SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Definition

• Social stratification is a term used to describe the relative social position of persons in a given social
group, category, geographical region or other social unit.
• It derives from the Latin strātum referring to a given society’s categorization of its people into
rankings of socio-economic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, social
status, occupation and power.
Social mobility
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or
strata in a stratification system.
Types:
1. Horizontal Mobility:

• Under this type of social mobility, a person changes his or her occupation but the overall social
standing remains the same.
• Ex. When an engineer changes his occupation from engineer to teaching engineering, he has
horizontally moved from one occupational category to another. But no change has taken place in the
system of social stratification.
2. Vertical Mobility:

• Vertical mobility refers to any change in the occupational, economic or political status of an
individual or a group which leads to change of their position
• According to the direction of transition, there are two types of vertical social mobility –social
climbing and social sinking.
• An infiltration of the individuals of a lower stratum into an existing higher one exists in social
climbing or vice versa in case of social sinking.
• Ex. When a big businessman meets with losses in his business and is declared bankrupt, he occupies
a low status. On the other hand, if a small businessman with occupational skills of money and
manipulation becomes an industrialist he occupies a higher position in the social ladder. Hence his
position improves in the hierarchical order.
• Vertical mobility is more in open societies.

Social Climbing (Upward Mobility):

• When a person or a group of persons move from lower position to upper position it
is called social climbing.

Ex.A person belonging to a lower caste and occupying a lower position after winning
elections becomes a Minister and occupies a higher position. He may not be able to change
his caste but with his economic and political power he may move upward. For example,
Yadavs in India stand as a testimony to this fact.
 Social Sinking (Downward Mobility):

• Social sinking indicates that one loses his higher position and occupies a lower position.
• Ex. Under the traditional Indian system if a lady of higher Brahmin caste married a man of
Sudra caste, not only the man and woman were out casted but their children were declared
as ‘chandals.’
3. Inter-Generational Mobility:

• This type of mobility happens when thenext generation changes its social status in contrast to
preceding generation.
• This mobility may be upward or downward.
• Ex. Govind Jaiswal’s father was a rickshaw puller but he cleared UPSC exams and became an IAS
officer, this would be called upward inter- generational mobility.
• A family of Brahmins may be engaged on traditional occupation of teaching and performing rituals
but its younger generation is neither intelligent nor follows the family occupation. They become daily
wagers then the younger generation has downward inter-generational mobility.
• Factors affecting Inter-generational Mobility according to Sorokin:
(a) Differences in capability of Parents and Offspring leading to different status in the next
generation
(b) Overall population growth creates new positions in the upper and middle levels of
society, where growth is not great enough to fill the vacancies.
(c) With the changing times many occupations have been upgraded and downgraded because
their socially defined importance has changed.
4. Intra-Generational Mobility:

• This type of mobility takes place in life span of one generation. This can be further divided into two:
• Ex. Justice Kapadia started his career as a legal clerk. He acquires a legal education and became a
lawyer. Over a period of time, he becomes the CJI. In this way he moves up and occupies a higher
social position than the one with which he had started his career.
5. Occupational Mobility:

• Occupational mobility means change from one occupation to another.

• Different occupations’ are hierarchically arranged because of different economic rewards and enjoys
different power, prestige and privileges.
• There is upward vertical occupational mobility and downward vertical occupational mobility
• From a clerk to an officer is upward vertical occupational mobility; from a clerk to a peon or a
smuggler is downward vertical occupational mobility.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH MOBILITY (By M.N. Srinivas)

A. Sanskritisation:It denotes the process by which caste or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy
seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes.
Ex. Lingayat caste achieving higher caste status within Karnataka society by assuming high caste traits
like adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism.
 B. Brahmanization:It denotes the process by which caste or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy
seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of Brahmans.
C. Westernization:
It refers to the shift from traditional culture to the adopting of western values and culture and the
changes brought in Indian society and culture due to the western contact as a result of over 150 years
of British rule. The term subsumes changes occurring at different levels-technology, institution,
ideology and values.
THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION:
Karl Marx

• Marx considered economy to be the foundation of the whole socio-cultural system. The modern
economy is based on production of goods.
• Ex- in Rural societies- agrarian landholders are landholders- workers are serfs, in Urban Societies-
factory owners are capitalists and those who work for them are serfs or laborers.
• Social class, according to Marx, is determined by one's relationship to the means of production. Ex.
Employer–employee work conditions, the technical division of labor, and property relations.
• There exist at least two classes in any class-based society: the owners of the means of production and
those who sell their labor to the owners of the means of production.
• Working class only have their labor powerto offer the more powerful in order to survive.
• Marx has distinguished four kinds of classes:
a. Bourgeoisie, own the means of production and purchase the labor power of others
b. Petite bourgeoisie own sufficient means of production but do not purchase labor power.
c. Proletariat, do not own any means of production or the ability to purchase the labor power of
others. Rather, they sell their own labor power.
d. Lumpenproletariat are the "social scum" who lack awareness of their collective interest as an
oppressed class."
 • ‘Polarization of the Classes’ refers to the process by which the class structure becomes increasingly
polarized – pushed to two ends with noting in the middle.It says that soon classes will disappear and
be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie or the proletariat.
• Such a Polarization happens because of class conflict. The interest between these classes are
irreconcilable- meaning that one can gain anything only at the expense of the other- result- the
superiors always gained at the expense of the inferiors
• The workers were always exploited by the superiors- and other institutions too affected hastened
their exploitation- like the society, religion, politics and education.

Ex. Religion preaches fatalism- which says that sufferings cannot be prevented and that
passive suffering would bring heavenly rewards- government puts down all the efforts of the
working class to secure rights.

• The counter-argument to Marxist's conflict theory is the theory of structural functionalism, argued
by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, which states that social inequality places a vital role in the
smooth operation of a society.
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore

• The Davis–Moore hypothesis argues that a position does not bring power and prestige because it
draws a high income; rather, it draws a high income because it is functionally important and the
available personnel is scarce.
• Most high-income jobs are difficult and require a high level of education to perform, and their
compensation is a motivator in society for people to strive to achieve more.
• All roles in the society must be filled and that too by those most able to perform them
• Necessary training must be provided for the same. Attaching high rewards motivates people to
compete for it
• How to identify the functionally important position?
1. Degree to which a position is functionally unique
2. Degree to which other positions are dependent on the one in question.
Melvin M Tumin

• Criticized Davis-Moore hypothesis

• Argued that Davis and Moore ignored the influence of power on the unequal distribution of rewards.
• Only the existence of a limited number of individuals as talented is a questionable.
• Unequal rewards act as barrier to the motivation and recruitment of talent. Differential rewards can
encourage hostility, suspicion and distrust among the various segments of society instead of
integrating them.
• Training required for important positions should be regarded as sacrifice and therefore in need of
compensation. Tumin argues that rewards for the time period of the work is justified but not for the
individuals’ working life.
Ex. A Police officer shouldn’t be able to use beacons post retirement.
Max Weber
Max Weber rejected the possibility of effective communism, arguing that it would require an even greater
level of detrimental social control and bureaucratization than capitalist society. Moreover,
 • Weber criticized the basic presumption of a proletariat revolt, as being unlikely.
• Instead, he develops a three-component theory of stratification and the concept of life chances.
• He based his theories on the social structure of Germany. He notes stratification is based on more
than simple ownership of capital. Weber examines how many members of the aristocracy lacked
economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and power, for
example, because they were Jewish.
• Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy, which
are; class, status, and power:
1. Class: A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement.
Ex. how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have
placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell
their labor instead of owning capital.
2. Status: A person's social prestige or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not
rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status.
Ex. Poets or saints like Osho, for example, can have extensive influence on society despite
few material resources.
3. Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability
to engage social change.
Ex. individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the IPS/IAS, may hold little
property or status but still wield considerable social power. They may face resistance from
political leaders but still engage social change.
• Concept of Life Chances says that one’s opportunities, what sociologists call “life chances,” are
shaped by our class, status and power. While we tend to think of success as the sole result of our
talent and effort, our social position is in many ways a result of our (and our family’s) social status.

Ex. Imagine two young men from vastly different backgrounds—both bright, neither exactly
sure what direction they want their lives to take. One resides in an impoverished area of
Mumbai (like Dharavi) in a neighborhood plagued by gangs and violence. The other grows
up in South Bombay and attends an exclusive prep school with children of the political elite
(like the Doon School). Neither is particularly committed to their studies, and both find
themselves adrift. Can you guess who ends up in GNLU and who ends up in prison?
Talcott Parsons

• Social Stratification serves certain basic needs or functional prerequisites required as to meet the
needs of the society.
• Order and stability essential for the operation of the social system and stratification provide for the
same.
• Stability and cooperation in society is based on value consensus.
• Social stratification as inevitable means as it derives from shared values which are necessary part of
all social systems.
• Despite being inevitable it is functional because it serves to integrate various groups in society.
CASTE:
• Caste structure is a pattern of social behavior in which groups and individuals are guided by
prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions.

• Sociologists have defined caste or (as locally referred to) ‘jati’ as a hereditary, endogamous,
group which is usually localized. It has a traditional association with an occupation, and a
particular position in the local hierarchy of castes.

• Relations between castes are governed, among other things by the concepts of pollution
and purity, and generally maximum commensality1.

• ‘Varna’ model divides the Hindu society into four orders, viz., Brahmana, (Brahman,
traditionally, priest and scholar), Kshatriya (ruler and soldier), Vaishya (merchant) and
Shudra (peasant, labourer and servant). The term ‘varna’ literally means colour to make the
distinction between Arya and Dasa.

• The first three castes are ‘twice-born’ or ‘dvija’. The untouchable castes are outside the
varna scheme.

• According to Srinivas (1962: 65) the varna-scheme is a ‘hierarchy’ in the literal sense of the
term because the criteria of ritual purity and pollution are at the basis of this
differentiation.

• The varna model only provides a framework within which the innumerable variations of castes
throughout India are found. The varna frame which remains more or less constant while castes vary
from region to region.

• According to M.N. Srinivas, A caste is a dominant caste when it dominates numerically

over the other castes, when it also wields dominant economic and political power, and
when it enjoys a high status in the local caste hierarchy.

Features of caste system:

1. Segmented Division of Society: Caste system divides society into small & well developed
groups. The membership of the group is based on birth. So the caste mobility is restricted.
Under no circumstance can one change one’s caste. A member of the caste group is bound
to follow the norms and values of the group.
2. Hierarchical Division of Society: There is superiority and inferiority among the various
castes. Caste hierarchy is closely related to gradation of occupation.

1
Commensality refers to eating and drinking at the same table
It is a fundamental social activity, which creates and cements relationships. It also sets boundaries, including or
excluding people according to a set of criteria defined by the society. (i.e. eating with members of your own caste and not
other castes).
3. Endogamy: Endogamy refers to marriage within one’s own caste or sub-caste group. Inter-
castes marriages are prohibited. (For Exogamy refer to Kinship)
4. Association with a hereditary occupation: Each caste was associated with an occupation.,
caste hierarchy is closely related to gradation of occupation. Some of the occupations are
regarded as ‘pure’ and some other as ‘impure’. Accordingly, ‘pure’ occupations are allotted to
the higher caste groups and ‘impure’ or inferior occupations to the lower caste groups.
Ex1. Baniyas are engaged in business, Nais are Barbers and Chamars are engaged in
leatherwork etc.
Ex2. The Jajmani system (Refer Annexure of this Document).
5. Restrictions on food and social intercourse:
Ex1. Brahmans can only consume Pacca Food (made in ghee; thought to be purifying eg.
Kachori lolzz) made by others castes and Kaccha Food (made in water eg. rice) only from
their own caste members.
Ex2. Mahars in Maharashtra were made to hang a pot around their neck to spit and tie a
broom around their waist to sweep away their ''impure'' footsteps.
Ex3. Men and women of the Nadar community were forced to keep their upper bodies
uncovered by the caste council of the Nairs. This was perceived as a sign of respect towards
the ‘upper’ castes, and the Nadars had to pay a mulakkaram or ‘breast tax’ if they chose to
cover themselves. – Led to the Channar Revolt
6. Distinction in custom, dress and speech: Each caste has distinct style of life, i.e. having
its customs, dress patterns and speech. The high caste use pure language (Brahmins had the
hegemony over Sanskrit), whereas, the low caste use colloquial language. Lower castes
cannot use gold ornaments or umbrellas. Higher-lower castes do not share smoking of hukka
among them.
7. Each Caste has its own Caste Panchayat: Castes have their own conflict resolving
mechanisms and they enforce decisions using punishment like fines or ostracizing or out-
casting. It had tremendous power over its members. It is headed by a caste Sarpanch.
8. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges:
Ex1. The well to be used by lower castes is defined. They can’t take water from upstream of
the river but only from the downstream.
Ex2. Dalits can’t enter temples and religious institutions.
Ex3. Food prepared by Brahmin is acceptable to all, the reason for which domination of
Brahmins in hotel industry for long time.
Theories of Origin of Caste System:
Traditional theory/Religious theory: This theory owes its origin to the ancient
literature. It believes that caste has a divine origin.
A) Purushasukta in Rig-Veda
1. According to the ‘Purushasukta’ hymn of the Rig Veda, the Brahman is supposed to have been born
from the mouth of Brahma, the Kshatriya from the arms, the Vaishya from the thighs and the Sudra
from the feet of the creator.

2. Since the Brahmin has come out of the mouth, the seat of speech, his duty is to serve society
as a teacher and also to preserve his cultural heritage. Arms symbolize strength. Hence, the
duty of the Kshatriya is to defend the society from internal and external aggressions and rule
the land. The duty of the Vaishya who comes out of the thighs is to provide food for the
members of society and look after its economic well being (idk how though :p). The feet
serve the body. So, the prime duty of the Sudra who is born out of the feet of ‘Brahma’ is to
serve the members of other castes without grumbling.
B) Karma and Guna
• The Karma doctrine holds the view that a man is born in a particular caste because of the
result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of Dharma explains that a man
who accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to which he belongs, is living
according to Dharma.
• It is believed that the person living according to his Dharma is rewarded. On the contrary,
the violation of one’s own dharma yields punishment. Confirmation to one’s own dharma
 also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and violation gives a birth in a lower and
poor caste.
• According to Chapter IV, verse 13 of The Bhagavad Gita, the fourfold-caste has been created by
Lord Krishna according to the differentiation of Guna and Karma. Depending upon a person’s
Guna (aptitude) and Karma (actions), there are four Varnas (castes).
• Further, Chapter XIV specifies three Gunas – viz. satva (purity), rajas (passion and attachment)
and tamas (ignorance). These three Gunas are present in every human in different proportions,
and determine the Varna of every person. Accordingly, depending on one’s Guna and Karma,
every individual is free to select his own Varna.
This traditional theory has been criticized on the following counts:
1. First it attributes the origin of human beings of four varnas to a divine being and thus
considers it as a supernatural phenomenon which is biologically wrong.
2. Secondly, it treats four ‘varnas’ as four castes, which implies that caste system and varna
system are all the same. This conception is wrong. In this regard M.N. Srinivas holds that the
idea of caste as the four fold division of society represents a gross oversimplification of facts.
The real unit of caste system is ‘Jati’ denoting an endogamous community with more or less
defined ritual status and occupations traditionally linked to it.

Occupational theory: Propounded by Nesfield; Function and function alone is

responsible for the origin of caste system
• Caste system regarded as the natural product of the occupational division of Hindu Society.
• In his own words “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste
system”.
• He holds the view that in the beginning when there was no rigidity, each individual was free
to have occupation of his choice. But gradually with the rigidity in the system, occupational
changes came to a halt.
• Castes were identified on the basis of fixed occupation. Persons in noble occupations, such
as educating the people, fighting in the battle field, trade etc. was considered as members of
superior castes. The others were treated as persons belonging to inferior castes, such as the
Shudras.
• Ex1. Occupation of artisans working in metals is ranked higher than basket makers who do
not involve the use of metals.
Ex2. Musahar (means rat-eaters) are traditionally rat catchers. They come under the
Mahadalit Mission run by Government of Bihar.
• Criticism: The line of attack is that occupation is not the sole basis of causing caste
differences. Also, there are variations in positions of the same occupation across different
regions.
Ex. In South India agricultural castes are rated lower whereas, they are regarded as relatively
higher and respectable in North India.
Racial theory:
1. G.S. Ghurye’s view:
• The caste system came into existence due to clash of races.
• The Aryans came to India as conquerers, because of their better complexion, physical
appearance and built up of the body, in comparison with the non-Aryans, the Aryans placed
themselves as a superior race over the non-Aryans.
• Thus the Aryans considered the natives as inferior to them and maintained their own ideas
and ceremonial purity. According to him the conquered race began to be considered as
Shudras.
• The Aryans got married to the non-Aryan women, but refused to give their own daughters
in marriage to the non-Aryans. The offspring’s born out of such marriages were called the
Chandal and had the lowest position in society.
• Thus the irregular unions between races and the assumptions of racial superiority were held
responsible for the origin of caste system in India.

2. Herbert Risley’s View:

• The caste system originated due to the emigration of Indo-Aryans from Persia. In Persia the
Indo-Aryans were divided into four classes and the migrants in India wanted to retain the
same class structure.
• At the same time they wanted to maintain distance from the non-Aryans because they
considered the non-Aryans inferior to them, both in cultural and racial features.
• They practised hypergamy2 with the non-Aryans, but did not allow hypogamy3 with them.
Even then more stray cases occurred.
• Thus three distinct classes emerged in society:
(a) Endogamous marriage of the Aryans
(b) Hypergamy and
(c) Stray cases of exogamy.
Such marriage practices resulted in the origin of castes.
3. D.N. Majumdar’s View:
• The origin of caste system may be traced to the ‘varna’ or complexion. Initially there were
only three classes on the basis of complexion. These three classes were formed out of the
inter-mixing of Pro- Dravidian and Proto-Mediterranean races.

2
Hypergamy form of marriage is called Anuloma. Anuloma comes from the Hindu caste system and basically
allows a woman to marry either within her own class or to marry into a higher class.
3
Hypogamy is the exact opposite of hypergamy and is called Pratiloma, where the man is of lower social status
than the woman, or the woman marries 'down'. Hypogamy, especially within the Hindu caste system, is
discouraged
 • In course of time the higher castes took to certain professions and the lower caste abstained
from practising those professions of the higher castes. Restrictions were imposed on
marriage. Gradually the superior castes maintained social distance from inferior castes.
• The inferior castes got themselves organised to stake their claim in the caste hierarchy. The
formation of hierarchy became the basis of origin of caste system.

Critcism:
• Racial theory cannot be accepted as the exclusive theory of the origin of caste system in
India.
• Caste system should not be confined to India. It should be found in all such societies which
have experienced the conquest by other racial groups.
• Secondly, it is quite natural that whenever two or more distinct races come into contact,
some sort of segregation results. But this may not always lead to untouchability.
• Thirdly, the practice of hypergamy may be a reasonable factor contributing to the formation
of the caste system. But this is not the sole reason.

Political Theory: Political convenience and manipulation by those wanting to retain

authority resulted in the origin of caste system.
• The Brahmins were solely responsible for creating and maintaining this system so as to retain
authority.
• According to Ghurye, Caste was the child of Indo-Aryans culture in the land of Ganges and hence
transferred to other parts of India by Brahmins.
• Dubois thought that the caste system is a device made by the Brahmins for imposing
restriction on food and social intercourse to preserve their purity necessary for their priestly
functions.
• They also accorded high status to themselves and declared all others inferior to them. The
Brahmins also held that “Whatever a Brahimin says is a social norm and the entire property of the
society belongs to the Brahmins.”
• The salvation of individuals or society lied in the performance of religious rites by the
Brahmin only. The Brahmins even added the concept of spiritual merit of the king, through
the priest or purohit in order to get the support of the ruler of the land.
Criticism:

• It is not possible to accept this theory unless it is confirmed that Brahmins must have got the
political power to implement such a scheme.
• A deep rooted social institution like caste could hardly be imposed by an administrative
measure. The best explanation may be the appeal to the religious sentiments of the people.
Cultural Theory:
• This theory has been propounded by Sarat Chandra Roy.
• Caste is an outcome of the interaction between the Indo-Aryans’ varna system on the one hand
and the tribal system of the Dravidian on the other.
• Caste system evolved as a result of integration and assimilation of different cultures like the
Aryan’s ‘Karma’ based varna system and the Dravidian’s tribal system of occupational division of society
etc.
• As the number of ethnic groups increased the caste system began to grow more complex.

Functions of caste system

(Can also be considered as the merits of the caste system):
1. It continued the traditional social organization of India.
2. It has accommodated multiple communities by ensuring each of them a monopoly of a
specific means of livelihood.
3. It has handed over the knowledge and skills of the hereditary occupation of a caste from
one generation to another, which has helped preservation of culture and ensured
productivity.
4. Caste plays a crucial role in the process of socialization by teaching individuals the culture
and traditions, values and norms of their society.
5. It has also led to interdependent interaction between different castes, through jajmani
relationships. Caste acted as a trade union and protected its members from the exploitation.
6. Promoted political stability, as Kshatriyas were generally protected from political
competition, conflict and violence by the caste system.
7. Maintained racial purity through endogamy.
8. Specialization led to quality production of goods and thus promoted economic
development. For eg: Many handicraft items of India gained international recognition due to
this.

Dysfunctions of Caste System:

(Can also be considered as the demerits of the caste system):
1. The caste system a great stumbling block in the way of social reforms, because it keeps
economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population
only.
2. The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms
stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change.
 3. It undermines the efficiency of labour and prevents perfect mobility of labour by
ensuring occupational rigidity.
Ex. If I want to be a chef and I happen to be a Shudra, I wouldn’t be allowed to do so as the
hotel business was dominated by Brahmins.
4. It perpetuates exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior castes,
especially the untouchables.
5. It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child-
marriage, prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of women etc.
6. It opposes real democracy by giving political monopoly to Kshatriyas in the past and
acting as vote bank in the present political scenario. There are political parties which solely
represent a caste.
Ex. BSP was formed by Kanshi Ram mainly to represent SC, ST and OBC.
7. It has stood in the way of national and collective consciousness and proved to be a
disintegrating rather than an integrating factor. Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in
politics, reservation in jobs and education, inter-caste marriages etc.
Ex. Demand for Jat reservation, Agitation by Patidar community.
8. It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted
into Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.

Factors for change in Caste System:

1. Modern education:

• Modern liberal education introduced into the country by the British has played a crucial role
in undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life.
• Modern education is based on such democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity. It
is also grounded on such scientific values like reason and observation.
• With the spread of modern education, the people’s belief in the divine origin of caste, Karma
and Karmaphala (fruit of your karma) has received a severe setback.
• As modern education is usually imparted in co-educational institutions, it encourages inter-
caste marriage and inter-caste mixing and towards the removal of untouchability.
2. Industrialization:

• The process of industrialization has affected caste structure to a remarkable extent.

Factories, mills and offices are bustling with activity.
• Industrial growth has provided new sources of livelihood to people and made occupational
mobility possible.
 • In the midst of all this, the people belonging to various castes consider it uncool to go into
the question of one’s caste. In a factory a Brahmin works side by side with a Shudra. He
cannot avoid his touch or shadow.
3. Urbanization:

• Industrialization has given rise to the process of urbanization. New townships have emerged.
The ruralites migrate to these towns in order to avail better employment opportunities.
• With the coming up of big hotels, restaurants, malls, theatres, clubs and educational
institutions it is not at all possible to observe communal inhibitions and taboos against food-
sharing.
• The anonymity, congestion, mobility, secularism and changeability of the city make the
operation of the caste virtually impossible.
4. Modern means of transport and communication:

• Modern means of transport and communication are instrumental in increasing mobility of

the people and thereby put an end to the caste system.
• Means of transport like train, bus, tram, airplane etc. cannot provide for distinctions between
castes, and a leveling effect has been brought into the society.
• It is absurd for any transport authority to reserve berths for Brahmins to the exclusion of the
Shudras. During travel, too, one must of necessity take his meals without questioning the
propriety of doing so in the company of low-caste persons.
5. Increase in the importance of wealth:

• Under the caste system, birth was taken as the basis of social prestige. But today, wealth has
replaced birth as the basis of social prestige as prevails in western countries.
• Occupations are now no longer caste-based. People while choosing their occupations attach
greater importance to income rather than anything else.
• It is because of this reason a high-born may be ill-placed in society while a man of low caste
with ample wealth at his disposal has a room at the top.
6. The new legal system:

• The new legal system, introduced by the British Government, has given a severe blow to the
caste system in India.
• Equality before law irrespective of castes has been firmly instituted. Consequently, the age
old discrimination against the lower castes has been removed.
• Further, with the establishment of law courts, the traditional castes Panchayats have lost
their power and effectiveness to punish the deviants.
• Legislations like the Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have
abnegated the evil effects of the caste system.
• P.S. Refer to SC safeguards for more
7. Sanskritization

• Refer to explanation given before

• The caste system being a closed one, sanskritization does not entail structural change. It
entails positional change.
• Hence through sanskritization the lower caste people move up slightly in the scale of “Jatis’
within a particular varna.
8. Westernization:

• Refer to the Explanation before

• By promoting education, equality, rationalism, humanism and above all a critical outlook
towards various social issues and problems, westernization has gone a long way in
undermining the influence of the caste system.
• It has given severe blow to practices like child marriage, purity and pollution, commensality,
untouchability etc.
• The effects of westernization are prominently visible in the form of inter-caste marriages,
intercommunity marriages, inter-religious marriages, occupational changes etc.
9. Secularization:

• By legitimizing secular ideologies and formal legal doctrines independent of religion and
promoting rationality, scientific attitude, secularization has affected certain characteristics of
the caste system especially the concept of purity and pollution, commensality, fixity of
occupation etc.
10. Socialistic ideas:

• Caste system is based on the ideas of high birth and low birth.
• Socialists say, “the differences between human beings have been created by society; hence the society only can
remove them.”
• As a result of such socialist thought which rejects hierarchy based on birth, caste system is
breaking.
11. New social movements:

• Social movements have also attacked the caste system.

• The Brahmo Samaj movement led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy rejected the barriers of caste
divisions and stood for universalisation and brotherhood of man.
• The Prarthana Sabha movement supported by Justice Ranade brought about certain social
reforms like inter-caste marriage, interdining and remarriage of widows, etc.
• The Arya Samaj movement founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Ramakrishna Mission
movement raised voice against the hereditary caste system based on birth and stood for its
abolition.
12. Rise of new social classes:

• Industrialization has given rise to the emergence of new social classes. These social classes
are replacing the traditional castes.
• Loyalties to Trade Unions, Merchants’ Associations and Political Parties are replacing the
age-old caste loyalties.
• An increase in class consciousness leads to a decrease in caste consciousness.
13. Influence of Indian Constitution:

• Indian Constitution bestows some fundamental rights on the citizens irrespective of caste,
creed, colour or sex. It offers equal opportunities to all.
• Refer to Constitutional Safeguards of SC

Caste under Non-Hindus:

Muslims:
• As per Zarina Ahmed,
1. Ashrafs or Sherif jat are those claiming descent from groups of foreign extraction
2. Ajlafs or Ajlaf jat are converts from the lower-caste Hindus
• According to Nazmal Karim: 4 major castes exist among Muslims namely; Syed, Sheik,
Mughal and Pathan
1. Syeds are the descendants of the family of the Prophet through his daughter
2. Sheiks were of Arab origin
3. Mughals were the ruling dynasty of Delhi and of Turk origin
4. Pathans were pashtuns and were of Afghan origin
Christians:
• Syrian Catholics claim to be the earliest converts to Christianity in India
Ex. Nambudiri Brahmin and Nairs of Kerala
• Non-Syrian Catholic: Lower castes who converted to Christianity
Sikhs
• Sardars consisted of higher caste and were land-owning Jat Sikhs.
• Mazhabis consisted of sweepers and lower castes who converted to Sikhism.
Jews
• Bene Israel ("Sons of Israel") Jews are found mainly in Bombay. They are further divided
among Gora and Kala (based on their complexion). After India gained its independence in
1947, and Israel was established in 1948, most Bene Israel Jews immigrated to Israel.
 • Cochin Jews: They are the oldest group of Jews in India, with possible roots claimed to date
to the time of King Solomon. They are further divided into White and Black Jews. Most of
them committed Aliyah4 once Israel was established.
• Baghdadi Jews comprised of communities of Jewish migrants and their descendants
from Baghdad and elsewhere in the Middle East who came to India first during the Mughal
Rule.

B.R. Ambedkar on Caste:

• Born in an untouchable dalit community in Maharashtra called Mahar.
• Started paper Mookh Nayaka, and called All India Depressed Class Conference in Nagpur in
1942.
• Why is Ambedkar called “Abhinava Manu”?
1. Ambedkar was the Law Minister in the First Cabinet of Independent India. He was the
Chairman of the Drafting Committee to draft the Indian Constitution.
2. Article 17 of the Constitution abolished untouchability. Ambedkar had once declared that he
would burn “Manu Smriti’ for its failure to provide justice to the Dalits. The same Ambedkar now
could get the opportunity and the honour of giving to the people of India their Constitution.
3. He is rightly called the “Abhinava Manu” [or “Modern Manu”] for giving India its
Constitution (the foundation on which laws are made in Modern India) replacing
Manusmriti by Manu, the first law giver.
• He started the Self respect movement to instill the ideas of self dignity and self confidence
in Dalits. He organized the Bahishkrita Hitakarni Sabha (1924) to advance this movement.
• He demanded Separate Electorate for Dalits.
• Five principles or Panch-Sutras for the progress of Dalits: (I.P.D.R.C.)
1. Self improvement: own efforts; without expecting from others
2. Self progress: own efforts for progress
3. Self dependence: lessen dependence on others and become self reliant
4. Self respect: maintain dignity and not sacrifice it for an reason
5. Self confidence: confidence in one’s capabilities
• Call to reform the style of life. Urged them to give up eating carrion5, alcoholic drinks and
begging and to become literates and send their children to schools.

4
Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as "the act of going up"—
that is, towards Jerusalem
5
Carrion is the decaying flesh of dead animals
 • Three principles of Dalit movement:
1. Education: essential to eliminate ignorance
2. Agitation: to fight exploiters
3. Organisation: remove individual differences and realize collective interests
Ex. 10 days before Gandhiji’s “Dandi March”, Ambedkar launched a big temple entry
movement at Nasik
• Book Annihilation of Caste (1936); he called for destruction of the Caste system and the
Varna system.
• Considered Outcastes to be byproducts of the caste system. Nothing could emancipate the
outcaste except the destruction of caste system.

Gandhi on Caste
• Inspired by Narsing Mehta (Poet-saint of Gujarat, Adi-Kavi of Gujarati Literature).
• He had compassion for dalits and hence he started movements for their upliftment.
• He declared in 1920 that without removing untouchability, independence cannot be attained.
Hence, he called for Harijan reconstruction.
• Gandhiji’s proposal for Harijan welfare:
i. Servants of harijans- must wholeheartedly serve them
ii. Practice of human scavenging must be stopped
iii. Practice of untouchability should be stopped by all
iv. Must be provided drinking water facilities- must be persuaded to stop alcoholism.
• Gandhi focused exclusively on the issue of "untouchability" and argued that caste
distinctions themselves didn't need to be removed. "It is as wrong to destroy caste because
of the out-caste, as it would be to destroy a body because of an ugly growth in it, or of a
crop because of the weeds.”
• He considered Untouchability not as a product of the caste system, but of the distinction of
high and low which crept into Hinduism and corroded it.
• According to him, as untouchability goes, the caste system itself will be purified, it would
resolve itself into the true Varnadharma, the four divisions of society, each complementary
of the other and none inferior or superior to any other, each equally necessary for the whole
body of Hinduism.
• He thought western education didn’t make a difference in eradicating the casteist mentality
towards untouchability.

Scheduled Castes (SC)

• On the basis of 1931 census British government passed Government of India Act 1935. The
reservation for the Depressed Classes was incorporated into the act, which came into force
in 1937.
• The Simon Commission in 1935 first coined the term ‘Scheduled Castes’.
 • SCs are castes suffering from social and political disabilities traditionally prescribed in the
name of religion and are enforced by the higher castes.
• It is a list of castes published by the Government of India. Under Art.340, the President can
decide which castes are SCs and which tribes are STs.
• Constitutional Safeguards for SCs: (Important for Objective questions)
1. Art.14- Right to Equality
2. Art.15- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place
of birth.
3. Art.16- Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
4. Art.17- Abolition of Untouchability.
5. Art.23- Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour. (Most forced labour
happens with socio-economically downtrodden SCs and STs)
6. Art.24- Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. (Most children employed
in factories happens with socio-economically downtrodden SCs and STs)
7. Art.29- Protection of interests of minorities.
8. Art.46- Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
9. Art.330- Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
House of the People.
10. Art.332- Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
Legislative Assemblies of the States.
11. Art.335- Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.
12. Art.338- National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
13. Art.341- President may decide SC for states and UTs with consultation of governor
& Parliament may decide All India SCs.
14. Art.342- President may decide STs for states and UTs with consultation of governor
& Parliament may decide All India STs.
• Reservation is provided to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes at the rate of 15%, 7.5% and 27%, respectively.
• Legislation involved is Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989
• Judicial Case involved is Indira Sawhney v. UOI

1. SC upheld the Mandal Commission’s 27 percent quota for backward classes (OBC),
as well as the principle that the combined scheduled-caste, scheduled-tribe, and
backward-class beneficiaries should not exceed 50 percent of India’s population.
2. SC also struck down the government notification reserving 10% government jobs
for economically backward classes among the higher castes.

Backward Classes
• According to Justice K Subba Rao, Backward Classes are an ascertainable and identifiable group of
persons based on caste, religion, race, language, occupation and such others, with definite characteristics of
backwardness in various aspects of human existence — social, cultural, economic, political and such others.
 • Adhering to Article 340 of the Constitution of India, the First Backward Classes
Commission was set up. It is also known as the Kaka Kalelkar Commission.
• The Mandal Commission or the Socially Backward Classes Commission (SEBC) was set
up by the Moraji Desai government. It estimated that 52% of the total population of India
(excluding SCs and STs) were ‘backward’.
• Constitutional Safeguards:
Art.15(4): Special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward
classes of citizens or for the SC and the ST can be made.
Art.46: The state shall ensure promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs, STs
and other weaker sections and shall also protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation
Art.340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes

Annexure:
1. Jajmani System:
• ‘Jajmani’ is derived from a Vedic term ‘Yajman’ which means a patron, who employs the
services of a Brahmin for the performance of sacrifices or other religious ceremonies.
• Earlier, the Jajmani system was an arrangement of the institution of religion that made the
Brahmin dependent for subsistence on the Jajmans, who constitute his clients. This
relationship later turned socio-economic and applied to all varnas.
• In a socio-economic sense, it is characterized by a Jajman-Kamin relationship which is
essentially a patron-provider system. It provides scope to the villagers for the exchange of
goods and services.
• The Kamins provided specialized skills and services to the Jajamans and in return they used
to get rewards in kind (food grains).
• The relationship between Jajamans and Kamins used to be a permanent and hereditary
relationship i.e. after the death of the Jajaman, his son used to be a Jajman and the same
principal applied to the Kamins.
• Thus, it was a functional relationship in village India. However, due to introduction of
market economy and land reforms the Jajamani system gradually is being eroded.
2. Untouchability
• Untouchability is a practice followed in society by higher castes to maintain distance from
lower castes, denying them socio-political-economical equality as touching them is
considered “polluting”.
• All Lower Castes are NOT untouchables.
• Untouchability is based on ones line of work.
Ex. A Bhangi or a Musahar wouldn’t be touched by higher castes and are untouchables
because of their “impure” work. However, a Mali (Flower Garland maker) wouldn’t be an
untouchable despite being a lower caste and would even have access to Temples. Similarly, a
Dhobi (washerman) wouldn’t be an untouchable either and would even have access to entry
into Upper Caste households because of his line of woek.