Different schools of psychology

Cognitive psychology
Studies mental process
Humanistic psychology
Focuses on individual free will
Psychoanalysis
Studies the unconscious mind
Behaviorism
Focuses on observable mind
Gestalt psychology
Studies the mind and behavior as a whole

Motivation
An internal process that activates, guide and maintains behavior over
time

Anxiety
Feelings of tension, uneasiness and apprehension
Arousal
Alertness and attentiveness
School phobia
Refusal to attend school
Test anxiety
Fear of performing poorly in tests

Deficit needs(d-needs)
Basic needs that motivate individuals to action in order to reduce or
eliminate the needs
Being needs
Growth needs that motivate individuals to achieve personal fulfilment
and self-actualisation
Basic needs
Lower level or deficit needs, such as the needs for food, safety, love and
respect
Growth needs
Higher level , or ‘being’ needs such as the needs for self- actualization
Self-actualisation
The achievement of one’s full potential
Maslow (1968, pp, 199-200) described human’s basic needs and
growth needs in term of five ascending levels which are as follows
1. Food, shelter , clothes -sometimes referred to as ‘physiological
needs’ the most urgent basic element needed for survival.
2. Safety, protection, security-once basic physiological needs are
satisfied , we seeks a sense of security and stability
3. Belongingness,love- such as that in a family, a community, a clan,
a gang, friendship;involving feelings of affection
4. Respect, esteem, approval, dignity, self-respect – involving two
sets of needs a. respect from others, including
status, public recognition and acclaim, even fame and in some
instances dominance. B. self-respect and feelings about
 the self, including a sense of competence, self-confidence,
independence and freedom
5. Self- actualization-freedom for the fullest development of one’s
talents and capacities or the achievement of one’s full potential

Metacognition
Knowledge about knowledge

Self- monitoring
A metacognitive activity that involves monitoring how
well we are understanding and remembering

Self- regulation
A metacognition activity that involves plannings,
directing and evaluating one’s cognitive processes

Declarative knowledge
Knowing that certain facts, information and experiences
exist and are real. You commit that knowledge to
memory it becomes semantic memory.
Procedural knowledge
Knowing how to perform an actionor sequence of
actions. (rittle-johnson and alibali,1999)

Conditional knowledge
Knowing when and how to use different types of
knowledge

Connectionist model
Views the brain as a complex network of interconnection
units of information, with information stored in patterns
of connectivity
Learning is a permanent change in behavior

Recent information processing accounts have tended to

focus on how the human brain functions and the role of
neutral networks in cognitive processing and memory.
This focus has led to connectionist models, in which
information is seen as being stored in multiple locations
throughout the brain, forming networks of
connections;that is, the brain is depicted as a complex
network of interconnected units of information(ellis and
Humphreys,1999)

Levels of processing model

A process-oriented approach that attaches most
importance to the type and depth of processing taking
place.

As the name suggest, the levels of processing model

(craik and lockhart,1972 lockhart and craik,1999)
focuses on the depth of information processing and how
the affects our ability to recall information. Deep
processing means that information is attended to, fully
analysed , enriched by association with existing
knowledge , and is thus remembered because of the
extent of the processing that has ocuured . shallow
processing occurs when information is not given full
attention , and is analysed only superficially, it is most
likely that information analysed at surface level will soon
be forgotten
Cognitive learning theory
Concerned with internal mental processes and learners
manipulate information during learning

Information processing model

Likens the human mind to a computer that interprets,
stores and retrieves information.

multistore model
Depicts how information
is processed and stored in
memory in a sequence of
stages

The multistore model:

The multistore model of information processing Atkinson & Shiffrin.

1965 ha called the hives in-the-head approach. It is also known as the
stage model. She information processing as a sequence of discrete
stages equivalent to the serial that takes place in computers. This
model relates to how information is processed stored in memory It
views the information input you receive moment by moments
processed and stored in three locations, or 'boxes, which are known as
'sensory short-term memory and long-term memory (see Figure 5.2).
Each box has different p cessing function with the sensory register
being the first location

Sensory register
The sensory register is the first compartment, or storage box for
information input New information enters the sensory register through
the five senses and is stored for less than ane second (Schneider &
Bjorklund. 1998) Visual information goes into the visual store

auditory information into the auditory store and so on. The number and
range of stimuli that constantly bombard us exceed the amount we can
process, and since we cannot process everything, we must be selective.
The central process associated with this stage is attention. When we
focus on certain information with the aim of remembering it, we are
said to be paving attention. f we attend to information, it moves to the
next storage box, the short-term memory, for further processing If we
do not pay attention, the information decays and disappears..

Short-term memory
Short-term memory (STM) or working memory (Baddeley. 1986), is a
temporary storage place with a limited capacity to store approximately
seven items of information at a time Miller, 1956). Short-term memory
only stores information for a few seconds. In order to remember the
information in short-term memory we may either rehearse it or chunk
it

Rehearsal involves us repeating and practising information to help

ourselves remember it

Chunking occurs when we group related pieces of information into a

single meaningful unit. You may have used chunking to remember a list
of numbers. For example, if your stu dent number is quite long, you
máy chunk the nine digits as 925231378 Thus, nine pieces of
information are reduced to three bundles, which makes the number
easier to remember. The rhythm of this grouping may also help you
remember the sequence. The more effectively material is chunked and
rehearsed, the more likely it is to be transferred to long-term memory.
Unrehearsed items are usually displaced by new information and are
soon forgotten

Long-term Memory:
The third component of the process and a permanent storage facility
for information long term memory is as far as anyone can tell, unlimited
in capacity and state Memories may remain in long-term memory
indefinitely and long-term memories tale many forms. Three main
types of long-term memory are episodic edural Tulving, 1985)
Episodic memories are the memories we have for events that hine
happened to us personally like a school concert where you loved the
lead role or your first kiss
Semantic memory is concerned with language and the world around
as

Knowing that chopsticks are implements used for eating, or that

December and January are summer months in the southern
hemisphere. Semantic memories generally the specific information
about time and place that characterizes episodic memories. If you
remember something that happened to you while you were eating with
chopsticks at our favourite Chinese restaurant last summer this would
be an episodic rather than a semantic memory
Procedural memory helps us recall steps or procedures for performing
a skill for example, you need procedural memory to help you use the
chopsticks for eating While episodic, semantic and procedural
memories differ in content and function, these toes long-term memory
are often interconnected.

Information and knowledge

declarative knowledge
Knowing that certain facts, information and experiences exist and are
real
procedural knowledge
Knowing how to perform an action or sequence of actions

conditional knowledge
Knowing when and how to use different types of knowledge

metacognition Knowledge
Knowledge about knowledge

self-monitoring
A metacognitive activity that involves monitoring how well we are
understanding remembering

and

self-regulation
A metacognitive activity that involves planning, directing and
evaluating one's cognitive processes

Metacognitive knowledge
Learners develop three forms of metacognitive
knowledge: of person, of task and of strateg
Person knowledge is the knowledge you have about your
own cognition and your under
standing of others as cognitive processors. or example,
we describe some people 2s
Fetlective or thoughtful, we describe others as good with
mathematical problems or as
ESOmg processing, storing, retrievir
nis executive function involves both self-monitoring and
self-
on Self-monitoringis a broad monitoring activity that
helps us keep track of our p
nderstanding and remembering Self-regulation, on the
other hand, is concene
nttal executve processes that comprise several specilic
functions such as pl
directing and evatiating our cognitive behaviour (Nelson
& Sarens, 1994, Sch
Biorklund, 1998)Sel-regulated learners regulate their
actions, cognitions, bels
motivations by setecting their own approach to learning
and processing iniomat
Focessng inlormatio
1998 When laced withlas
a sell-regulated learner will sypicaiy
analyse se the task and intepret task requirements
set isk-specific goals that aid successfiultask completion
Self monitor progress andprovide sell-leedtack
adjust strategies and goals throughout the process
ause setf-hotsatiónat strategies to esre taskEompietio
etacognition thus invokes planning monitoring reguiating
questioning e
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FiGURE S Metcgo
pace
Executive cotrel pracasses

Metacognition: Managing cognitive

processes
So far, we have learned that cognition describes the
mental processes involved in trans-
forming, coding, storing and retrieving information. But
how do we know which mental
5.4 The c
processes to use, and when, and how, and why? The
answer lies in our capacity for
between
metacognition, which literally means 'thinking about
thinking or 'knowledge about knowl-
metacog
edge (Weinert, 1987). It is cognition about one's own
cognitive processes (Flavell, Miller, &
Miller, 1993) and refers to our ability to monitor, control
and organise our own mental activ-
metac
Knowled
ities. Metacognition is known as an executive control
process that monitors and regulates
knowled
our thought processes (Davidson, Deuser, & Sternberg,
1994).
Since we cannot process all intormation to the same
depth, we need an 'executive func-
tion to oversee the process of encoding, transforming,
processing, storing, retrieving and
utilising information. This executive function involves
both self-monitoring and self-regula-
tion. Self-monitoring is a broad monitoring activity that
helps us keep track of our progress
self-
in understanding and remembering. Self-regulation, on
the other hand, is concened with
A met
central executive processes that comprise several
specitic functions such as planning
that i
directing and evaluating our cognitive behaviour (Nelson
& Narens, 1994; Schneider &
how
under
Bjorklund, 1998). Self-regulated learners regulate their
actions, cognitions, beliefs and
remer
motivations by selecting their own approach to learning
and processing information (Shin,
self
1998). When faced with a task, a self-regulated learner
will typically
A me
that
analyse the task and interpret task requirements
direct
set task-snecific g0als that aid successful task completion
ones

long term memory

a permanent storage facility for information
episodic memory
memory for personal events in our lives
semantic memory
memory about language and the world around us
procedural memory
memory about steps or procedures for performing a skill
sensory register
new information enters the sensory register through five
senses and is stored for less than one second
short term memory
a temporary storage place with a limited capacity to
store approximately seven items
TRAIT:
A distinguishing quality or characteristic, typically one belonging to a
person.
A genetically determined characteristic.
A phenotypic trait, simply trait, or character state is a distinct variant of
a phenotypic characteristic of an organism; it may be either inherited or
determined environmentally, but typically occurs as a combination of the
two. For example, eye color is a character of an organism, while blue,
brown and hazel are traits.
STATE:
The particular condition that someone or something is in at a specific time.
The condition of a person or thing, as with respect to circumstances or
attributes:a state of health.
Personality traits are characteristic behaviors and feelings that are
consistent and long lasting. Traits vs. States. Unlike traits, which are stable
characteristics, states are temporary behaviors or feelings that depend on a
person's situation and motives at a particular time.
What are the 3 types of traits?

Gordon Allport organized traits into a hierarchy of three levels: cardinal

traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Using a statistical process known
as factor analysis, Raymond Cattell generated sixteen dimensions of
human personality traits, known as the 16PF.

What are personality states?

Personality traits are characteristic behaviors and feelings that are

consistent and long lasting. Traits vs. States. Unlike traits, which are stable
characteristics, states are temporary behaviors or feelings that depend on a
person's situation and motives at a particular time.

The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms
used for each of the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.

1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident
3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
4. Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung
5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
 6. Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
8. Privateness: Discreet versus open
9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
10. Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
11. Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded
13. Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
14. Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
16. Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

In the psychoanalytic approach, the focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the conscious
mind. It is built on the foundational idea that your behavior is determined by experiences from your
past that are lodged in your unconscious mind.

Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality
development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid
out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many
refinements since his work.

The Three Levels of Human Consciousness. We can view consciousness as three

distinct levels: the conscious, the subconscious (or preconscious), and the unconscious.
Buddhism has a sophisticated theory of mind but has undoubtedly contained the concepts of
conscious and subconscious for over thousands of years.
Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness: the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious. Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three
levels of awareness: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.
What are the 3 levels of the mind?

The Three Levels of Human Consciousness. We can view consciousness

as three distinct levels: the conscious, the subconscious (or preconscious), and the
unconscious. Buddhism has a sophisticated theory of mind but has undoubtedly
contained the concepts of conscious and subconscious for over thousands of years.

What are the three levels of mind according to Freud?

The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality

were derived from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological
forces that operate at three different levels of awareness: the
preconscious, conscious, and unconscious.

COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY:

Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id,
ego, and superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in
our lives. These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical. The id
is the primitive and instinctive component of personality.

According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a
single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that
personality is composed of three elements known as the id, the ego, and the
superego. These elements work together to create complex human behaviors.1

Each component adds its own unique contribution to personality and the three
interact in ways that have a powerful influence on an individual. Each element of
personality emerges at different points in life.

According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal
and might pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your
personality work to counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the
demands of reality. 

Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work
individually, and how they interact.
 Verywell

The Id

● According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the
primary component of personality.1
● The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
● This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive
and primitive behaviors.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification

of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the
result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst
should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are
met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands
of the id are satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id, there is no
reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id
requires immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality
are not yet present, the infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.

However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even

possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find
ourselves grabbing the things that we want out of other people's hands to satisfy
our own cravings.

This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to

Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through
the use of primary process thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the
desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains
the same infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego
and the superego that allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in
ways that are both realistic and socially acceptable.

The Ego
 ● According to Freud, The ego develops from the id and ensures that the
impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
● The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
● The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with
reality

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's

desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the
costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.

In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed
gratification—the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the
appropriate time and place.

Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse
provides the power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance.
Without its rider, the horse may simply wander wherever it wished and do
whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and commands to get it to
go where the rider wants it to go.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary

process thinking, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that
matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing
increasingly hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to
jump up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you
to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting
imagining yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you
can seek out the object you were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id in a
realistic and appropriate manner.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

● According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

 ● The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we
acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).
● The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

The superego has two parts:

1. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by

parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad
consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.
2. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego
aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all
unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic
standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the
conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember
that these are not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These
aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an individual's overall
personality and behavior.

With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the
id, ego, and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability
to function despite these dueling forces.

A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while
a person with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.