peak gaiin direction in y-z
h consideratiion of the sizze of glass. The
pla
ane radiation
n shown in figure
f 4 for ssmall glass model
m aroun
nd 330 degreees is as desiigned.
In the windshiield result, null
n around 270 degreess and the pea
ak around 2440 degrees can
c be
con t effect of wind shield
nsidered as the d.
Figure 107.
1 Left: small cut gglass model. Right: win
ndshield moodel
0 4
Return Loss [dB]
-
-5 3
VSWR
-10 2
with just
j small glass with justt small glass
with windshield
w with winndshield
-15 1
1 1.5 2 1 1
1.5 2
Freq
quency [GHz] Frequen ncy [GHz]
Figure 10
08. Left: return loss of antenna. Right: VSW
WR of anten
nna
107
0 0
z z
30 330 30 330
0 0
x y x y
60 10 300 60 10 300
20 20
90 270 90 270
120 240 120 240
with small glass at 1.575GHz

150 210 with small glass at 1.640GHz
150 210
180 with windshield at 1.575GHz 180
Figure 109. Radiation pattern in y-z plane (Left), and in x-z plane (Right)
Next, parts of vehicle have been added to the windshield model one by one, including
A-pillars, roof, front vehicle body, and chassis with front of dash which is metal part
between engine room and passenger room. Those parts model of vehicle are shown in
figure 5.
Fig. 6 shows result of return loss and VSWR for windshield with A-pillars model
comparing to whole vehicle model. The difference between two models is less than 0.1
GHz which is quite small and suggests the frequency characteristics can be designed with
only windshield model in this case. Radiation patterns in figure 7 show the effect of
A-pillars and roof in comparison to just windshield result. In y-z plane, A-pillars increase
the gain between 290 and 360 degrees by up to 6 dB, but roof reduces gain in the same
direction. Also the roof increases the gain at 30 degrees which is the direction of the roof is
located. On the other hand, gain around 100 and 270 degrees in x-z plane for A-pillars and
roof model increased.
Figure 8 shows results for rest of parts including front of dash with chassis, hood with side
body and rear body. Front of dash and chassis have significantly increase null points in
the range from 300 to 30 degrees in y-z plane which is quite important direction for GPS
performance. These null are considered to be related with the reflection from those parts.
While the radiation pattern has been changed with front of dash and chassis, the effect of
hood with side body and rear body is quite small. This is because those parts are not close
to windshield and located at the position which does not affect on radiation from GPS
antenna.
108
6. Appendix
A B:
B EM Simu
ulation of On-Glass
O Antenna
A wit
ith Vehicle Body
Figure 110. Veh

hicle model cconsists of parts
p used in
i simulatioon
0 4
Return Loss [dB]
-5 3
VSWR
-10 2
Windshield & A pillars Windshielld & A-pillars

Whole Vehiicle Whole Veehicle
-15 1
1 1.5 2 1 1.5 2
Frequeency [GHz] Freq
quency [GHz]]
Figure 111. Left: return loss of antenna. Right: VSW

WR of anten
nna
z 0 z 0
30 330 30 330
x y 0 x y 0
60 100 300 60 10 300
200 20
90 270 90 270
120 240 120 240
withh windshield
150 210 withh windshield & A-pillars
A 150 210
1800 withh windshield & A-pillars
A & roof 180
1
F
Figure 112. n pattern in
Radiation n y-z plan (L
Left), and in
n x-z plane (Right)
109
0 0
z z
30 330 30 330
x y 0 x y 0
60 300 60 300
10 10
20 20
90 270 90 270
120 240 120 240
Add instrument panel & chassis

150 210 Add hood and side body 150 210
180 with whole vehicle 180
Figure 113. Radiation pattern in y-z plan (Left), and in x-z plane (Right)
6.3. Comparison with measurement
Actual antenna measurement sample has been done using sedan vehicle which has very
similar shape to the simulation model in figure 5 in order to verify simulation results.
GPS antenna is put on the windshield at the same position as simulation which is 40 mm
from top as shown in figure 9. The vehicle experiment was performed in an anechoic
chamber. Horn antenna was used for measurement and was located 4.2 m away from GPS
antenna in vehicle. Radiation pattern measurement results are shown in figure 10
comparing with simulation results. A loss of cable for feeding antenna is considered as 3
dB in the simulation results. In the comparison, there is close correlation between
simulation and measurement results. For quantitative evaluation, linear averages of
RHCP gain in each x-y plane at different elevation angle have been calculated which is
shown in figure 11. Simulation results have good correlation with measurement results
especially at the elevation angle from 0 to 60 degrees. The difference at higher elevation
angle more than 60 could come from uncertainty of measurement or the effect of other
vehicle parts which are not considered in this simulation.
110
6. Appendix
A B:
B EM Simu
ulation of On-Glass
O Antenna
A wit
ith Vehicle Body
F
Figure 114. GPS anttenna locatiion on windshield used for measurrement
0 0
z z
30 330 30 330
0 0
x y x y
100 10
60 300 60 300
200 20
300 30
90 270 90 270
120 240 120 240
150 210
Simulation 150 210
0
180
Measuremen nt 1
180
Figuree 115. Lefft: radiation

n pattern in y-z plan. Right:
R radiattion pattern
n in x-z plan
ne
0
Linear Average Gain [dBic]
-55
-100 Meassurement
Simuulation
0 220 40 60 80
E
Elevation Anngle [deg]
Figure 116
6. Elevatiion angle de
ependence oof linear ave
erage gain for
f measureement resullt and
simula
ation result in x-y plane
e
111
On-glass GPS antenna performance for telematics application has been calculated with
more-vehicle-like car model using electromagnetic simulation software. First, the
performance with just small cut glass has been simulated and compared with windshield
model. The difference of glass size affects on GPS return loss characteristic by 0.4 GHz.
Second, vehicle part models have been added individually and simulated. A-pillars
increased RHCP gain of GPS in forward direction of car but roof reduced in the same
direction and increased the gain in back direction of car by around several dB. Addition of
front of dash and chassis considerably increased null point in 2D radiation pattern
especially in forward direction of vehicle. Hood, side body of vehicle, rear body and rear
glass did not have major effect on the radiation pattern which were less than 3 dB in peak
direction in this case. These results suggest that radiation pattern for this type of GPS
antenna mounted on windshield can be simulated with only parts which are located
around windshield and affect on the radiation. Lastly GPS antenna radiation pattern has
been measured using actual hardware sample with similar type of vehicle to the
simulation model. From the comparison to simulation results, there is good correlation
between them. Elevation angle dependence of linear average gain also showed strong
correlation and the adequacy of simulation has been verified. The mismatch at higher
elevation angle in linear average gain between measurement and simulation needs to be
investigated as future work. Throughout the study, it also has been clarified that the
electromagnetic simulation for such large scale model is already applicable to estimate the
antenna performance. Theoretical calculation approaches as well as such commercial
simulator based study are important for the realization of EMC design.
112
7. Bibliography
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118
8. Acknowledgements
8. Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor and thesis
chair, Professor Michihiko Suhara, for his continuous support of my Ph.D study and
research work. He has been very supportive and continues encouraging me to go forward.
Ever since I started my research work, he has supported me by not only providing
research advice but also helping me mentally during the hard task of completing this
thesis. Moreover, during the most difficult times, he gave me moral support as well.
Also, I would like to thank my thesis committee, which guided me through the degree
examination board meeting, Professor Masao Taki and Associate Professor Seiji
Nakamura for their encouragement, insightful comments, and useful questions.
I also wish to thank Mr. Takashi Suga, who has been a great help all this time as my
co-author. People have helped me at Hitachi, Ltd. at various points: Dr. Masayoshi
Takahashi, Dr. Hideki Osaka, Mr. Satoshi Nakamura, Mr. Tatsuji Noma, Dr. Umberto
Paoletti, Mr. Hitoshi Yokota, and Dr. Akihiro Namba. I also would like to thank people at
Tokyo Metropolitan University: Professor Tsugunori Okumura, Dr. Kiyoto Asakawa, and
research members in their laboratories
I would also like to express my gratitude to the people who have been involved in and
helped with my research work: Mr. Horita, Mr. Takaba, Mr. Anzai, Dr. Kaneyasu, Mr.
Mark Wisnewski, Mr. Lian Shao, and Mr. Kevin McCarthy.
Last but not least, I especially thank my family for being so supportive. They will always
be my greatest strength.
119
9. List of related publications

1. Journal
Title Publication Vol., No. Year Authors
1* 近傍磁界プローブの GHz 帯における等エレクトロニクス Vol.14, No.3, 2011 船戸裕樹

価回路化と高空間分解能化(Japanese) 実装学会誌 pp. 195-203 須賀卓
2* 근방자계 프로브의 GHz 대에 表面実装技術 Vol.12, No.9, 2011 H. Funato

있어서의 등가 회로화와 높은 하늘간 pp. 63-72 T. Suga
분해능화 (Korean)
3* Application of a Cavity Resonator IEEE vol.56, no.2, 2014 H. Funato

Model for Characterization and Transactions pp.475-481 T. Suga
Estimation of Radiation From a on EMC M. Suhara
PCB-Chassis System
4* Improved position-signal- difference IEICE vol.11, no.11, 2014 H. Funato

electric near-field measurements Electronics pp.1-7 T. Suga
based on fringe capacitance model Express M. Suhara
2. International Conference
Title Publication Vol., No. Year Authors
1* Magnetic near-field probe for 17th International .pp.284-287 2006 H. Funato

(1) GHz band and spatial resolution Zurich Symposium T. Suga
improvement technique on EMC
2* A Study on Correlation Between IEEE International pp.1-5 2007 H. Funato

(2) the PCB Layout and EMI from Symposium on T. Suga
Chassis EMC
3* An investigation on the IEEE International pp.1-6 2008 H. Funato

(3) reduction technique of radiated Symposium on T. Suga
emission from chassis with PCB EMC
4 Overview of component level IEEE International pp.1-7 2008 H. Funato

(4) EMC characteristics for HEV Symposium on L. Shao
application EMC M. Torigoe
T. Suga
120
5* Calculation of radiated IEEE International pp.28-32 2009 H. Funato

(5) emission from chassis Symposium on T. Suga
connected to PCB with screw EMC
6 Integrated simulation and Vehicle Power and pp.1-5 2008 L. Shao
analysis of resolver sub-system Propulsion T. Zhangjun
for HEV electric drive Conference K. Maki
H. Funato
J. Moore
7 Motor modeling for EMC IEEE International pp.103-108 2009 K. Maki
simulation by 3-D Electric Machines H. Funato
electromagnetic field analysis and Drives L. Shao
Conference
8 GPS antenna mountable on the SAE 2009 World 2009-01-0957 2009 H. Horita
glass with optimized peak gain Congress N. Iso
directivity using a design H. Funato
simulator M. Torigoe
9* Electromagnetic simulation of Wireless pp.148-151 2009 H. Funato
(6) on-glass antenna with vehicle Technology H. Horita
body for telematics application Conference S. Anzai
EuWIT European Y. Wisnewski
10* Stand-alone electric-field probe IEEE International pp.11-15 2011 H. Funato
(7) for measurements within Symposium on T. Suga
enclosures EMC
11* Measurement-based modeling IEEE International pp.714-719 2012 H. Funato
(8) of dual loop magnetic near-field Symposium on T. Suga
probe EMC M. Suhara
12* Double IEEE International pp.621-625 2013 H. Funato
(9) position-signal-difference Symposium on T. Suga
method for electric near-field EMC M. Suhara
measurements
13* Model-Based Analysis of Screw IEEE International pp.— 2014 H. Funato
(10) Locations to Reduce Radiation Symposium on to be T. Suga
from a PCB-Chassis Structure EMC published M. Suhara
121
3. Domestic conference/symposium
Title Conference/symposium Year Author(s)
1* 高周波用ループアンテナにおける電電子情報通信学会総合大 Mar. 船戸裕樹,
界の影響に関する検討会, B-4-69, pp.436 2004 中村聡,
上坂晃一,
須賀卓
2* 10GHz 対応微小磁界プローブにお電子情報通信学会ソサイエ Sep. 船戸裕樹,
ける電界の影響に関する検討ティ大会, B-4-11, pp.281 2004 中村聡,
上坂晃一,
須賀卓
3* GHz 帯微小磁界プローブにおける電子情報通信学会電磁 Mar. 船戸裕樹,
近傍電界の影響に関する検討環境工学研究会(EMCJ) 2005 中村聡,
EMCJ2004-158, 上坂晃一,
pp.67-72 須賀卓
4* 回路基板と筐体の接合部電流に関電子情報通信学会ソサイエ Sep. 船戸裕樹
する検討ティ大会, B-4-27, pp.351 2005 原敦
須賀卓
5* 筐体内電界計測のための単独動作第 1 回 IEEE EMC Nov. 船戸裕樹
型電界プローブシンポジューム 2011 須賀卓
2011(Long Beach)報告会
6* デュアルループ型近傍磁界プロー第 2 回 IEEE EMC Dec. 船戸裕樹
ブの実測によるモデル化シンポジューム 2012 須賀卓
2012(Pittsburgh)報告会須原理彦
7* シミュレーションを支えるノイズ計測第 8 回シミュレーションの Sep. 船戸裕樹
技術とその活用 “力”ワークショップ 2013 須賀卓
須原理彦
8* DPSD 法を用いた近傍電界計測第 3 回 IEEE EMC Dec. 船戸裕樹
シンポジューム 2013 須賀卓
2013(Denver)報告会須原理彦
122
4. Patent
Title of Invention Publication No. Pub. Date Inventor(s)
Application No. App. Date
1 Method of measuring electric US20060071669 A1 2006/4/6 H. Funato
field distribution and electric US 11/236733 2005/9/28 T. Suga
field distribution measuring K. Uesaka
instrument S. Nakamura
2 Magnetic field measurement US7511485 B2 2009/3/31 H. Funato
method and system US 11/342693 2006/1/31
3 Electromagnetic wave US20070063717 A1 2007/3/22 H. Funato
generation source searching US 11/502435 2006/8/11 T. Suga
method and current probe used
therefor
4 Electromagnetic wave US7772856 B2 2010/8/10 H. Funato
generation source searching US 11/502435 2006/8/11 T. Suga
method and current probe used
therefor
5 Magnetic field probe apparatus US7595650 B2 2009/9/29 H. Funato
and a method for measuring US 11/622009 2007/1/11 T. Suga
magnetic field K. Uesaka
6 Circuit board having functions US20070207636 A1 2007/9/6 H. Funato
for detecting and adjusting US 11/670559 2007/2/2 T. Suga
junction current or voltage and T. Hara
electronic apparatus having the
circuit board
7 Circuit for suppressing US20080074857 A1 2008/3/27 H. Funato
electromagnetic interference, US 11/847418 2007/8/30 T. Suga
implementation structure and
electronic apparatus
implementing the same
8 Apparatus for measuring the US20110175594 A1 2011/7/21 H. Funato
magnitude of an electric field US 12/689476 2010/1/19 M. Takahashi
Liang Shao
T. Suga
9 Surface Current Probe US20140132255 A1 2014/5/15 H. Funato
US 14/125754 2012/6/22 T. Suga
123
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Modeling and Analysis of

Near-field Probes and Electromagnetic

A thesis submitted for the degree of

TITLE ： Modeling and Analysis of Near-field Probes and

AUTHOR： Hiroki Funato

QUALIFIED BY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

High density packaging

Figure 2. Magnetic field strength of mobile electronics

Table 1 Scope of this thesis

Measurement Clarification of source and its

2. Modeling and Improvement of

Table 2 Summary of this thesis

Field Electric field Magnetic field Current

Error due to Change of the gap between

Objective Optimized measurement condition Optimized probe structure -

Calculati Near-Far transformation

2.1. Equivalent Circuit of Magnetic Near-Field Probe in GHz Band and

2.1.1. Evaluation of Sensitivity to Magnetic and Electric Near-Field

gure 5 shows the measu

magnetic near-field probe

Figure 5. Measurement setup

Figure 7. Evaluation results of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|) and by

|VH|, |VE| [dBV]

Figure 8. Evaluation results of |VH | and |VE| for type B

Figure 9. Probe height dependence of induced voltage by electric near-field (|VE|)

2.1.2. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Electric Near-field

8 ladder Lex Lsh

Rtg Rsh Rsh

Table 3 Derived parameters

Figure 12. Calculation and measurement results of |VE| for type A

Figure 13. Calculation and measurement result of |VE| for type B

2.1.3. Equivalent Circuit for Sensitivity to Magnetic Near-field

It can be also expressed as

Ltg Rtg Ltg Rtg Rex Rsh

Lts Rts Lts Rts Lsh

Figure 14. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type A)

Figure 15. equivalent circuit of probe for magnetic near-field (type B)

2.1.3.1. Effective Height for Magnetic Near-field Measurement

Effective height: heff [mm]

2.1.4. Application of Position Signal Difference Method

Figure 21. Calcula

2.2. Measurement-Based Modeling of Dual Loop Magnetic Near-field Probe

The error due to background electromagnetic fluctuations is not problematic for

2.2.1. Fabricated Probes for Evaluation

The frequency characteristics of the magnetic near-field were measured using a

Network analyzer (8753D)

Figure 26. Measurement setup for probe evaluation

Figure 27. Measurement results of |S21| for probes A and B

2.2.2. Modeling of Probes

Figure 28. Equivalent circuit of dual loop magnetic near-field probe

Stimulus source of netwoork

Probe A Magneticc Probee B

Figure 30. op magneticc near-field probe

Figuree 31. Sim

Figure 32. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe B

Figure 33. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe B

Figure 34. Comparison of calculation and measurement of |S21| for probe A

Figure 36. Frequency dependence of input impedance for probe A

Probe A Probe B scan

Figure 38. Configuration of calculation for different probe type

without disturbance with disturbance

Probe position [mm] Probe position [mm]

Figure 39. Comparison of calculated scanned results between probes

2.3. Modeling and Improvement of Electric Near-field Measurements