Answers – P2: Physics for your future
5 a Furniture polish is usually applied by rubbing (or a
P2.1 Static electricity
Student Book
1 Insulating materials
2 a Nucleus
b Around the nucleus
3 5, as the positive and negative charges normally balance
4 The polythene now has more electrons than protons, so
it has a negative charge. The cloth has more protons
than electrons, so it has a positive charge.
5 They are on the outside of the atom. Positive charges
are fixed inside the nucleus of the atom and cannot
move.
6 All the strands of her hair have the same charge, so they
are all repelling each other.
7 If the balloons are both made of the same material, they
will both get the same type of charge when they are
rubbed on the jumper (this could be positive or
negative). As both balloons have the same charge, they
will repel each other.
8 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Rubbing the comb gives it a static charge.
 If this is a negative charge, it repels electrons in the
pieces of paper, leaving the sides nearest the comb
with a positive charge.
 The negative charge on the comb and the positive
charge on the pieces of paper attract each other.
 (Accept similar answer written assuming a positive
charge on the comb.)
Skills spotlight
A real atom is much smaller than the atom shown. A real
atom is three dimensional. Other differences include: the
relative sizes of the nucleus and the overall atom – the
nucleus is much smaller than the atom; the particles are not
coloured spheres, as drawn here, and they do not have + and
– signs on them!
Activity Pack
P2.1b Static electricity questions
1 From top: electron, proton, neutron, nucleus
2 Electrons
3 Negatively charged electrons have been transferred
from the rod to the cloth.
The rod now has fewer electrons than it started with.
4 a Repel
b Attract
c Repel
P2.1c Static charges
1 Diagram similar to Figure B in Student Book.
2 The clothes rub against each other while they are being
tumbled, so electrons may be transferred from one item
to another.
3 a Electrons from the glass rod have been transferred to
the cloth, leaving the glass rod with fewer electrons than
it started with. It now no longer has enough electrons to
balance the positive charges on all its protons, so it has
an overall positive charge.
b Attract
c If they are made of the same material, they will get the
same charge and so will repel.
4 a Electrons from the jumper have been transferred to the
balloon. It now has more electrons than protons, so it
has a negative charge.
b The negative charge on the balloon will repel electrons
in the near part of the wall. This leaves the near part of
the wall with more protons than electrons, so it has a
positive charge. This will attract the negative charge on
the balloon, so the balloon will stick to the wall.
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spray-on polish is then rubbed off with a duster). The
rubbing action will transfer electrons between the cloth
and the surface being rubbed, leaving the surface with a
static charge that will attract dust.
b The polish contains a conducting material (such as a
special polymer) that is left behind as a very thin layer
when the solvent in the polish evaporates. This forms a
thin conducting layer that prevents a static charge
building up.
P2.2 Uses and dangers of static electricity
Student Book
1 The charge flows through the door to earth.
2 a The spark could ignite fuel vapour in the air.
b Any charge built up would be discharged through the
bonding line, so there will be no charge to make a spark.
c The static charge needs to be discharged before the
fuel nozzle gets close enough to the aircraft for a spark
to jump across the gap.
3 a They all have the same charge, and like/similar
charges repel each other.
b The object must have the opposite charge to the paint
drops, so that they will be attracted to the object.
4 a The drops of insecticide all have the same charge, so
they spread out to provide a more even coverage.
b It means there is less wasted insecticide, so costs of
spraying are cheaper. It might also mean that it is
quicker to spray a given area of crops, so again costs
will be less.
c If it reduces the amount of wasted insecticide, it means
that the insecticide is only going where it is needed and
is less likely to harm other wildlife.
5 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Static electricity can be dangerous if it causes sparks.
 This is particularly so in places where the spark might
cause a fire or an explosion.
 This danger is avoided by making sure that any static
charge is discharged before the spark can occur.
 This can be done by earthing the charged object.
Skills spotlight
a Advantage: the spray spreads out more, so the insecticide
can cover the crop more evenly.
Disadvantage: the spray may spread out so much that it gets
onto crops/hedges that it is not intended for, or it might be
easier for the spread-out spray to be breathed in by people.
b Advantage: paint spreads out if it is charged, so it gives a
more even coverage, or charged drops of paint are attracted
to the object being painted, so less paint is wasted.
Disadvantage: a fine mist of paint produced by charging it
might be more flammable/easier to ignite than a paint spray
that is less spread out.
Activity Pack
P2.2a Static and helicopters
A–3
d When the helicopter lands its static charge is earthed
through the tyres, so it is safe to touch.
B–8
c The helicopter will have a large static charge. If a person
standing on the ground touches it, that charge will run to earth
through them and give them a severe electric shock.
C–2
f The helicopter will have a large static charge. If a person
standing on the ground touches it, or uses an object to touch
it, that charge will run to earth through them and give them a
severe electric shock.
D–7
h The discharge wand allows the charge to run through the
wand and the wire to earth, without passing through the
person.
E–6
a The helicopter will have a large static charge. If a person
standing on the ground touches the cable, that charge will run
to earth through the cable and through them and give them a
severe electric shock.
F–4
e The discharge wand allows the charge to run through the
wand and the wire to earth, without passing through the
person. However, as the helicopter is still hovering, it will
quickly build up another charge unless the wand is kept in
contact.
G–1
b This is unsafe because the person will be the first thing to
touch the ground, so the static charge on the helicopter will be
discharged through them.
H–5
g The cable will touch the ground first, so the static charge
will run through the cable, not the person.
P2.2b Using static electricity
1 Your shoes rub on the carpet as you walk.
Some electrons are transferred from the carpet to your
body.
You now have a negative charge.
When you touch a door handle, the charge can flow into
the door and to earth.
You feel a shock when the charge jumps from you to the
handle.
You are now discharged.
2 The charged drops spread out so they cover more crops.
3 The charged droplets of paint are attracted to the object
being painted.
The charged droplets of paint repel each other and
spread out.
4 A conducting material that allows electricity to flow
through it.
5 It earths the aeroplane and the tanker so there are no
sparks.
P2.2c Static problems
1 The answer should include: how static charge can build
up, how it can cause sparks when discharged, how
sparks could cause a fire if there is fuel vapour around,
how a bonding line prevents this by ensuring there is no
potential difference between the tanker and the aircraft.
2 The answer should include how charge can build up on
a person, and what happens when a metal object is
touched. Advice could include changing shoes for ones
made of a different material that might not build up such
a high charge, or holding a metal object towards the
door so the spark jumps from the metal and not from the
person's hand.
3 If one of the straps is broken it will not conduct electricity
from the person to the casing of the board being worked
on, so any static built up on the person could suddenly
discharge into one of the components when it is
touched.
4 If the strap is working properly the lamp will light as there
will be a complete circuit. If one is broken (i.e. not
conducting between the wrist strap itself and the clip that
is fastened to the equipment being worked on) then it will
not conduct electricity and so will not discharge the
person using it.
5 Sparks arising from static electricity could damage the
circuitry in such items. If the prongs on a chip are all
stuck into carbon-filled foam the conducting nature of the
foam prevents a build-up of static charge that could
harm the component. (Hard drives and new circuit
boards are also delivered in anti-static bags.)
P2.3 Electric currents
Student Book
1 A flow of charge – in a metal these moving charges are
electrons.
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2 Conducting materials have electrons that are free to
move around between the atoms. Insulating materials do
not.
3 a A direct current always flows in the same direction. In
an alternating current, the electrons change direction
many times each second.
b Cells and batteries (students may also answer power
supplies)
4 a Coulombs
b Amperes
5 3 A × 30 s = 90 C
H6 Time = charge/current = 5000 C / 20 A = 250 s
7 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Make a circuit using the wire and a cell.
 The cell will cause some of the electrons from the metal
atoms to move along the wire.
 This is a current.
 This will not work with an insulating material.
 This is because there are no electrons that are free to
move around.
Skills spotlight
The words for different quantities are often different in
different languages, which could cause problems if scientists
in different countries are communicating with each other.
Symbols are quicker to write, and an agreed set of symbols
can be used internationally.
Activity Pack
P2.3a Matching symbols
A, i, voltmeter, measures voltage
B, c, resistor, makes the current in the circuit smaller
C, f, ammeter, measures current
D, h, open switch, stops current flowing when open
E, b, motor, transfers electrical energy into kinetic
(movement) energy
F, d, lamp or bulb, transfers electrical energy into light and
heat energy
G, g, cell, pushes electrons around the circuit and gives them
energy
H, a, variable resistor, can be adjusted to change the amount
of current in a circuit
I, e, wire, conducts electricity around the circuit
J, j, closed switch, allows current to flow in the circuit
P2.3b Currents and calculations
1 A direct current always flows in the same direction. An
alternating current changes direction.
2 Charge = current × time = 4 A × 20 s = 80 C
3 3.6 A × 60 s = 216 C
4 Current = charge/time = 750 C/60 s = 12.5 A
5 Time = charge/current = 4000 C/2 A = 2000 s
P2.3c Charges and currents
1 a 4.5 A × 20 s = 90 C
b 3.6 A × 60 s = 216 C
c 22 A × 1800 s = 39 600 C
2 800 C/4 A = 200 s
3 a 90 000 C/7200 s = 12.5 A
b 9000 C/18 000 s = 0.5 A
4 a The hosepipe was empty, so she had to wait until the
hosepipe had filled up before water started to come out
of the end.
b The hosepipe still had water in it. When the tap was
turned on, the water going in at that end pushed water
out at Jenny’s end.
5 There are already electrons in the wire. When the switch
is pressed the electrons ‘going into’ the wire at that end
push other electrons along. We don’t have to wait for an
electron at the switch to travel all the way to the bulb
before the light comes on.
6 3 metres = 3000 mm. It would therefore take 3000
seconds for an electron to travel from the switch to the
bulb, or 50 minutes.
7 a t = Q/I = 1/1.5 × 10-6 A = 6.67 × 105 seconds
b t = Q/I = 1/20 × 10-9 = 5 × 107 seconds
 4 a Voltmeter drawn across cell, labelled V1
P2.4 Current and voltage b Voltmeter drawn across bulb, labelled V2
Student Book 5 a In series
b In parallel
1 a
P2.4d Currents and circuits
1 a2A
b2A
c 1.5 A
d1A
e2A
b 2 a Voltmeter drawn across cell, labelled V1
b Voltmeter drawn across bulb, labelled V2
3 a The cell
b Electrons
c The energy carried by the electrons
4 a It increases
b More lorries would leave the supermarket each second
5 a Parallel
b Each lorry would have to visit all the supermarkets in
2 2A turn, unloading only some of the bread at each one.
3 a4A 6 a The number of lorries driving round the route is always
b4A the same; only the amount of bread they are carrying
4 changes.
b The total number of lorries leaving the factory must be
the same number as arrive back, and this total number is
split between the different routes they have to drive
(representing different branches of a parallel circuit).
7 a The potential difference represents the energy
transferred by each coulomb of charge. If a lorry
represents the charge, then the potential difference is
the difference in the amount of bread carried by lorries
entering and leaving the factory.
H5 1 V is 1 J per coulomb, so 20 C at 5 V is 20 × 5 = 100 J b The difference in the amount of bread carried by a
6 A good answer will contain the following points: lorry as it enters and leaves a supermarket (or the
 Subtract the reading on A2 from the reading on A1 to get amount of bread left at a supermarket).
the current flowing through B2.
 This works because the current flowing through the P2.6 Changing resistances
main part of the circuit splits up at the junction. Student Book
 Therefore the sum of the currents through B1 and B2 is
the same as the current in the main part of the circuit. 1 It increases
2 5 A × 50 Ω = 250 V
Skills spotlight 3 Current and potential difference (or voltage)
The boiler and pump represent the cell, the pipes represent H4 R = V/I = 4.5 V / 0.5 A = 9 Ω
the wires, the water in the pipes represents the moving 5 a LDR
electrons, the heat energy in the water represents the energy b Thermistor
transferred by the electrons, and the radiator represents the c Variable resistor
bulb. 6 A good answer will contain the following points:
An 'ammeter' in the central heating system would measure  The resistance of the thermistor will control the current
the volume of water passing a point in the circuit each flowing through the circuit.
second. A voltmeter would measure the temperature of the  If the temperature rises the resistance of the thermistor
water going into and out of the radiator (or into and out of the will decrease.
boiler).  Therefore more current can flow in the circuit.
Activity Pack  If the current is higher, the motor driving the fan can
turn faster.
P2.4b Modelling circuits
Skills spotlight
1 b The cell pushes the electrons around the wires in the
circuit. A is the filament lamp, B is the normal resistor and C is the
c The electrons do not get used up, they just go round diode.
and round the circuit. The diagrams show complex mathematical relationships but
d The lamp converts energy from the electrons into light students should be able to describe the general shape of the
energy. graph and use this evidence to draw a conclusion about
e This produces light. which component it represents.
2 B Activity Pack
3 C
P2.6c Components and graphs
P2.4c Measuring in circuits
C, H, B or J, graph labelled light intensity and resistance.
1 a Amperes (or amps), A M, G, B or J, graph labelled temperature and resistance.
b Volts, V A, F, L, graph labelled potential difference (x-axis) and
2 a2A current.
b2A N, K, D, graph labelled potential difference (x-axis) and
c 1.5 A current.
d1A O, I, E, graph labelled potential difference (x-axis) and
e2A current.
3 a The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit
(or similar explanation). P2.6d Components and resistances
b The current in the branches adds up to the current in 1 a Variable resistor
the main part of the circuit (or similar explanation). b Filament lamp

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 c Thermistor 3 a 12 V × 3 A = 36 W
d Diode b 10 minutes = 600 s
e Light dependent resistor Energy = 12 V × 3 A × 600 s = 21 600 J
2 It will go down/get less. (or energy = 36 W × 600 s)
3 10 V / 2 A = 5 Ω H4 Current = power/potential difference = 25 W/230 V = 0.11 A
4 a Current = 5 V / 100 Ω = 0.05 A 5 Energy transferred = 358 800 J
b It will go down. Energy = power × time
c It will go up. Time = energy/power = 358 800 J/500 W = 718 seconds
5 a Resistance = 12 V / 3 A = 4 Ω (to the nearest second)
b It will go up. 6 A good answer will contain the following points:
c It will go down.  Electricity passing through a resistor (such as the
P2.6e Changing resistances element of a kettle) causes a heating effect.
 The power of an electrical appliance can be calculated
1
using the potential difference and current.
Potential difference (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)  For the same kettle, a lower potential difference will
0 0 - mean that a lower current flows.
2 0.38 5.26  The power will be much less than with a higher potential
difference.
4 0.64 6.25
 It takes a certain amount of energy to boil a fixed
6 0.83 7.23 volume of water.
8 0.98 8.16  The power is the energy transferred per second.
10 1.10 9.09  If the power is lower it will take longer for the same
12 1.18 10.17 amount of energy to be transferred.
14 1.24 11.29 Skills spotlight
2 It goes up. Students will need to draw on knowledge from Units C1 and
3 a Correctly plotted graph. P1 to answer this fully.
b As the potential difference increases the gradient of Possible advantages include: electric heaters are efficient
the line gets less. That means for each increase in (very little of the electricity paid for is converted to forms other
potential difference, the increase in current gets less, so than heat); they do not produce waste gases that can be
the resistance must be increasing. toxic; they are easier to start than a wood fire; they can be
4 a 0.26 A used sustainably if the electricity comes from renewable
b 0.06 A resources.
5 The resistance must be greater when the potential Possible drawbacks include: their overall efficiency depends
difference is higher, as the 2 V increase in potential on the efficiency of the power station that produced the
difference from 12 V to 14 V has resulted in a much electricity, so they may not be as efficient; many people prefer
smaller increase in current than it did from 2 V to 4 V. the appearance of flames from a 'real' fire; a wood fire is a
6 a sustainable means of heating, as long as the wood is
harvested sustainably.
Possible risks include: risks of electric shocks as well as
burns if the heater (and the electricity wiring in the house) is
not installed and maintained correctly.
Activity Pack
P2.7a Choosing the wiring
1 a 500 W
b b 500 W/230 V = 2.17 A
c 1.0 mm2
2 a 8500 W/230 V = 36.96 A
b 6.0 mm2
c Because if another high power appliance was used on
the same circuit, the circuit could overload.
3 a 9.6 kW or 9600 W
b 9600 W/230 V = 41.7 A
c 10.0 mm2
7 P2.7b Electrical heating
1 a Useful
b Useful
c Not useful
d Useful
e Not useful
2 Watt
3 230 V × 8 A = 1840 W
4 Current = power/potential difference = 90 W/230 V =
0.39 A
P2.7 Transferring energy 5 Joule
Student Book 6 1840 W × 60 s = 110 400 J (or 230 V × 8 A × 60 s =
110 400 J)
1 Components heat up when electric current flows through
them, and electronic components do not work properly if P2.7c Heating and power
they get too hot. H1 a Current = power/p.d. = 90 W/230 V = 0.39 A
2 a Any two useful effects, such as in kettles, electric fires, b 1000 W/230 V = 4.35 A
cookers, electric blankets, tumble dryers, etc. (do not c 2000 W/230 V = 8.70 A
accept microwave ovens or any other electrical H2 a Energy = current × potential difference × time
appliance that does not involve direct heating). 3 hours = 3 × 60 × 60 = 10 800 s
b Any two examples of wasted heat energy, such as Energy = 0.39 A × 230 V × 10 800 s = 968 760 J
TVs, radios, computers.

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This document may have been altered from the original.
 b 5 minutes = 5 × 60 = 300 s 3 a 1.4 m/s
Energy = 4.35 A × 230 V × 300 s = 300 150 J b No, because the direction is different.
c 2 minutes = 2 × 60 = 120 seconds 4 At C; 500 m
Energy = 8.70 A × 230 V × 120 s = 240 120 J 5 a 1000 m
H3 The electrons collide with the atoms and transfer energy b Displacement is distance in a particular direction as
to them. the crow flies, not the total journey.
4 a If it did not, it would melt and break the circuit when the 6 a 1400 m
appliance was working normally. b 900 s
b Many appliances use a smaller current than 13 A, so it c 1.6 m/s
is safer to use a fuse that melts only just above the 7 3.5 m/s
normal current. P2.8d Lane swimming
H5 a Current = 0.39 A, fuse = 3 A
1 100 m
b Current = 4.35 A, fuse = 5 A
2 0m
c Current = 8.70 A, fuse = 13 A
3 0.8 m/s
H6 a A higher potential difference causes a higher current to 4 a 0.8 m/s up
flow. This means that more electrons are passing b 0.8 m/s down; the velocities are opposite as the
through the filament each second, and so more direction is opposite.
electrons will collide with the atoms in the filament. More H5 80 s
energy will be transferred to heat energy.
H6 3 m
b They vibrate more.
c The vibrating atoms are more likely to get in the way of H7 23 m
the moving electrons (or similar explanation), so the H8 15 m
resistance to the current will increase. The higher the 9 Length 1, 2 m/s; Length 2, 1.72 m/s; Length 3, 1.72 m/s;
potential difference, the hotter the filament and the more Length 4, 2.17 m/s
the vibrating atoms get in the way of the moving 10 5 m from David’s end of the pool
electrons.
P2.9 Acceleration
P2.8 Vectors and velocity Student Book
Student Book 1 Acceleration is the change in velocity per second. It is
1 Displacement is the straight-line distance moved in a calculated from the equation acceleration = change in
particular direction; distance is how far an object has velocity/time taken.
moved. 2 23.3 m/s2
2 The runner has arrived back exactly where they started. H3 12 m/s
3 9 m/s 4 Because velocity is a vector quantity/it has a direction as
4 Vector quantities such as force and velocity have both a well as a size.
size and a direction. 5 −5 m/s2
5 The velocity has changed because the direction is H6 70 s
different. 7 A good answer will include the following points:
H6 350 m  Negative acceleration means the acceleration is acting
7 a 0.8 m/s in the opposite direction to the object’s velocity
b 0 m/s (provided the initial velocity is taken to be positive) so
H8 224 m the object’s velocity in the original direction will
9 A good answer will include the following points: decrease − it will slow down.
 A distance-time graph shows distance travelled plotted  If a negative acceleration continues to act, then
against time. eventually the object will stop and then start to get
 The gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed faster in the opposite direction.
because speed is distance/time.  Positive acceleration acts in the same direction as the
 A horizontal line shows an object is stationary. object’s velocity so the object’s velocity will increase (it
 A straight sloping line shows an object with a constant will get faster).
speed.  An acceleration of zero will not change the object’s
 The steeper the line, the greater the speed. velocity so it will continue at a constant speed.
Skills spotlight Skills spotlight
Suggestions such as: it is easier to see the change in an In a car none of the instruments give the speed in m/s and
object’s motion from a graph, shown as a change in the slope people are unlikely to understand speed in m/s. Acceleration
of the line, than just by comparing values in a table. from 0 to 60 mph uses speed values people understand and
gives an idea of how quickly a car can pull away from traffic
Activity Pack lights, or accelerate when overtaking or merging on a
P2.8b Using distance–time graphs motorway.
1 4 m/s Activity Pack
2 aC
P2.9a Theme park
b 10 s
3 aB Missing values: A, a = 6 m/s2; B, a = -3 m/s2; C, u = 33 m/s,
b 5 m/s v = 3 m/s, D, u = 25 m/s, v = 5 m/s, E, a = 9 m/s2; F, a = 6 m/s2
4 aD P2.9b Acceleration sentences
b The slope is the shallowest so the speed is least.
acceleration: has a direction and so is a vector quantity, has
5 8 m/s
units m/s2, is given by the equation (v – u)/t, is given by the
6 a 55.6 m/s
equation change in velocity/time taken
b 36 minutes (or 0.6 hours or 2160 seconds)
speed: does not have a direction and so is not a vector
7 a 589 m
quantity, has units m/s, is given by the equation distance
b 1085 m
travelled/time taken
8 75 s
distance: does not have a direction and so is not a vector
P2.8c Country walk quantity, has units m
1 1.5 m/s displacement: has a direction and so is a vector quantity,
2 2 m/s has units m

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velocity: has a direction and so is a vector quantity, has units P2.10d Velocities and accelerations on graphs
m/s (note that velocity is displacement in a given time – the 1 A, 4 m/s2; B, 0 m/s2; C, 1 m/s2; D, –5 m/s2
direction must be given) 2 102.5 m
force: has a direction and so is a vector quantity 3 E, 1 m/s2; F, 0.4 m/s2; G, –0.2 m/s2; H, 0 m/s2; I, –3 m/s2;
time: does not have a direction and so is not a vector quantity J, 2 m/s2.
P2.9c Acceleration 4 793.75 m
1 a 5 m/s2 5 a Graph plotted correctly (straight line sloping down from
b 1 m/s2, arrow to the right maximum velocity 30 m/s)
c –2 m/s2, arrow to the left b at 3 s
d 2.5 m/s2, arrow to the left c –10 m/s2
2 a 10 m/s2 d 45 m
b 5 m/s2 e 90 m
c 5 m/s2
d –1.5 m/s2
P2.11 Forces
e –5 m/s2 Student Book
P2.9d Changing velocity 1 a Upthrust and weight; or drag and push from diver
1 a a = 1 m/s2, acceleration to the right b Push from diver, because the arrow is larger
b 2 s, acceleration to the left 2 Simple free-body diagram showing downward force
c v = 5 m/s; velocity to the right arrow from bird labelled ‘weight’ and upward force arrow
d u = 20 m/s; acceleration and velocity in opposite directions for reaction labelled ‘reaction from fence post’. The fence
2 a5s post should not be shown.
b 14 m/s 3 Force of rocket on hot gases and force of hot gases on
3 a 20 m/s rocket
b A velocity of 15 m/s upwards – in the opposite 4 53 000 N
direction to the original velocity. 5 The force on the rocket would be in a different direction
c -35 m/s too so it would change its direction of motion.
d -175 m/s2 6 Suitable free-body diagrams – each should only show
4 a 1.5 s one object and the forces acting on it.
b 20 m 7 A good answer will contain the following points:
c 11.25 m  Clear diagram showing push of astronaut on diver and
push of diver on astronaut.
P2.10 Velocity-time graphs  The two forces should be shown as arrows in opposite
directions.
Student Book
 The two arrows should be equal in size.
1 Velocity is constant.  Diagram shows forces on two objects, whereas free-
2 aC body diagrams just show forces on a single object.
bB
cD Skills spotlight
3 A 0.5 m/s2 A free-body diagram shows just the forces acting on a single
B 2 m/s2 object, so they are not confused with the forces acting on
C 0 m/s2 other objects.
D −0.5 m/s2 Activity Pack
H4 a A 100 m, B 200 m, C 900 m, D 900 m
b 2100 m P2.11a Everyday forces
5 A good answer will contain the following points: a, squashing force on balloon; b, weight and upthrust on boat;
 Suitable graph with time on horizontal axis and speed c, weight and tension force on lamp; d, weight and magnetic
on the vertical axis. force on paperclips; e, lift, weight, thrust and air resistance on
 Values of acceleration for the different parts (10 m/s2, aeroplane; f, stretching force on chest expander.
20 m/s2, 7.1 m/s2, −10 m/s2, −6.6 m/s2). P2.11c Forces and diagrams
 Possible extra information could be: label to show 1 Students’ own free-body diagrams with forces correctly
where the greatest acceleration was (from 4 to 16 s); labelled.
label to show where the Thrust started to slow down 2 a Pull of string on the brick/pull of brick on the string; pull
(peak of graph). of string on the balloon/pull of balloon on the string
Skills spotlight b Weight of the balloon, pull of string on the balloon
Advantages: very easy to compare sizes and sign of c Upthrust from the air
acceleration in number form; numbers are quicker to use for d Forces are weight of balloon, upthrust from the air, pull
calculations; would have to find the gradient to put a value on of string on the balloon.
an acceleration from a graph. P2.11d Moving in space
Disadvantages: not as visual, so not as easy to compare 1 a Diagram labelled with weight of astronaut, upthrust
changes in acceleration over time as on a graph. from water
Activity Pack b Free-body diagram showing forces from part a.
2 Weight of astronaut, upthrust from water, pull of rope on
P2.10a Shooting script
astronaut, pull of astronaut on rope
1 Suitable graph 3 The action force of the astronaut on the rope is equal
2 15–17 s; steepest slope and opposite to the reaction force of the rope on the
3 5–15 s and 17−20 s; horizontal lines on graph astronaut.
4 15–17 s and 22–25 s; the line slopes downwards with time 4 a Diagram showing weight of astronaut, upthrust of
5 Accelerations: 6 m/s2, 0 m/s2, –7.5 m/s2, 0 m/s2, water and pull of rope on the astronaut
2.5 m/s2, –6.7 m/s2 b As part 1b.
6 75 m, 300 m, 45 m, 45 m, 35 m, 30 m 5 a The reaction force pushes on the astronaut and
P2.10c Velocity–time graphs pushes her in the opposite direction – away from the
1 a Correct lines drawn space station.
b Speeding up into a gallop; steeper slope b Sensible suggestions such as using ropes or clips.
2 A, 4 m/s2; B, 0 m/s2; C, 1 m/s2; D, –5 m/s2; E, –1 m/s2

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P2.12 Resultant forces c Friction force backwards, the skateboard slows down
d No resultant force, the fish doesn’t move in any
Student Book direction
1 The arrow for thrust is bigger than the arrow for air e No resultant force, the boy doesn’t move in any
resistance (drag). direction
2 Simple free-body diagram with labelled forces lift f 16 N in direction the cue hit the pool ball, the ball
(upwards), weight (downwards), thrust (to the right) and accelerates forwards
drag or air resistance (to the left). Sizes of arrows same g 500 N forwards, the car accelerates forwards
relative size as in Student Book. 2 a 200 N
3 0N b Forwards
4 103 N c It will increase the speed and so will also increase the
5 a Because the lift is equal to the weight. lift, so the aeroplane will accelerate upwards.
b Because the thrust is greater than the air resistance. d The reaction force from the air pushes the aeroplane
6 There is no air resistance in space. forwards.
7 A good answer will contain the following points: 3 a His weight downwards and the upwards push from the
 No thrust means that there is no forward force. floor of the lift.
 There is still drag because the craft is moving. b The upward force is larger than Thomas’s weight.
 There is a resultant force in the opposite direction to the c The resultant force is upwards as Thomas is
craft’s motion. accelerating upwards.
 This gives a negative acceleration that slows the craft
down in the forward direction.
P2.14 Forces and acceleration
 The lift must be less than the weight. Student Book
 The resultant force is therefore downwards. 1 It will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force.
 This gives an acceleration downwards, which means 2 A cricket ball has more mass than a tennis ball so the
the craft loses height. same force will give the tennis ball a greater
Skills spotlight acceleration.
3 You would need a much larger force for the lorry,
Qualitative: The diagram in Figure B uses arrows with
because it has much more mass.
different sizes to compare forces.
4 The larger catapult will fire the rock faster because it can
Quantitative: Worked example uses numerical values to show
produce more force, and so more acceleration.
the resultant force.
5 4500 N
Activity Pack H6 9 m/s2
P2.12a Why do things move? 7 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Force = mass  acceleration
True: A, F, G, H
False: B, C, D, E  To achieve the fastest speed at the start the cyclist
needs the most acceleration.
P2.12b Theories of motion  A more massive bike will need more force to give the
1 a An object needed a force to be acting to keep it in same acceleration.
motion.  A cyclist with more mass needs to produce more force
b The feather did not have as big a force on it so it to give the same acceleration on the same bike.
moved more slowly.  A cyclist can only produce a certain amount of force.
2 a A moving object did not need a force to keep it moving.  So the lowest mass of bike/rider combined will give the
It would carry on at a steady speed unless a force acted greatest acceleration for the same force.
to slow it down.
Skills spotlight
b The friction force had more effect on the feather so it
moved more slowly. F − stands for force, measured in N
3 a Newton’s first law m − stands for mass, measured in kg
b Newton also included stationary objects. a − stands for acceleration, measured in m/s2
4 a By thinking about observations. Activity Pack
b By carrying out experiments and by ‘thought’
experiments. P2.14a Accelerating vehicles
c Galileo’s method 1 Cars matched as:
5 a All objects need a force to keep them moving. Caterham Super Seven 1.4 0–60 mph in 4.7 s
b Resistive forces act to slow the bicycle down. The 2750 N
500 kg (5.5 m/s2)
cyclist must pedal to balance these forces.
a Answers may vary. One answer could be no, because Renault Clio 0–60 mph in 10.2 s
6 2500 N
the packages are moving in a different direction to the 1000 kg (2.5 m/s2)
car, so there is no force to keep them moving forward. Ford Focus 0–60 mph in 9.3 s
4500 N
b Yes. The packages continue to move in the original 1500 kg (3.0 m/s2)
direction. The friction between the packages and the Volvo XC 0–60 mph in 7.2 s
carpet in the back of the car is not enough to change the 7000 N
2000 kg (3.5 m/s2)
direction of motion immediately.
c Third law Range Rover 0–60 mph in 12.7 s
5000 N
2500 kg (2.0 m/s2)
P2.12c Forces and motion
0–60 mph in 6.6 s
1 b Accelerates forward ? 2200 N
(4.0 m/s2)
c Slows down (accelerates backwards)
2 Mystery car has mass 550 kg.
d Changes direction
2 a Right P2.14b Force, mass and acceleration
b4N 1 a 50 N
3 a balanced forces; the car will continue forwards at a b 75 N
steady speed 2 a 160 N
b 300 N upwards; the helicopter will accelerate upwards b 160 N
P2.12d Resultant forces c 80 N
3 a Greater
1 a 10 N upwards, the bag is lifted upwards
b Smaller
b 15 N forwards, the ball accelerates forwards

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4 a Resultant force 8 N, to the left, 4 m/s2 P2.15d Weight and terminal velocity
b Resultant force 2 N, to the right, 10 m/s2 1 a 700 N
c Resultant force 3 N, upwards, 0.75 m/s2 b 1610 N
d Resultant force 5 N, upwards, 0.5 m/s2 2 a 15 000 N
e Resultant force 100 N, to the right, 40 m/s2 b 13 500 N
f Resultant force 6 N, upwards, 0.6 m/s2 c 6000 N
P2.14c Calculating force, mass and acceleration 3 a B; there is no resultant force as the two forces are
1 a 60 N balanced.
b 75 N b C; there is no resistance force.
c 180 N 4 b, f, g
d 180 N 5 a In a vacuum, all objects have the same acceleration
e 90 N (or similar).
2 a Resultant 8 N, to the left, 4 m/s2 c The terminal velocity does depend on the air
b Resultant force 2 N, to the right, 10 m/s2 resistance of the atmosphere.
c Resultant force 3 N, upwards, 0.75 m/s2 d When an object reaches its terminal velocity the
d Resultant force 6 N, to the right, 12 m/s2 upward force is equal to the downward force.
e Resultant force 26 N, downwards, 0.5 m/s2 e The force that accelerates an object downwards is its
f Resultant force 2 N, downwards, 0.002 m/s2 weight.
3 P2.15e Safe landing
Object Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s2) 1 a 259 N
sprinter 160 80 2 b 12 kg
c 8.9 N/kg
charging elephant 1000 1000 1
2 a 6764 N
Formula One car 4500 500 9 b E (rapid deceleration)
cyclist 150 100 1.5 c C to D
d B to C and D to E
bullet 80 0.002 40 000
e C to D and E to F. At C the parachute opened, and at
hockey ball 4 0.13 30 E the lander hit the planet’s surface.
4 a 180 000 m/s2 f E to F; steepest line so greatest acceleration, and so
b 8100 N greatest force.
5 a -0.0072 m/s2 3 a On Venus the atmosphere is so thick that the terminal
b 2160000 N velocity is very low. The atmosphere on Mars is much
less dense, so the air resistance would be much less.
P2.15 Terminal velocity This means that the terminal velocity will be much
Student Book higher, even with a parachute. The spacecraft would
have to be moving much faster for the resistance force
1 Mass is amount of matter in an object; weight is the to equal the weight. Without the thruster, it would crash.
gravitational force on the object, which depends on the b Similar to graph for Venus. Thruster rockets applied
gravitational field strength. near end of fall, causing a rapid deceleration.
2 a 300 kg c Any sensible suggestion that the thruster accelerates
b 7500 N the spacecraft upwards and so reduces its velocity just
3 The hammer and feather had same acceleration, and before landing.
there was no air resistance.
4 Terminal velocity P2.16 Stopping distances
5 Air resistance increases with speed.
6 a 600 N Student Book
b Acts towards the Earth (downwards) 1 In order to leave a safe distance so they do not crash
c 600 N when a hazard appears.
d Acts upwards 2 17 m
7 A good answer will contain the following points: 3 Braking distance plus thinking distance = stopping
 Both crates travel the same distance to reach the ground. distance, so if braking distance is shorter but thinking
 The full crate has greater mass and so greater weight. distance is the same then stopping distance will be less.
 The full crate will need a larger air resistance to balance 4 Thinking distance – no change; braking distance –
its greater weight. longer
 The full crate will have a larger terminal velocity. 5 Drinking alcohol increases reaction time, therefore
 A larger terminal velocity means the full crate will travel increasing thinking distance. This increases stopping
the same distance as the empty crate in a shorter time. distance, leading to more crashes.
 So the full crate will reach the ground first. 6 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Thinking distance is increased by:
Skills spotlight  alcohol; drugs; tiredness; faster speed
Look for suggestions where students time muffin cases over  Braking distance is increased by:
consecutive distances, say 0−10 cm, 10−20 cm, and so on.  faster speed; extra weight; worn brakes; lower friction
They find the velocity for each distance and see how the road surface, e.g. mud, gravel, wet, ice
velocity changes as the muffin case falls. A constant value
Skills spotlight
would show that the falling muffin cases did reach a terminal
velocity. Faster speed increases both thinking distance and braking
distance (the latter significantly). Reducing vehicle speeds
Activity Pack reduces the number of accidents, making the roads safer.
P2.15a Terminal velocity Also, faster speeds significantly increase kinetic energy, so
1 a i 750 N downwards ii velocity increases accidents at reduced speeds are significantly less dangerous.
b i 500 N downwards ii velocity increases less quickly Activity Pack
c i 300 N downwards ii velocity increases less quickly
P2.16b Stopping distances summary
d i 0 N ii constant velocity
e i 750 N upwards ii velocity decreases rapidly 1 True
f i 0 N ii constant velocity 2 False
2 Suitable graph If a driver is tired, the thinking distance will be increased.
3 True

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4 False 7 It is an easy to remember method for making sure
If the road is wet, the thinking distance will be the same. drivers have sufficient space to stop safely if the car in
5 False front stops suddenly.
A car with four passengers will have a longer braking 8 These make the stopping distance longer.
distance than a car with one. 9 If the car in front is moving faster, it will take longer to
6 False stop as well.
In the rain a driver will need a longer braking distance.
7 True P2.18 Momentum
8 C Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking Student Book
distance
9 Worn brakes provide less braking force, so braking 1 a 14600 kg m/s north
distance is increased (so stopping distance is b 20 000 kg m/s south
increased). 2 Velocity is zero, so mass × velocity is zero.
10 Both thinking and braking distance are increased at H3 120 kg
greater speeds. 4 a 120 kg m/s and zero
b 120 kg m/s
P2.16c Stopping distances graphs c To the right
1 18, 32, 51, 73, 100 d 120 kg m/s to the right
2 e Yes
5 A sleeping cat – not moving so zero momentum.
A running dog – moving but it is slower and has less
mass than both the others.
The meteorite from question 3.
A monster truck in a race – in the worked example the
monster truck has more momentum than the meteorite
and is not going at race speed.
6 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Need to know the mass and velocity.
3  Multiply these to calculate momentum.
 Conservation of linear momentum means same total
Speed Conditions Thinking Thinking Braking Overall momentum before and after a collision.
(m/s) time (s) distance distance stopping  So it will be conserved in a crash.
(m) (m) distance (m)
 So can work out the velocity of vehicles after crashing.
5 Drunk 1.8 9 2 11  If you know their mass.
10 Drunk 1.8 18 8 26 Skills spotlight
15 Drunk 1.8 27 17 44  Video recording of crash allows qualitative by just
20 Drunk 1.8 36 31 67 looking and describing what happens to each car.
 Could use markers painted on road and car to actually
25 Drunk 1.8 45 48 93 measure movements in video, also knowing time for
30 Drunk 1.8 54 70 124 each video frame.
4  Could datalog speedometers from cars, plus additional
sensors like accelerometers or forcemeters.
 Qualitative advantage – can produce general
conclusion for all crashes (such as head-on crashes are
more dangerous than glancing impacts).
 Quantitative advantage – can use results to inform
design specifically (e.g. bumper strength must be a
minimum of…).
Activity Pack
P2.18b Explaining momentum conservation
1 Gravity speeds it up, so its momentum increases.
5 2 Momentum is conserved, so if the first ball stops, its
Speed Conditions Thinking Thinking Braking Overall momentum is transferred to the far one, which moves off
(m/s) time (s) distance distance stopping with the same momentum as the first one had.
(m) (m) distance (m) 3 As answer to 2, but the initial momentum is greater, so
5 Normal 1 5 2.4 7.4 final momentum must also be greater.
4 As answer to 2, but the initial momentum is greater, so
10 Normal 1 10 9.6 19.6 final momentum must also be greater.
15 Normal 1 15 20.4 35.4 5 Gravity is an external force so can change momentum.
As one ball swings up at the end, it slows and changes
20 Normal 1 20 37.2 57.2 direction, thus changing its momentum.
25 Normal 1 25 57.6 82.6 P2.18c Momentum calculations
30 Normal 1 30 84 114.0 1 560 kg m/s
6 2 220 kg m/s
3 33 kg m/s
4 144 kg m/s
5 55 kg m/s
6 0
7 36 kg m/s
8 25 800 kg m/s
9 0.0002 kg m/s
10 402 kg m/s
H P2.18d Penguin collisions
1 a 66 kg m/s

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This document may have been altered from the original.
 b To the right air bags
c Zero bumpers
d To the right headrests
e 6 m/s All act in the following way:
f Momentum is conserved -large momentum gets smaller via a force that removes
2 a 56 kg m/s momentum
b -36 kg m/s -slower change in momentum needs smaller force
c They are opposite -large forces hurt people
d You must account for its direction. -so all slow down change in momentum to protect people.
e -28 kg m/s P2.20d Forces change momentum
f 8 m/s
g Momentum is conserved. 1 All act in the following way:
 large momentum gets smaller via a force that removes
P2.20 Momentum and safety momentum;
 slower change in momentum needs smaller force;
Student Book  large forces hurt people;
1 This reduces the forces involved. Lower force means  so all slow down change in momentum.
lesser injury.  In relation to the equation, they increase value of t,
2 On impact, the air bag squashes, reducing the rate of whilst mv – mu is the same, so F is reduced.
change of momentum and so reducing the force on your 2 1400 N
head. If your head hits the dashboard it will stop 3 33.3 N
suddenly, reducing the momentum very quickly and so 4 0.5 N
causing your head to connect with great force. H5 a 7 kg m/s
3 On impact, the bubbles squash slowly, reducing the rate b 10 m/s
of change of momentum, and so reducing the force on 6 1500 N
the object being protected. H7 13 m/s
4 a They both squash to reduce the rate of change of
H8 9.53 s
momentum, protecting the contents.
b The car has designed failure points so it crushes in a H9 10 m/s
designed way. 10 New force is 83 333 N (c.f. original of 250 000 N) so
H5 a 600 N reduction is 67% of original.
b 40 kg m/s/s; 40 N
P2.21 Work and power
H6 2.25 s
7 A good answer will contain the following points: Student Book
 Crumple zone 1 Amount of energy transferred
 Reduces a car’s momentum more slowly. 2 a 2000 joules
 This means less force. b 5000 J
 Air bag 3 a 420 J
 Reduces a passenger’s momentum more slowly. b 106 400 J
 This means less force. c 4800 J
 Seat belt 4 a 210 W
 Reduces a passenger’s momentum more slowly. b 266 W
 This means less force. c 600 W
 Less force means lesser injuries. 5 At higher speeds a car has more kinetic energy. The
brakes have to do more work to remove all of this kinetic
Skills spotlight energy. The maximum braking force is constant, so the
Variables to be measured: time taken must be greater if the work done is greater.
Independent: number of layers of bubble wrap H6
Dependent: damage suffered by egg Initial Initial kinetic Work done Braking Braking
Control variables: drop height, egg mass, uniformity of velocity energy (J) to stop (J) force (N) distance (m)
wrapping, landing surface (m/s)
Method:
5 12 500 12 500 5000 2.5
Choose the height, measure it out, and mark drop position.
From a large selection of eggs, measure their masses and 10 50 000 50 000 5000 10
select several of identical mass. 15 112 500 112 500 5000 22.5
Drop an unwrapped egg from the drop position.
20 200 000 200 000 5000 40
Record the damage suffered by the egg.
Repeat with a layer of bubble wrap wrapped uniformly around 7 A good answer will contain the following points:
the egg.  Braking changes kinetic energy into heat.
Record damage.  If you brake hard, so that this heat is generated faster
Repeat with an egg with 2 layers and record the damage. than the brakes can cool, they will get hot.
Continue repeating, each time with one additional, uniform  Heat can damage the brakes.
layer of bubble wrap.  So if they overheat the brakes may fail.
Stop when the damage suffered is zero.  Braking more suddenly uses more force.
Repeat entire experiment.  Braking more suddenly generates heat more quickly.
If possible, also repeat entire experiment with eggs of a  So brakes are less likely to cool quickly enough.
different mass.  This makes them more likely to overheat and fail.
Activity Pack Skills spotlight
P2.20b Momentum changes and road safety Example answers:
1 Ticks: A, C, D, F, G If the amount of energy used was an important cost factor,
Crosses: B, E, H then the appropriate power could be chosen using the
2 A3; B4; C8; D1; E7; F6; G2; H5 quantitative information.
If only certain machines are available, then knowing which are
P2.20c Momentum and car safety more or less powerful will allow an appropriate change of
seat belts machine when one is found to be lacking.
crumple zone

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Activity Pack H3 10 m/s
P2.21b Warehouse work H4 0.2 m
5 The kinetic energy is converted into heat.
1 Students’ own answers. Examples as in the picture (from 6 A good answer will contain the following points:
top left):  GPE = mass × height × gravitational field strength
jerry cans: 240 J each; water tanks: 320 J each; 5.5 kilo
 So need to know m, g and h
cartons: 110 J each; wood bundle: 200 J; sand bags:
 This is transferred into KE as it falls
810 J each; oil drum: 1125 J; paving slabs: 350 J each;
crate: 382.5 J; paint tins: 60 J each.  Because h (and hence GPE) is reducing
2 E.g. oil drum cannot go more than 2.8 m at a time, so would  KE = ½ × mass × (velocity)2
need to go to 2 m shelf first and then up to top shelf.  So need to know m and v
3 Students’ own answers, combining answers to 1 and 2. Skills spotlight
4 E.g. paving slabs from floor to 4 m shelf is 560 J so
 Work = force × distance
112 W, so SLOW LIFT.
 GPE = mass × gravitational field strength × height
P2.21c So much work  Equations allow scientists to make quantitative
1 1500 joules statements.
2 3300 J  This allows design to be informed by a need to use
3 13 200 J specific numerical values.
4 600 J  For example, lifting against gravity is doing work, so
5 3000 J F×d=m×g×h
6 50 J  So F = m × g
7 a 5500 J  So a crane would need to be designed to provide a
b 367 W force equal to the weight of anything it needs to be able
8 a 3740 J to lift.
b 1870 W
9 a 50 000 joules Activity Pack
b 6250 W P2.22a The car catapult
P2.21d Work and power and work to stop cars 1
1 50 J Rubber Start Kinetic Vertical GPE
2 a 5500 J band velocity of energy (J) distance car gained (J)
2
b 367 W stretch, d car (m/s) KE = ½ mv moved (m) GPE = mgh
3 a 3740 J (cm)
b 1870 W 2 1.0 0.2 0.04 0.16
4 a 50 000 J
4 1.2 0.288 0.07 0.28
Hb8s
5 a 6 1.6 0.512 0.12 0.48
8 2.0 0.8 0.16 0.64
10 2.1 0.882 0.20 0.8
12 2.3 1.058 0.23 0.92
2

b The relationship is almost linear. The slight variation

from direct proportionality indicates the slight variation in
maximum braking force in real-life situations.
c Work done in joules:
10400
41600
88400 3 The greater the kinetic energy at the start, the greater
161200 the GPE at the end.
4 a Elastic potential energy to kinetic energy
249600
b KE to GPE
364000 5 Energy losses such as friction
H d Times in seconds: 6 Yes. The fourth result, starting at 8 cm, appears slightly
0.14 off the pattern of the other points.
0.58 P2.22b Mars Rovers energy transfers
1.23 Rockets – Chemical potential to kinetic and (wasted) heat
2.238889 and sound
Airbag landing – GPE to kinetic (falling) to heat and sound
3.47 (on impact)
5.06 Movement up a hill – electrical to kinetic and gravitational
6 Kinetic energy is directly proportional to velocity squared. potential and (wasted) heat and sound
Solar panels - light to chemical potential to electrical
P2.22 Potential and kinetic energy Laser signalling system – chemical potential to electrical to
light
Student Book
Radioisotope heaters – nuclear potential to heat
1 a 20 J
P2.22c Sports day energy transfers
b 96 000 J
c 30 000 J 1 When this girl falls back down, her GPE will be
2 a4J transformed into kinetic energy.
b 2240 J This moving girl has kinetic energy.
c 98 000 J

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This document may have been altered from the original.
 Because it is up in the air, the shot has gravitational P2.23b Isotopes
potential energy.
Atom Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
To find the GPE of the javelin, we need to know its mass,
the gravitational field strength and its height.
number number protons neutrons electrons
m = 72 kg, v = 5.5 m/s. What is the KE? 1 1 1 1 0 1
1H
KE = ½ × 72 × (5.5)2 = 1089 J.
m = 7.2 kg, v = 14.0 m/s. How would you calculate the 2 1 2 1 1 1
1H
kinetic energy? KE = ½ × 7.2 × 142 = 705.6 J
m = 80 kg, h = 2.2 m, GPE = 1760 J 3 1 3 1 2 1
1H
m = 2 kg, v = 3.8 m/s, KE = 14.44 J
m = 1.2 kg, h = 11 m, GPE = 132 J 6 3 6 3 3 3
3 Li
2 The pole vaulter will have 1760 J when hitting the crash
mat as the GPE will all be converted into kinetic energy. 7 3 7 3 4 3
3 Li
P2.22d Sports day energy calculations 12 6 12 6 6 6
6C
1 High jumper, mass, height and gravitational field
strength. 14 6 14 6 8 6
6C
Girl running on the track, v = 5 m/s
Shot, h = 3.3 m 24 12 24 12 12 12
12 Mg
Javelin, GPE = 78 J
Boy on long jump run up, v = 5.5 m/s 25 12 25 12 13 12
12 Mg
Hammer, m = 7.2 kg
Discus, KE = 72 J 26 12 26 12 14 12
12 Mg
Pole vaulter, m = 80 kg
Dog, KE = 14.44 J 2 a Atoms with the same number of protons but different
Hat blowing away, m = 0.2 kg numbers of neutrons.
Hovering bird, GPE = 132 J b Three
2 GPE to KE to heat and sound on impact c Proton number (and number of electrons)
3 Mass = 80 kg; on impact KE = (starting GPE =) 1760 J d Mass number and number of neutrons
gives v = 6.63 m/s 3 Nucleons: The sub-atomic particles in the nucleus of an
4 The same percentage improvement is a smaller amount, atom.
and there will be a limit on the possible record, so as we Nucleon number: The number of protons and neutrons in
get closer to this, improvements become more and more the nucleus of an atom.
difficult. Proton number: The number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom.
P2.23 Isotopes P2.23c Are they isotopes?
Student Book 1 a
1 The number of protons in the nucleus Atom Number of Number of Number of
2 The total number of protons and neutrons protons neutrons electrons
4
3 2 He A 6 7 6
4 a 4 protons B 7 6 7
b 5 neutrons b The mass number is the same.
5 a 4, 5 and 4 c They have different numbers of protons, neutrons and
b Beryllium and boron electrons.
10 10
c 4 Be , 5 Be and 94 Be d No, because the proton numbers are different.
19
2 a
6 9F Atom Number of Number of Number of
7 No, isotopes have the same number of protons but protons neutrons electrons
different numbers of neutrons so they actually have
C 5 5 5
different mass numbers.
8 A good answer will contain the following points: D 5 6 5
 Isotopes contain the same number of protons but b Same proton number and same number of electrons.
different numbers of neutrons – they have the same c They have different numbers of neutrons and the mass
atomic number. numbers are different.
 All three isotopes of hydrogen contain one proton. d Yes, they have the same number of protons but
 Hydrogen-1 does not contain any neutrons. different numbers of neutrons, so they are isotopes of
 Hydrogen-2 contains one neutron the same element.
 Hydrogen-3 contains two neutrons. 3 a 94 Be
Skills spotlight 31
b 15 P
Sensible suggestions such as so that these do not depend on 40
the language spoken by scientists; so that any scientist will c 18 Ar
understand the shortened way. 27
d 13 Al
Activity Pack 39
e 19 K
P2.23a Find the isotopes
f 24
12 Mg
2 Cards 1 and 13, cards 2 and 20, cards 3 and 16, cards 4
and 19, cards 5 and 17, cards 6 and 23, cards 7 and 18, 4 Atoms that are isotopes and that are electrically neutral
cards 8 and 21, cards 9 and 14, cards 10 and 22, cards always have the same number of electrons, as they
11 and 15 have the same number of protons. However, an atom
3 Cards 1, 2, 3, 13, 20 and 16; cards 4, 5, 19 and 17; can lose or gain electrons to become an ion, in which
cards 6, 7, 8, 18, 21 and 23; cards 9, 10, 11, 14, 15 and case isotopes of the same element could have different
22 numbers of electrons.
4 Beryllium (proton number 4), boron (proton number 5),
carbon (proton number 6) and nitrogen (proton number 7)

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This document may have been altered from the original.
P2.24 Ionising radiation b They are not as ionising and so have fewer collisions
with other atoms.
Student Book 3 Alpha particles
1 An atom with an electrical charge 4 Unstable; random; decay; ions; loses; gains (last two in
2 –1 either order)
3 4 P2.24d Alpha, beta and gamma radiation
4 A few millimetres of aluminium or a smaller thickness of
lead 1 a Alpha
5 To stop gamma rays b Alpha
6 c Gamma
d Beta
Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma ray e Gamma
equivalent to the electron emitted electromagnetic f Beta
nucleus of a helium from nucleus wave g Alpha
atom – contains 2 h Gamma
protons and 2 2 If alpha particles cannot reach you then they cannot
neutrons cause damage to the cells in your body as they would be
charge of +2 charge of –1 not charged absorbed by skin cells on the skin’s surface (or by the air
before they reached your skin).
stopped by a few stopped by a few stopped by a few 3 a A, C and D
cm of air or a few mm of aluminium cm of lead or many b B and E
sheets of paper metres of concrete c Beta particles are less ionising and so travel further
most ionising type moderately ionising least ionising form than alpha particles.
of radiation of radiation d No, because they are emitted in a random process.
7 Its mass number goes down by 4 and its atomic number e The particles in the tracks in the cloud chamber lose
goes down by 2 – it becomes a different element. electrons and become ions.
8 A good answer will contain the following points: 4 Radioactive sources may emit alpha, beta and gamma
 Radioactive source emits ionising radiation (e.g. alpha radiation. Lead will stop all three types of radiation,
particles, beta particles or gamma rays). which is why it is used. (Using aluminium would not be
 Ionising radiation collides with oxygen atom. any good because gamma rays can pass through
 Collision knocks an electron out of the oxygen atom. aluminium and could cause damage to the body.)
 Charge in the nucleus is now not balanced by the 5 Jennifer would still be irradiated and contaminated by
charge on the electrons. the air that she breathed in and the food and drink that
she ate. It is not possible to be completely protected
 The atom has a net charge and so is an ion.
from radiation as it is present inside your body. Also, you
Skills spotlight can never be sure that all gamma radiation from a
Use the GM tube to measure the activity of a source. Put a source has been stopped by the lead.
sheet of paper between the source and GM tube. If the count
rate drops to almost zero, it is an alpha source. If not, replace P2.25 Nuclear reactions
the paper with an aluminium sheet a few mm thick. If the Student Book
count rate drops to almost zero, it is a beta source. If not, it is
a gamma source. 1 Neutron
2 Two daughter nuclei (barium-141 and krypton-92) and
Activity Pack three neutrons
P2.24a Ionising radiation 3 Mostly kinetic energy and some thermal energy.
4 By other materials absorbing neutrons so that only one
Alpha particles: largest form of ionising radiation; stopped by from each fission goes on to cause another fission.
paper; contains two protons; has a charge of +2. 5 Because there are many fissions in an uncontrolled
Beta particles: can travel through paper but not a few chain reaction.
millimetres of aluminium; has a charge of –1 6 a Uncontrolled chain reaction
Gamma rays: smallest form of ionising radiation; is not made b No chain reaction
of any particles; can travel the furthest distance through air; c Controlled chain reaction
can travel through a few millimetres of aluminium; an 7 A good answer will contain the following points:
electromagnetic wave; does not have an electrical charge  Two or three neutrons are produced in each fission.
P2.24b Types of radiation  Each of these neutrons can be absorbed by other
uranium-235 nuclei.
1 Beta  The uranium-235 nuclei then become unstable and split
2 Alpha up.
3 Alpha  Some of these neutrons need to be absorbed by other
4 Alpha materials.
5 Beta
 Only one neutron should go on to cause another fission.
6 Gamma
 The reaction will then continue at a steady rate.
7 Gamma
8 Gamma Skills spotlight
9 Alpha One neutron: 10 atoms; two neutrons: 1024 atoms; three
10 Gamma neutrons: 59 049 atoms
11 Alpha
12 Alpha Activity Pack
P2.24c Radiation penetration P2.25b Nuclear fission jigsaw
1 1 The pieces should make a diagram showing the fission of
uranium-235 and the fission products xenon-143 and
Radiation Blocked by Penetrating Ionising
strontium-90.
alpha skin, paper, a few cm air slightly highly 2 a Proton number 40; mass number 99.
beta a few mm of aluminium partly partly b Correctly labelled diagram similar to Figure B on page
256 of the Student Book.
gamma thick lead highly slightly
2 a Alpha, beta, gamma

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This document may have been altered from the original.
P2.25c Nuclear chain reactions
1 a Neutron
b It becomes unstable.
c Nuclear fission
2 a Daughter nuclei
b Neutrons
c Energy
3 a Only one of the three neutrons released goes on to
cause the fission of another uranium-235 nucleus.
b The other neutrons are absorbed by another material.
P2.25d Nuclear reactions
1 a Controlled chain reaction
b The other neutrons are absorbed by another material.
2 a The chain reaction becomes uncontrolled.
b A nuclear/atomic bomb
c There is no chain reaction/the reaction will stop.
3 One of the nuclei produced when the uranium-235
nucleus splits up.
4 Any sensible suggestions. The proton numbers of the
two nuclei should add up to 92. The mass numbers of
the products (including two or three neutrons) should
add up to 236.
5 a The reaction will gradually die away until it stops
altogether.
b The reaction will gradually increase – it is uncontrolled.
P2.26 Nuclear power
Student Book
1 Nuclear energy to thermal energy
2 To maintain a steady rate of fission – if this does not
happen, the reactor could explode like a nuclear bomb.
3 a To absorb neutrons
b To slow down neutrons
4 Don’t store too many of them together and keep them a
reasonable distance apart.
5 Flow diagram should include the following stages:
nuclear energy → kinetic energy → thermal energy →
kinetic energy → electrical energy
6 Raise the control rods to increase the rate of the chain
reaction.
7 The moderator
8 A good answer will contain the following points:
 The rate of reaction needs to be maintained at only one
neutron from each fission going on to cause another
fission.
 If the reactor core is cooling down, the rate of reaction
needs to be increased.
 Control rods are raised to increase the reaction rate and
hence the temperature.
 If the reactor is heating up too much, the rate of
reaction needs to be decreased.
 Control rods are lowered to reduce the reaction rate
and hence the temperature.
Skills spotlight
Sensible suggestions including effect on jobs, site needs to
be outside major population centres, local population may
have worries about having a nuclear power station nearby,
potential hazards in areas that are prone to earthquakes.
Activity Pack
P2.26a Control rod feedback loop
1 vessels become radioactive).
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This document may have been altered from the original.
2 Reactor core: nuclear energy to kinetic energy and
thermal energy; kinetic energy to thermal energy.
Heat exchanger: thermal energy to kinetic energy.
[Turbine: kinetic energy to kinetic energy]
[Generator: kinetic energy to electrical energy]
Some students may also include some of the wasted
energy transfers, e.g. in the generator, kinetic energy is
also transferred to thermal energy and sound energy.
P2.26c Nuclear power station
1 Labels going clockwise from top left: control rod,
moderator, turbine, generator, heat exchanger,
shielding, nuclear reactor
2 Lines should be drawn connecting the part with what it
does as follows:
nuclear reactor: where nuclear fission takes place
heat exchanger: where water is boiled to make steam
turbines: large blades which rotate to drive a generator
generator: produces electricity when it spins
shielding: stops radiation and neutrons escaping from
the reactor
control rod: controls the rate of the chain reaction
moderator: slows down neutrons
P2.26d Parts of a nuclear power station
1 A: control rod, B: moderator, C: turbine, D: generator, E:
nuclear reactor, F: shielding, G: heat exchanger
2 a To absorb neutrons and slow down the chain reaction.
b Without them, all of the neutrons could go on to cause
more nuclear fissions – the reaction would then be
uncontrolled and the reactor could explode.
3 a To slow down the neutrons so they can be absorbed
more easily.
b The neutrons are travelling very fast when emitted and
are not absorbed by the uranium-235 nuclei.
4 The control rods should be raised slightly to increase the
rate of the chain reaction. This will produce more heat
energy to keep the temperature of the super heated
water at the correct level.
5 The thermal energy is used to convert water into steam.
The steam has kinetic energy, which is used to transfer
kinetic energy to the turbine. The turbine is connected to
the generator, which transfers kinetic energy to electrical
energy.
6 The fission products are radioactive and the shielding
absorbs any radioactivity coming from the reactor.
7 No, the pump should be left switched on. It will take a
little while for the chain reaction to stop, so fission is still
happening and producing thermal energy. The fission
products are also producing thermal energy.
P2.27 Fusion – our future?
Student Book
1 Nuclear fusion of hydrogen
2 Helium and neutrons
H3 Hydrogen nuclei do not have enough energy to
overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion.
H4 The pressure is much greater in the Sun (so nuclei are
closer together).
H5 Nuclei split up in fission but join together in fusion;
fission can take place at normal temperatures and
pressures but fusion needs high temperatures and
pressures; fission creates radioactive waste from fuel
while fusion does not (but in both processes containment
H6 Other scientists could not get the same results when
they repeated the experiment.
7 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Very high temperatures and pressures are needed to
overcome electrostatic forces of repulsion.
 Very difficult to sustain the high temperatures and
pressures.
 So far none of the experimental reactors have produced
more energy than was put in to heat up the hydrogen
nuclei and contain them.
Skills spotlight
Sensible suggestions including: Fleischmann and Pons did
not go through the validation process; other scientists were
not able to carry out the experiment and get the same results;
they did not produce a paper that was subjected to peer
review.
Activity Pack
P2.27d Fission and fusion
1 a False. A uranium-235 nucleus splitting into two
daughter nuclei is an example of nuclear fission.
b True
c False. Both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion make
the reactor radioactive.
d False. Nuclear fusion is the reaction that is the source
of energy in stars.
e False. Uranium-235 splits up to form two daughter
nuclei and two or three neutrons are released.
f False. In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei are joined
together to form larger ones.
g True
2 A good answer would include some or all of the
following: fusion involves joining two nuclei, whereas
fission involves splitting one nucleus. Fusion involves
conditions that are currently difficult to achieve, whereas
fission conditions can be achieved relatively easily.
Fusion to generate energy is still experimental, whereas
fission is a major source of the generation of electricity.
3 A suitable answer including the words, e.g.
Their claims needed to be validated by writing a paper
that was then peer reviewed before it was published.
Other scientists needed to be able to carry out the same
experiment and get the same results.
H P2.27e Fusion reactions
1 Fusion involves joining two nuclei, whereas fission
involves splitting one nucleus. Fusion involves conditions
that are currently difficult to achieve, whereas fission
conditions can be achieved relatively easily. Fusion to
generate energy is still experimental, whereas fission is
a major source of the generation of electricity.
2 The nuclei cannot overcome the electrostatic force of
repulsion.
3 A fusion reactor has one reaction that starts with
deuterium and tritium and ends up with helium and a
neutron. The Sun has several reactions that start with
hydrogen nuclei and finish with helium nuclei and
neutrons. The temperature in a fusion reactor is about
10 times hotter than the Sun.
4 To overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion.
5 a Stage 2
b 32 He
6 The theory needs to be validated by writing a paper that
is then peer reviewed before it is published. Other
scientists need to be able to carry out the same
experiment and get the same results.
7 It is very difficult to reproduce the conditions of the Sun.
Also, the rate of the reaction in the Sun is 1000 times
lower than that in a fusion reactor.
P2.28 Changing ideas
Student Book
1 a Radioactivity – the emission of ‘invisible’ rays that
came from uranium, which penetrated through solid
materials. He also discovered that these rays exposed
photographic plates.
b Some materials emit more (ionising) radiation than
others.
2 a Ionises atoms in cells
b Causes tissue damage, such as skin burns, and
damages DNA, leading to mutations. Some mutations
can lead to cancer. (And if mutations are formed in a
gamete-producing cell, the resulting child may have a
deformity.)
3 They did not know about the long-term effects.
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4 Longer-term effects such as mutations that lead to
cancer (and other effects such as sterility and blood
disorders) became more obvious as time went by.
5 A good answer will contain the following points:
 Handle sources with tongs, which increases the
distance between the source and your body, so less
ionising radiation reaches your body.
 Do not point sources at people, which means less
ionising radiation will reach their body.
 Keep sources in a lead-lined container, as all but the
most penetrating ionising radiation is stopped by a few
millimetres of lead.
 Wear gloves and eye protection to reduce the chances
of getting radioactive materials on your skin.
Skills spotlight
They knew that it could burn the skin and, from Becquerel’s
earlier work, that it could ionise gases.
They did not know that it can also cause ionisation in cells
that can lead to mutations and cancer.
Activity Pack
P2.28a Handling radioactive sources
The sets are: boxes 1, 6 and 10; boxes 2, 5 and 12, boxes 3,
8 and 11, boxes 4, 7 and 9.
P2.28b Radioactive discoveries timeline
1 The correct order is: 3, 5, 1, 4, 2
2 The hypotheses are:
1 The activity of a source depends on the mass of the
source.
2 Sources give out different types of radiation that can
be stopped by different materials.
3 Uranium gives out ‘invisible rays’.
4 Different types of radiation are stopped by different
materials.
5 The ‘invisible rays’ given out by uranium can charge
the particles in the air.
P2.28c Safe use of radioactive sources
1 Incorrect. E.g. you should not touch radioactive sources
because they can burn your skin.
2 Correct
3 Correct
4 Incorrect. E.g. the hazards of handling radioactive
sources are increased by pointing them at people.
5 Incorrect. E.g. scientists did not realise at first that
cancer and other health problems could be caused by
ionising radiation.
6 Incorrect. E.g. radioactive sources are kept in lead-lined
containers because most ionising radiation is stopped by
a few millimetres of lead.
7 Incorrect. E.g. mutations are caused by smaller amounts
of ionising radiation over a long time.
8 Correct.
9 Incorrect. E.g. regulations are now in place to prevent
radioactive materials being added to products, although
at the beginning of the 20th century radium or thorium
was deliberately added to such items. (Students could
argue that the statement is correct, due to background
radiation.)
P2.28d Marie Curie in the laboratory
1 Answers should include:
 Keep the radioactive source in a lead-lined container,
not just in a drawer.
 Handle sources with tongs, not with the hands.
 Not lift the source close to the eyes.
 Wear gloves and eye protection.
 Not carry sources close to the body (as Gustave does).
2 For all answers: because radioactive substances emit
ionising radiation that ionises cells and causes tissue
damage, and possibly cancer.
 Most ionising radiation is stopped by a few millimetres
of lead.
 This increases the distance between the source and
the body, so less ionising radiation reaches the body.
 As above.
  Alpha radiation will be stopped by the material of the
gloves or glasses; also prevents small particles of the
radioactive substance being transferred to the skin or
eyes where they could continue to decay and emit
radiation.
 The closer the source is to the body, the more damage
it can do; there is also the risk of the glass tube
breaking (or the seal leaking) and the contents
contaminating the pocket.
3 Marie Curie has reddened skin on her hands. Although
she did not know about the hazards of ionising radiation
to living things, she could have used the damage to her
skin as evidence that handling radioactive sources was
harmful and so they should not be applied directly to the
skin (in cosmetics) or swallowed (in food).
P2.29 Nuclear waste
Student Book
1 Fission products, i.e. used nuclear fuel
2 They both remain radioactive for tens of thousands of
years.
3 HLW produces large amounts of ionising radiation while
ILW produces a smaller (but still significant) amount.
4 Inside thick concrete and steel for temporary storage
and transport, and then sealed in glass.
5 Geological stability of site, number of people living near
the site, access for transporting waste to the site.
6 a Does not produce carbon dioxide when it is generating
electricity. Does not use up fossil fuels.
b Because of the risk of accidents like Chernobyl, where
radioactive material was spread over a large area (and
the subsequent risk to human health of drinking/eating/
breathing in contaminated water/food/air).
7 A good answer will contain the following points:
 It needs to be stored safely for many tens of thousands
of years.
 It takes many tens of thousands of years for the levels
of radioactivity to decrease to safer levels.
 The materials it is stored in have to last all this time.
 The building structure also has to last for many tens of
thousands of years.
 Any materials that leak have to be contained so they do
not get into groundwater etc.
Skills spotlight
Answers could include the following points:
Firing into space: once the waste is in space it cannot
contaminate the Earth if it leaks; there is lots of radiation in
space from the Sun, so putting the waste into space is not
making the solar system any more dangerous than it already
is (although this argument ignores the possibility of actually
colliding with the waste).
Dumping at sea: the oceans contain a huge amount of water,
so any waste that leaks will be diluted and not likely to cause
harm to people (this argument ignores any effects on wildlife
in the area of the dumping)
Storage underground: any radiation leaking from containers
will not be able to get through rock to harm people; the earth
naturally contains radioactive elements, so putting waste here
will not be making it any more dangerous (this ignores the fact
that the waste is likely to be far more concentrated than any
naturally radioactive substances in rocks)
Activity Pack
P2.29a Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power
Advantages: No carbon dioxide is produced by a nuclear
power station when it is generating power; nuclear power
does not contribute to global warming; fossil fuels are not
used as the source of energy; there are skilled jobs available
in a nuclear power station; the risk of an accident happening
is very low; the amount of fuel needed is much less than for a
fossil fuel power station; over the last 50 years, scientists
have started to become worried about releasing carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
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This document may have been altered from the original.
Disadvantages: The waste products of nuclear reactors are
radioactive; high level waste is radioactive for many tens of
thousands of years; the public perception is that nuclear
power is dangerous; if an accident does happen at a nuclear
power station, radioactive materials could be spread over a
large area; nuclear waste needs to be stored in a place that is
secure for many tens of thousands of years; a lot of energy is
used to make the materials used to build the power station;
some low level waste is allowed to be discharged into the
environment, because the activity is very low; the waste
stored must be safe from being damaged in earthquakes and
other natural events; exposure to radioactive substances can
cause mutations in cells, which can then cause cancer;
mining and transporting nuclear fuel produces carbon dioxide
emissions; it is very expensive to clean up old nuclear power
stations.
P2.29c Nuclear power and nuclear waste
1 a Advantage
b Disadvantage
c Disadvantage
d Advantage
2 a Radioactive material could get into the wider
environment, e.g. the water supply.
b The rock absorbs the ionising radiation and therefore
prevents it reaching the surface; also the deeper it is the
more likely it is to remain isolated from humans and the
environment for a very long time (for example isolated
from near-surface groundwater).
c It must have a low risk of earthquakes/ground
movements that would create routes for air or water to
travel from the radioactive waste to the surface.
d Barrels in the sea can be corroded by the sea water; it
is easier to monitor the waste in this store.
3 Any two suitable answers, e.g. risk of accidents that
would destroy the reactor and hence cause leaks of
radioactive materials; if there is an accident, radioactive
material could be spread over a large area, with risks to
health of workers or people living in the ‘fallout’ area;
target for terrorists; mining for uranium also has health
risks due to toxic waste; radioactive waste is difficult to
store safely.
P2.29d Storing and disposing of nuclear waste
1 The waste is radioactive for many tens of thousands of
years.
2 a Rock absorbs any radiation coming out of the store
and so prevents any radiation reaching the surface; also
the deeper it is the more likely it is to remain isolated
from humans and the environment for a very long time
(for example isolated from near-surface groundwater).
b So that the store is not damaged if there is an
earthquake, otherwise radioactivity could be released if
ground movements create routes for air or water to
travel from the radioactive waste to the surface.
3 a Containment – placing in a container or other method
of storage; dispersal – spreading into the environment,
dilution in air/water to reduce the concentration.
b The one where liquids and gases are released into the
environment.
c Sensible suggestions, e.g. people think it makes the
environment more radioactive; it can damage plants and
animals in the environment; we don’t know fully what
happens to the radioactivity when it is released.
4 So that if one method fails or cracks, developing a leak,
there is another method of containing the radioactivity.
5 It is much more radioactive and so safer storage
processes need to be in place if it is to be safe.
6 a Students’ own opinions
b Because of public perceptions about the risks to health
and the environment from potential leaks.
7 Sensible suggestions, e.g. knowledge about the site
could be lost, entrance could become overgrown, the
containers may still break down over tens of thousands
of years.
P2.30 Half-life 4 2850 years is an acceptable answer at this level
(although it is not perfectly accurate because the
Student Book mathematical relationship between activity and time is
1 Two nuclei exponential not linear).
2 The time taken for the activity to decrease by half, or the 5 710 years is an acceptable answer at this level (although
time taken for half the undecayed nuclei to decay. it is not perfectly accurate because the mathematical
3 30 years relationship between activity and time is exponential not
4 a One half-life linear). Take it as being one-eighth of the way towards
b Two half-lives one half-life. At 710 years old, it cannot have been a part
c Four half-lives of Christ’s cross.
d 0.5 half-lives 6 11 400 years
5 a 5 million 7 75 000 years is 13.15 half-lives. Take this as 13.
b 2.5 million Divide 40 000 by 2 13 times (divide by 213) to give the
c 1.25 million answer of 9.15 Bq, so a suitable range would be 0–10
d 7.5 million Bq or similar (i.e. sensitive enough to distinguish
6 Source A: about 5 seconds; source B: about 20 seconds between readings of 100, 10 and 1).
7 A good answer will contain the following points: 8 A GM tube does not detect all of the ionising radiation
 Activity of a source is given in becquerels. entering it; a radioactive source emits ionising radiation
 One becquerel is one nuclear decay per second. in all directions while the GM tube is only detecting the
 An unstable nucleus is one that will undergo radioactive radiation emitted in one direction; the count from the GM
decay. tube also includes background radiation.
 When an unstable nucleus decays it may become stable.
 The more stable nuclei a substance contains, the lower
P2.32 Background radiation
its activity. Student Book
Skills spotlight 1 The low level of ionising radiation that is around us all
Measure the activity (for example using a Geiger counter to the time
measure the count rate in counts per second) of the material, 2 168 counts per minute
for a period such as 1 minute. Then measure the activity 3 From rocks in the ground
again over further time periods. The half-life is how long it 4 If radon is breathed in, alpha particles emitted from the
takes for the activity to decrease by half. (Students may radon gas can damage the lungs.
comment on how frequently you should measure the activity, 5 Plants and animals take in radioactive isotopes from
based on preliminary results and the rate at which the activity their environments.
is decreasing. Students may also comment that you should 6 People in aeroplanes receive more cosmic rays than
plot a graph of the activity against time and take several pairs people on the ground because the atmosphere has
of readings from the graph in order to get a mean value for absorbed fewer cosmic rays at that height. As there are
the half-life, to show that the half-life is constant.) more high-energy particles during a solar storm, there
are more cosmic rays reaching the Earth, so aeroplanes
Activity Pack should fly lower to reduce the amount of cosmic rays
P2.30a Half-lives from graphs received by people in them.
7 A major part of background radiation comes from radon
1 a 70 seconds
gas, and radon gas comes from the decay of uranium
b 70 seconds
isotopes in rocks. Different rocks contain different
c 70 seconds
amounts of uranium. The rock types and building stones
2 They are all the same – in each case it is the time taken
vary in uranium content in different parts of the country.
for the radioactivity to halve. It is the half-life of the
8 A good answer will contain the following points:
source.
 Recognition of difference between ionising and non-
3 Graph 1: 6 hours; graph 2: 30 years
ionising radiation.
P2.30b Calculating half-lives  Majority of background radiation comes from natural
1 a 70 seconds sources.
b 6 hours  Human-made ionising radiation mainly comes from
c 30 years medical sources such as X-rays and radiotherapy
d 3.8 days treatment.
2 a Correctly drawn graph  Only a very small proportion of background radiation
b 28.9 years comes from nuclear power stations/nuclear waste.
c Two half-lives  The biggest part of natural sources is radon gas.
P2.30c Half-life of carbon-14  Radon gas can be dangerous if levels build up and it is
breathed in.
1 a One nuclear decay per second
b It decreases by half.  So it is more likely that natural radiation will hurt you but
c About 5700 years human-made radiation won’t.
2 a They have decayed. Skills spotlight
b ¼ or 25% Need to measure the background count in many different
c ¼ or 25% places and over a long period of time to account for regional
d2 variation in radon levels and time variation in differences in
e 11 400 years cosmic rays. Would also need to collect data on the food
3 a 1/8 or 12.5% people eat, the number of X-ray scans they have had (and
b 1/8 or 12.5% also any radiotherapy treatment) and their occupations (for
c About 17 000 years (17 100 years) example pilots, doctors and workers in nuclear power stations
P2.30d Radioactive dating will have varying levels of exposure at work).
1 a One nuclear decay per second Activity Pack
b The activity of carbon-14 decreases by half in 5700 P2.32a Interpreting background radiation
years, or half of the unstable nuclei decay in 5700 years.
2 a 12.5% 1 a Percentage of background radiation from radon gas is
b Three half-lives much higher than the UK average. Percentage of
c 17 100 years background radiation from all other sources is lower than
3 22 800 years ago the UK average.

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This document may have been altered from the original.
 b Percentage of background radiation from buildings and
soil and cosmic rays is higher than the UK average;
percentage of background radiation from medical and
food and drink is about the same as the UK average;
and percentage of background radiation from radon gas
is lower than the UK average.
2 The amount of radon gas that comes out of the ground
varies depending on the rock type in the area.
3 a Food and drink, buildings and soil, cosmic rays and
radon gas. Buildings are a natural source because the
stone used to make them is naturally radioactive.
b Medical
4 a One person may have lots of dental or bone X-rays
and/or radiotherapy for cancer, whereas someone else
may not have any X-rays, etc.
b People working in radioactive environments; fallout
from nuclear accidents or weapons testing.
5 Students’ own opinions, with sensible reasons.
P2.32b Monitoring radon levels
1 Radon can be dangerous. When you breathe in, alpha
particles from radon can be absorbed by the lungs,
which can lead to an increased risk of cancer.
2 Radon gas builds up inside a house not outside it (radon
can build up as more seeps in through the floor, but
cannot disperse unless there is good ventilation).
3 a Provide a continuous read-out of radioactivity levels;
can trigger an alarm if activity from radon gets too high.
b Much cheaper; provide a record of the total amount of
activity from radon over a period of time.
4 a More expensive than devices that are left in the house;
don’t necessarily provide a record of the overall amount
of activity from radon.
b Can’t trigger an alarm if activity from radon gets too
high; have to be sent back to a laboratory for radiation
levels to be calculated.
P2.32c Background radiation
1 a 11.5%
b Animals and plants take them in from their
environment (soil, air, water).
c One person might have a job that involves more
exposure (e.g. pilot, medical technician) or they may
have had more medical treatments such as X-rays or
radiotherapy.
2 Cosmic rays – Sun and other stars; radon gas – uranium
in rocks in the ground; medical – radiotherapy treatment
and X-rays; food – radioactive isotopes in the environment
3 All except cosmic rays
4 Levels of radon gas from rocks in the ground vary due to
the different rock types in different places.
5 a Cosmic rays, because all of the others come from the
Earth (and there is no atmosphere to act as a shield).
b The proportion of background radiation from cosmic
rays is higher in space (no shielding by atmosphere), the
proportion from ground and buildings, radon gas and
medical is lower, but the proportion from food and drink
is likely to be similar.
P2.32d Sources of background radiation
1 Nothing can be said to be ‘completely safe’. Even low
activities/amounts can be potentially harmful to cells.
2 They compare the activity with the background radiation
activity. If they are similar, the source is ‘safe’.
3 The amount would be classified as safe as it is the
normal average amount that people in the UK are
exposed to. Since no harm comes to most people from
this level of radiation, it would be deemed ‘safe’.
4 Any three from: rocks, buildings, food, medical
techniques like X-rays, cosmic rays from outer space.
5 a Ionising radiation from outer space
b No, the value depends on altitude. For example,
people travelling on a plane are exposed to more cosmic
rays than people at ground level (due to less protection
from the atmosphere).
6 Yorkshire, Aberdeen and Cornwall
7 Rocks, which contain small amounts of uranium-238 and
thorium-232, for example.
© Pearson Education 2011. Edexcel GCSE Additional Science Teacher and Technician Planning Guide
This document may have been altered from the original.
8 Our bodies have an activity of, on average, 5000
radioactive decays per second.
9 Houses were much more draughty 100 years ago, so the
air in the room changed more often and levels of radon
gas did not build up as much.
P2.33 Uses of radiation
Student Book
1 Radiation from alpha and beta sources inside the body
would be stopped by the body so could not be detected
outside it. Also, alpha particles emitted inside the body
would cause a lot of harm to cells and tissue, whereas
gamma rays tend to pass through the flesh without being
absorbed.
2 The use of ionising radiation to treat diseases like cancer
by targeting and killing the cancer cells.
3 a To reduce the risk of infection by microorganisms
b Some heat-sensitive instruments (e.g. plastic) cannot
be sterilised using heat.
4 Benefits: kills bacteria in food; food can be stored for
longer before going off; kills pests such as insects that
may be in the food. Drawbacks: public acceptance;
perceived risks (also danger that food may already have
deteriorated before the food was treated, e.g. that toxins
may already have been produced by microorganisms).
5 The food is exposed to gamma rays
6 A good answer will include the following points:
 Should not all be absorbed by the body – should have
some penetrating power.
 Some tracers should be absorbed by certain parts of
the body but not by others.
 Should have a short half-life, of the order of hours, so
that the body is not exposed to too much radiation.
 Should have a low activity level – as above.
 The radioactive isotope, or the decay product, should
not have toxic side effects unconnected with the
ionising radiation.
Skills spotlight
Students’ own answers, but should include the following:
Benefits: public will know if food has been irradiated or not
and can make their own choice.
Disadvantages: people may avoid safer food because they
don’t want to consume irradiated food (they may not be aware
of all the facts).
Ethical issues: it might be unethical not to irradiate food since
it makes it safer to eat (ethical responsibility to make food
safer); alternatively it may be unethical to distribute irradiated
food because not enough is known about the effects, e.g. on
vitamin content, or because the motive behind it is for profit
(to increase shelf life), not for health reasons. The ethical
treatment of the environment might also be considered.
Activity Pack
P2.33c Radiotherapy
1 a Lung
b Ovaries
c Breast
2 a WI; CR; SD; VG (other answers possible)
b QF; SH; DO; NC (other answers possible)
c DN; SK; RJ; PH (other answers possible)
3 Large amounts of ionising radiation can damage the skin
by burning it.
P2.33d Radioactive wordsearch
1 a Cosmic ray
b Radon gas
c Irradiate
d Sterilisation
e Radiotherapy
f Becquerel
g Activity
h Count rate
i Background
j Half-life
k Mutation
l Gamma ray
2 6 Flow chart should have three feedback loops showing
C I L T U F D B N U B P L A T what happens when: the paper is too thin; the paper is
too thick; the paper is the right thickness.
L N R A D O N G A S E J S C L 7 A good answer should include the following points:
A P S A F E H T J T T B D T E  Long half-life
 Gamma emitter so that it can get to the detector
M A X V W Y H D K E A A N I A through the ground
 Low activity level so that it does not damage any living
I R R A D I A T E R N C C V K
things
P M U T A T I O N I F K B I Q  Not poisonous to organisms
 Increases the background count
R U B K O P F R I L R G G T V
Skills spotlight
O D A X R C O S M I C R A Y O
I would need data on the number of people whose lives have
L P N P E R D U E S E O M G P been saved in a fire because a smoke detector woke them up
or warned them and allowed them to get out of the house in
H A L F L I F E X A Q U M P S time.
Z O C O U N T R A T E N A M P I would also need information about the risks of smoke
detectors. For example, has anyone become ill because of
B E C Q U E R E L I H D R E E the radiation emitted by them. This is not likely to happen
B N A A L P H A Y O S S A F E when the smoke detectors are mounted properly, as alpha
particles do not travel far through air. However there may be
E B I L N R U W O N J Z Y A D information about harm caused if they are not disposed of
properly, or if people take them apart.
X E R A D I O T H E R A P Y L If more people have been helped by smoke detectors than
P2.33e Other uses of gamma rays have been harmed by them, then the benefits outweigh the
risks.
1 Because the gamma rays can penetrate up to 15 cm of
solid steel. Activity Pack
2 Not very, because most of the truck is showing P2.34b Choosing radioactive sources
grey/white.
3 They are absorbing some of the gamma rays. 1 Americium-241 because an alpha emitter is needed to
4 If there were discrepancies between what the produce the ionisation current and the activity needs to
documentation says and what you can see on the stay approximately the same for the life of the product.
image. 2 Strontium-90 because a beta emitter is needed (to pass
5 Black through the thin material) with a long half-life.
6 No, because the gamma rays from the cobalt-60 source 3 Technetium-99m because a gamma emitter is needed
will penetrate solid steel up to 15 cm thick. (to pass through the body) with a short half-life.
7 Yes, because metals will absorb some gamma rays so P2.34c Choosing the correct radioactive sources
the guns would make a dark image. Students’ answers may vary – examples are given here.
8 GM tube and other sensible suggestions 1 Cobalt-60 because a gamma emitter with a half-life of
9 Students’ own answers more than a few days is needed to detect slow leaks.
10 a Hidden rooms, e.g. in a pyramid 2 Cobalt-60 because a gamma emitter with a long half-life
b Need to be able to get to both sides of the structure as is needed.
the source has to be on the opposite side to the camera; 3 Technetium-99m because a gamma emitter is needed
object cannot be too big otherwise gamma rays will not with a short half-life.
get through at all. 4 Americium-241 because an alpha emitter is needed and
the activity needs to stay approximately the same for the
P2.34 More uses of radiation life of the product.
Student Book 5 Strontium-90 because a beta emitter is needed with a
1 Alpha particles long half-life.
2 Count detected by monitor decreases, so computer 6 Cobalt-60 because a gamma emitter with a long half-life
increases pressure applied to the rollers. is needed.
3 Alpha particles would be stopped by the paper. 7 Cobalt-60 because a gamma emitter with a long half-life
4 The half-life is much greater than the life of the product, is needed.
so the radioactivity of the americium will remain 8 Activity of the source, how easy is it to obtain, cost.
approximately the same while the smoke alarm is in use.
5 Use same method as for paper, as described in Student
Book.

© Pearson Education 2011. Edexcel GCSE Additional Science Teacher and Technician Planning Guide
This document may have been altered from the original.