LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Module No. 2
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND LOADS

I. Topic: Loads on Structures

II. Time Frame: 18 hours

III. Introduction:

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand all
the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life
span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the loads that can
realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life span. The loads that act on
common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to their nature and source into three
classes: (1) dead loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other material
permanently attached to it; (2) live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the
structure; and (3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind,
snow, and earthquakes. In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer
must also consider the possibility that some of these loads might act simultaneously on the
structure. The structure is finally designed so that it will be able to withstand the most unfavorable
combination of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime.

In this section, we introduce the types of loads commonly encountered in the design of
structures and to the basic concepts of load estimation. We first describe dead loads and then
discuss live loads for buildings and bridges. We next consider the dynamic effect, or the impact, of
live loads. We describe environmental loads, including wind loads, snow loads, and earthquake
loads. We give a brief discussion of hydrostatic and soil pressures and thermal effects and conclude
with a discussion about the combinations of loads used for design purposes.

IV. Objectives:

At the end of the lessons the student should be able to:

1. Organize a technique of solving Dead Loads on Structures;

2. Define and explain Live Loads on Structures;
3. Define and explain Impact Loads on Structures;
4. Define and explain Wind Loads on Structures;
5. Define and explain Earthquake Loads on Structures;
6. Define and explain Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure on Structures;
7. Define and explain Thermal and other effects on Structures; and
8. Define and explain Load combinations on Structures.

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V. Learning Activities

2.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently
on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other
material and equipment permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the dead loads
for a building structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs,
ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air- conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and so
forth.
The weight of the structure is not known in advance of design and is usually assumed based
on past experience. After the structure has been analyzed and the member sizes determined, the
actual weight is computed by using the member sizes and the unit weights of materials. The actual
weight is then compared to the assumed weight, and the design is revised if necessary. The unit
weights of some common construction materials are given in Table 2.1. The weights of permanent
service equipment, such as heating and air-conditioning systems, are usually obtained from the
manufacturer.

Example

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2.2 Live Loads

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the structure that are not
dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads. However, since the
probabilities of occurrence for environmental loads are different from those due to the use of
structures, the current codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by
the use of the structure. It is in the latter context that this text uses this term.
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The magnitudes of design live loads are usually specified in building codes. The position of a
live load may change, so each member of the structure must be designed for the position of the load
that causes the maximum stress in that member. Different members of a structure may reach their
maximum stress levels at different positions of the given load. For example, as a truck moves across
a truss bridge, the stresses in the truss members vary as the position of the truck changes. If member
A is subjected to its maximum stress when the truck is at a certain position x, then another member
B may reach its maximum stress level when the truck is in a different position y on the bridge. The
procedures for determining the position of a live load at which a particular response characteristic,
such as a stress resultant or a deflection, of a structure is maximum (or minimum) are discussed

2.2.1 Live Loads for Buildings

Live loads for buildings are usually specified as uniformly distributed surface loads in pounds
per square foot or kilopascals. Minimum floor live loads for some common types of buildings are
given in Table 2.2.

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2.2.2 Live Loads for Bridges

Live loads due to vehicular traffic on highway bridges are specified by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges [36], which is commonly referred to as the AASHTO Specification. As the heaviest loading on
highway bridges is usually caused by trucks, the AASHTO Specification defines two systems of
standard trucks, H trucks and HS trucks, to represent the vehicular loads for design purposes.
The H-truck loadings (or H loadings), representing a two-axle truck, are designated by the
letter H, followed by the total weight of the truck and load in tons and the year in which the loading
was initially specified. For example, the loading H20-44 represents a code for a two axle truck
weighing 20 tons initially instituted in the 1944 edition of the AASHTO Specification. The axle
spacing, axle loads, and wheel spacing for the H trucks are shown in Fig. 2.2(a).The HS-truck loadings
(or HS loadings) represent a two-axle tractor truck with a single-axle semitrailer. These loadings are
designated by the letters HS followed by the weight of the corresponding H truck in tons and the
year in which the loading was initially specified. The axle spacing, axle loads, and wheel spacing for
the HS trucks are shown in Fig. 2.2(a). Note that the spacing between the rear axle of the tractor
truck and the axle of the semitrailer should be varied between 14 ft. and 30 ft. and the spacing
causing the maximum stress should be used for design.

2.3 Impact Loads

When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than those that
would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of the
load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact. To account for the
increase in stress due to impact, the live loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures
are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors. The impact percentages and factors,
which are usually based on past experience and/or experimental results, are specified in the building
codes. For example, the ASCE 7 Standard specifies that all elevator loads for buildings be increased
by 100% to account for impact.

For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the impact factor as

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in which L is the length in feet of the portion of the span loaded to cause the maximum stress in the
member under consideration. Similar empirical expressions for impact factors to be used in
designing railroad bridges.

2.4 Wind loads

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, obstructions
in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself. Although the procedures described in the various codes for the
estimation of wind loads usually vary in detail, most of them are based on the same basic
relationship between the wind speed V and the dynamic pressure q induced on a flat surface normal
to the wind flow, which can be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s principle and is expressed as

(2.1)

in which r is the mass density of the air. Using the unit weight of air of 0.0765 lb/ ft 3 for the
standard atmosphere (at sea level, with a temperature of 59F), and expressing the wind speed V in
miles per hour, the dynamic pressure q in pounds per square foot is given by

(2.2)

The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design loads on a structure depends on its
geographical location and can be obtained from meteorological data for the region. The ASCE 7
Standard provides a contour map of the basic wind speeds for the United States (Fig. 2.4).This map,
which is based on data collected at 485 weather stations, gives the 3-second gust speeds in miles per
hour (m/s). These speeds are for open terrain at the heights of 33 ft (10 m) above ground level. To
account for the variation in wind speed with the height and the surroundings in which a structure is
located and to account for the consequences of the failure of structures, the ASCE 7 Standard
modifies Eq. (2.2) as

in which q z is the velocity pressure at height z in pounds per square foot; V is the basic wind
speed in miles per hour (Fig. 2.4); I is the importance factor; K z is the velocity pressure exposure
coefficient; K zt is the topographic factor; and K d is the wind directionality factor. When converted to
SI units, Eq. (2.3) becomes

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with q z and V now expressed in units of N/m 2 and m/s, respectively.

The importance factor I accounts for hazard to human life and damage to property in the event of
failure of the structure. The values of I to be used for estimating wind loads for the various
categories of buildings are listed in Table 2.3.The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K z, is given
by

in which z = height above ground in feet (or meters); z g = gradient height in feet (or meters);
and x = power law coefficient. The constants z g and x depend on the obstructions on the terrain
immediately surrounding the structure. The ASCE 7 Standard classifies the terrains to which the
structures may be exposed into three categories. These three categories are briefly described in
Table 2.4, which also provides the

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values of the constants for each of the categories. A more detailed description of the exposure
categories can be found in the ASCE 7 Standard. The topographic factor, K zt , takes into account the
effect of increase in wind speed due to abrupt changes in topography, such as isolated hills and
steep cliffs. For structures located on or near the tops of such hills, the value of K zt should be
determined using the procedure specified in the ASCE 7 Standard. For other structures, K zt = 1. The
wind directionality factor, K d , takes into account the reduced probability of maximum winds coming
from the direction that is most unfavorable for the structure. This factor is used only when wind
loads are applied in combination with other types of loads (such as dead loads, live loads, etc.). For
structures subjected to such load combinations, the values of K d should be obtained from the ASCE
7 Standard. For structures subjected only to wind loads, K d = 1. The external wind pressures to be
used for designing the main framing of structures are given by

in which h = mean roof height above ground; q h= velocity pressureat height h (evaluated by
substituting z = h in Eq. (2.3) or (2.4));
p z = design wind pressure at height z above ground; ph = design wind pressure at mean roof height
h; G = gust effect factor; and C p = external pressure coefficient.
The gust effect factor, G, is used to consider the loading effect of wind turbulence on the
structure. For a rigid structure, whose fundamental frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz. G =
0:85. For flexible structures, the value of G should be calculated using the equations given in the
ASCE 7 Standard.

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The values of the external pressure coefficients, C p, based on wind tunnel and full-scale tests,
have been provided in the ASCE 7 Standard for various types of structures. Figure 2.5 shows the
coefficients specified for designing the main framing of structures. We can see from this figure that
the external wind pressure varies with height on the windward wall of the structure but is uniform
on the leeward wall and the sidewalls. Note that the positive pressures act toward the surfaces,
whereas the negative pressures, called suctions, act away from the surfaces of the structures.
Once the external wind pressures have been established, they are combined with the internal
pressures to obtain the design wind pressures. With the design wind pressures known, we can
determine the corresponding design loads on members of the structures by multiplying the
pressures by the appropriate tributary areas of the members.

Example:

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2.5 Earthquake Loads

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.Although the ground

surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the magnitude of the
vertical component of ground motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most
structures. It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural damage and that
must be considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone areas. During an
earthquake, as the foundation of the structure moves with the ground, the above-ground portion of
the structure, because of the inertia of its mass, resists the motion, thereby causing the structure to
vibrate in the horizontal direction (Fig. 2.8). These vibrations produce horizontal shear forces in the
structure. For an accurate prediction of the stresses that may develop in a structure in the case of an
earthquake, a dynamic analysis, considering the mass and stiffness characteristics of the structure,
must be performed. However, for low to medium height rectangular buildings, most codes employ
equivalent

FIG.2.8
Effect of
Earthquake
on a
Structure

static forces to design for earthquake

resistance. In this empirical approach,
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the dynamic effect of the earthquake is approximated by a set of lateral (horizontal) forces applied
to the structure, and static analysis is performed to evaluate stresses in the structure.
The ASCE 7 Standard permits the use of this equivalent lateral force procedure for
earthquake design of buildings. According to the ASCE 7 Standard, the total lateral seismic force that
a building is designed to resist is given by the equation

in which V = total lateral force or base shear, W = dead load of the building, and C s = seismic
response coefficient. The latter is defined by the equation

in which SDS is the design spectral response acceleration in the short period range; R denotes the
response modification factor; and I represents the importance factor. The ASCE 7 Standard further
specifies upper and lower limits for the values of CS to be used in design.

The design spectral response acceleration (SDS), used in the evaluation of the design base
shear, depends on the geographical location of the structure, and can be obtained using the contour
maps provided in the ASCE 7 Standard. The response modification factor R takes into consideration
the energy-dissipation capacity of the structure; its values range from 1.25 to 8. For example, for
plain unreinforced masonry shear walls, R = 1:5; whereas, for moment resisting frames, R = 8. The
values of I to be used for estimating earthquake loads are given in Table 2.3.

The total lateral force V thus obtained is then distributed to the various floor levels of the
building using the formulas provided in the ASCE 7 Standard. For additional details about this
equivalent lateral force procedure, and for limitations on the use of this procedure, the reader is
referred to the ASCE 7 Standard.

2.6 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

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2.7 Thermal and Other Effects

2.8 Load Combination

As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure have been
estimated, an engineer must consider all loads that might act simultaneously on the structure at a
given time. For example, it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and the maximum wind loads will
occur simultaneously. Based on past experience and probability analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard
specifies various load combinations to be considered when designing structures. It is important to
realize that the structure must be designed to have adequate strength to resist the most unfavorable
of all the load combinations.

In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety requirements, a structure must also

satisfy any serviceability requirements related to its intended use. For example, a high-rise building
may be perfectly safe, yet unserviceable if it deflects or vibrates excessively due to wind. The
serviceability requirements are specified in building codes for most common types of structures and
are usually concerned with deflections, vibrations, cracking, corrosion, and fatigue.

VI. Self-evaluation:

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Solve the following:

1. The floor system of an apartment building consists of a 4-in.-thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on three steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in
figure. The areas of cross section of the floor beams and the girders are 18.3 ¿2 and 32.7¿2 ,
respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beam CD and the girder AE.

2. Solve Problem 1 if a 6-in.-thick brick wall, which is 7 ft high and 25 ft long, bears directly on
the top of beam CD. See figure.

VII. Review of Concept:

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In this chapter, we learned about the loads that act on common civil engineering structures.
These loads can be grouped into three classes: (1) dead loads, (2) live loads, and (3) environmental
loads. Dead loads have constant magnitudes and fixed positions, and they act permanently on the
structure. Live loads have varying magnitudes and/or positions and are caused by the use or
occupancy of the structure. Each member of the structure must be designed for that position of the
live load that produces the most unfavorable effect on that member. For structures subjected to
rapidly applied live loads, the dynamic effect, or the impact, of the loads should be considered in
design.
The external wind pressures used for designing the main framing of structures are given by

where h is the mean roof height, G is the gust effect factor, C p is the external pressure coefficient,
and q z is the velocity pressure at height z, which is expressed in psf as

VIII. References:

 Hibbler, R.C., Structural Analysis, Latest Ed., Prentice Hall

 Rajan. S.D., Introduction to Structural Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2001
 Kassimali Structural Analysis, Latest Ed., Cenngage Learning
 Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural Analysis, 4th Ed., McGraw-
Hill, Inc. 1991

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