NOTES
Summary Chart of Reading and Critical Reading Skills for ELC 501
Comprehension Skill Definition
topic a word, name, or phrase that tells who
or what a paragraph is about (also
called subject or subject matter)
main idea a sentence that tells the author’s most
important point about the topic (also
called main point)
a main idea sentence written (stated)
 stated main idea by the author that appears in the
paragraph
 implied main idea main point that is not stated directly by
the author as one sentence; therefore,
the reader must formulate a sentence
that tells the author’s most important
point about the topic
a main idea that sums up the main
 overall main idea point of an entire passage or selection
(also called thesis)
supporting details additional information (explanations,
proof, examples) provided by the
author to help the reader understand
the main idea fully
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
Question to Ask Yourself
Who or what is this paragraph
about?
What is the single most important
point the author wants me to
understand about the topic?
What is the most important point
the author states about this topic?
What is the most important point
the author wants me to infer about
this topic?
What additional information does
the author provide to help me
understand the main idea
completely?
Clues/Other Information
 titles and headings
 words in special print (such as
bold, italics, color)
 words repeated throughout a
paragraph
 word mentioned at the beginning
of the paragraph then referred to
throughout by pronouns or other
words (something or someone
discussed throughout)
 always is a complete sentence
 always contains the topic
 always tells the author’s most
important point
 always makes sense by itself
To formulate the implied main idea:
1) Add an essential word or phrase to
a sentence already in the
paragraph. or
2) Combine two sentences from the
paragraph if each contains part of
the main idea. or
3) Summarize important ideas into one
sentence or write one sentence
that gives a general inference
based on the details.
Overall main idea may be stated by
the author or implied. Is often stated at
beginning or end of a selection.
 Examples are always details.
 Some details explain other
details.
1
NOTES

Comprehension Skill Definition Question to Ask Yourself Clues/Other Information

how the author organizes the details What pattern did the author use to A paragraph can have more than one
author’s writing pattern
in the paragraph (also called thinking organize the main ideas and pattern (a mixed pattern), but usually
pattern or organizational pattern) supporting details? there is one primary pattern.

 list
items presented in no particular order List clues: bullets; numbers; letters;
signal words: first, second, also, in
addition, etc.

Avoid the mistake of seeing everything as a

list. Ask yourself, “A list of what?” Events in
order? Similarities? Differences? Causes?
Effects? If so, view it as one of those
patterns instead.

 sequence
items presented in a specific order Sequence clues: numbers; letters;
(also called time order or chronological signal words: first, second, then, next,
order) later, finally; dates; words referring to
time (at the end of the last century, in
the ‘80s, during this decade, etc.);
words such as steps, stages, phases,
series.

The same paragraph cannot be both a list

and a sequence at the same time. Ask
yourself,” Is the order important?” If not, it is
a list. If so, it is a sequence.
 comparison/
similarities (comparisons) and/or comparison clues: similarly, likewise,
contrast both; also; contrasts: on the other
differences (contrasts)
hand, in contrast, nevertheless,
however, but, while, whereas; words
that are opposite in meaning (wealthy/
poor; ancient/modern, etc.)
 cause/effect
reasons (causes) and/or causes: due to, for this reason,
results (effects) because, caused by; effects:
therefore, as a result, thus, as a
consequence, consequently

2
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
NOTES
Critical Reading Skill Definition
author’s purpose the author’s reason for writing
 to inform
to give information
 to instruct to explain how to do something
 to persuade to convince someone to believe or do
something
 to entertain to amuse the reader or provide a
pleasant experience for the reader
the people the author has in mind as
author’s intended audience his or her readers
author’s point of view the author’s position (attitude, belief,
or opinion) on an issue; also called
author’s argument; often the overall
main idea
can also describe the author’s
perspective on an issue (such as a
parent, a middle-aged person, a
taxpayer, etc.)
author’s tone author’s manner of writing that
reflects his attitude towards the topic
(for example: sarcastic, enthusiastic,
angry, sad, supportive, etc.)
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
Question to Ask Yourself
Why did the author write this?
Whom did the author intend to read
this?
What is the author’s position on this
issue?
What do the author’s choice of words
and style of writing reveal about his or
her attitude toward the topic?
Clues/Other Information
Do not mistake everything you read
as having the purpose of informing.
The difference between informing and
instructing is that instructions tell the
reader how to do something.
Persuasion is designed to convince
the reader to take action or change
their beliefs.
An author might entertain a reader by
telling something humorous or
describing something pleasant (such
as a trip or other happy experience).
This might be
 the general public,
 a specific group (teenagers,
doctors, parents), or
 a particular person (a newspaper
editor, the governor).
 The author might be in favor of
an issue, opposed to it, or
neutral.
 An author’s point of view is often
the overall main idea.
It may be helpful to think of this as
being similar to a person’s tone
of
voice when he or she is
speaking.
 Tone helps you judge whether
the person is serious, upset,
3
NOTES
Critical Reading Skill Definition
what the author really wants the
author’s intended meaning reader to understand even when the
words seem to be saying something
different
fact: something that can be proved to
 fact exist or to have happened (can be
proved to be true)
opinion: a belief or judgment (cannot
 opinion be proved or disapproved)
a logical conclusion based on what
inference the author has stated
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
Question to Ask Yourself
What is the author’s real meaning in
light of the tone?
Can the information the author
presents be proved or does it
represent a judgment?
What logical conclusion can be based
on what the author has stated?
joking, etc.
Clues/Other Information
If you misunderstand the author’s
tone, you may miss the actual
meaning. (For example, if the author is
being sarcastic, his meaning may be the
opposite of what the words are saying.)
Things that are facts can be verified
(proved true) through research, direct
observation, experiments, and
personal experience.
Information that can be disproved is
simply incorrect information (that is, a
false statement of fact).
Because information is presented as
a fact does not mean that it is a fact
(For example, “It is a fact that the earth is
made of cheese” is still a false statement.)
Opinions are of value only if they are
well supported with facts or other
expert opinions. Poorly supported or
unsupported opinions are of no value.
(An example of a poorly supported opinion
would be, “Sue Smith would make a good
governor because she wears such beautiful
clothes.”)
Inferences go beyond what is stated
by the author. If information is stated
by the author, you cannot make the
same inference. (For example, if the
author states that “seatbelts save lives,” you
would not need to infer that seatbelts save
lives. You could, however, infer that more
people were injured or killed before
seatbelts were available or that it is a good
idea to wear a seatbelt whenever you are in
a vehicle.)
4
NOTES
Critical Reading Skill Definition
author’s credibility how believable the author’s argument
is; whether or not the reader trusts
what the author says
if the author has credibility, he has
“believability”; that is, the reader
believes or accepts as true what the
author says
what the author takes for granted or
author’s assumptions
accepts as true without proof (that is,
assumes to be true)
 types of support types of support: the evidence the
author presents as reasons for
believing what he says
relevance of support: whether the
 relevance of support information presented as support
pertains directly to the argument.
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
Question to Ask Yourself
Are there good reasons I should
believe what the author says?
What assumptions has the author
made?
What types of support does the author
present?
Does the support the author presents
pertain directly to the argument?
Clues/Other Information
This skill and the ones that follow are
elements in evaluating written
material.
Consider the author’s credentials: is
he or she an expert or
knowledgeable based on personal
experience? (For example, a doctor’s
opinion on a health issue would probably be
more credible than a student’s opinion.)
An author’s argument will be based
on certain assumptions, but they may
not always be correct. And if they are
wrong, the argument itself will be
weak or wrong. (For example, an author
might argue that “anti-pollution laws are too
strict.” He may assume that new solutions
will be developed that will ultimately solve
the problem, or even that that pollution is
not really that great a problem.)
Types of support can include facts,
examples, case studies, research
findings, expert opinions, personal
observation or experience.
Irrelevant support weakens the
author’s argument. (For example, “This
is a safe medicine because I did not
experience any side-effects” is a weak
argument.)
5
NOTES
Critical Reading Skill Definition
objectivity objectivity: an author’s argument has
objectivity if it is based on facts and
evidence rather than the author’s
personal feelings and unsupported
opinions
validity validity: an author’s argument has
validity if it is well reasoned. This
means that it is
• well supported
and
• correctly inferred from the
information on which it is based.
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
Question to Ask Yourself
Is the author’s argument based on
facts and evidence rather than the
author’s personal feelings and
unsupported opinions?
Is the author’s argument logical?
Clues/Other Information
 If an author is objective, he tries
to presents both sides of an issue
fairly and accurately. If he is not
objective he either favors an
issue (supports it) or opposes it
(does not support it).
 An author who is not objective
and who does not clearly indicate
his position on an issue may try
to manipulate readers by
presenting only information that
supports one side of an issue and
leaving out information that would
weaken his case.
To evaluate the validity of an author’s
argument, you must
determine
• whether the author has
provided enough support
• whether the support is relevant
(that is, it pertains directly to
the author’s point)
If the author provides only one or two
reasons, and they are not strong ones (such
as, “Tom Smith would be a successful
governor because he is friendly and nice-
looking”) or if the support is not relevant (“I
once met Tom Smith, and I liked him a great
deal”), then the argument is not valid.
6
NOTES

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

DEDUCTION

Deduction: In the process of deduction, you begin with some statements, called 'premises', that are assumed to be true, you then
determine what else would have to be true if the premises are true. For example, you can begin by assuming that God exists, and
is good, and then determine what would logically follow from such an assumption. You can begin by assuming that if you think,
then you must exist, and work from there. In mathematics, you can also start will a premise and begin to prove other equations or
other premises. With deduction you can provide absolute proof of your conclusions, given that your premises are correct. The
premises themselves, however, remain unproven and unprovable, they must be accepted on face value, or by faith, or for the
purpose of exploration.

Examples of deductive logic:

All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal. If the first two statements are true, then the conclusion must be true.

Bachelor's are unmarried men. Bill is unmarried. Therefore, Bill is a bachelor.

To get a Bachelor's degree at Utah Sate University, a student must have 120 credits. Sally has more than 130 credits. Therefore,
Sally has a bachelor's degree.

INDUCTION

Induction: In the process of induction, you begin with some data, and then determine what general conclusion(s) can logically be
derived from those data. In other words, you determine what theory or theories could explain the data. For example, you note that
the probability of becoming schizophrenic is greatly increased if at least one parent is schizophrenic, and from that you conclude
7
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny
NOTES

that schizophrenia may be inherited. That is certainly a reasonable hypothesis given the data. However, induction does not prove
that the theory is correct. There are often alternative theories that are also supported by the data. For example, the behavior of the
schizophrenic parent may cause the child to be schizophrenic, not the genes. What is important in induction is that the theory does
indeed offer a logical explanation of the data. To conclude that the parents have no effect on the schizophrenia of the children is
not supportable given the data, and would not be a logical conclusion.

Examples of inductive logic:

This cat is black. That cat is black A third cat is black. Therefore all cats are are black.

This marble from the bag is black. That marble from the bag is black. A third marble from the bag is black.Therefore all the marbles
in the bag black.

Two-thirds of my latino neighbors are illegal immigrants. Therefore, two-thirds of latino immigrants come illegally.

Most universities and colleges in Utah ban alcohol from campus. That most universities and colleges in the U.S. ban alcohol from
campus.

Deduction and induction by themselves are inadequate to make a compelling argument. While deduction gives absolute proof, it
never makes contact with the real world, there is no place for observation or experimentation, no way to test the validity of the
premises. And, while induction is driven by observation, it never approaches actual proof of a theory. Therefore an effective paper
will include both types of logic.

8
Adapted from Critical Reading Skills by Dr Janet Elder
ELC 501~Irmawahyuny