4.

Sample - a portion of the population from which data

CHAPTER 11 will be solicited for purposes of the research. It is a
subgroup of the population which constitutes the
subjects or respondents of the study.
Nature and Definition of Sampling
Samples may be categorized as follows
Sampling Procedures
 Respondents or participants of the study
 Universe
 Subjects of the study
 Population
 Key informants / volunteer samples
 Sampling
 Sample
5. Sample Size
A large sample size would be required in instances such
1. Universe - the totality of elements to which research
as the following:
findings may apply. This also refers to the target
 Presence of variables which cant be controlled
population, the group of people or objects from which
 Expected differences on a variable of interest
the researcher intends to collect data and generalize the
among population
findings of the study.
 Dividing the population in subgroups
 Expected dropout rate among subjects is high
Elements - refer to entities that make up the sample and
 Statistical tests used require minimum sample
the population
sizes
2. Population - refers to the accessible group of
An absolute minimum sample size should be declared at
individuals from which the samples will be drawn by the
the beginning of a study particularly in the scope and
researcher, consistent with specific criteria, or the total
limitation section of the study.
possible participation of the group in the study. This also
refers to the portion of the universe accessible to the
In quantitative studies, power is the standard for
researcher.
determining sample size adequacy.
Types of Population
Steps in Sampling
a) Target Population - group of individuals or
1) Identify target population
objects which is of interest to the researcher and
2) Identify respondent population
about which speculative information is desired.
3) Specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria
b) Subjects or Respondent Population - group of
4) Specify the sampling design
individuals or objects chosen to provide actual
5) Recruit the subjects
data and information needed in a research.
c) Stratum - describes a mutually exclusive segment
Inclusion criteria - provides guidelines for choosing
of the population, distinguished by one or more
subjects with a predetermined set of characteristics.
traits or qualifications
d) Eligibility or Inclusion criteria - criteria or
Exclusion criteria - are characteristics that exclude a
characteristics specified in the population to be
potential subject from the study.
included in the study. Exclusion criteria are the
characteristics of the population that are not
Types of Sampling
specified in the study and are therefore
disqualified to participate in the study.
1. Non-probability Sampling - respondents or subjects
3. Sampling - process of selecting representative portion
are selected in a non-random way. The researcher
of the population to represent the entire population. This
desires to use available subjects at his convenience
is a practical and efficient means of ensuring the quality
anytime during the period of the study.
of data that will be gathered.

Types of Sampling
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
a) Sampling Unit - specific area or place which can
A) Accidental or Convenience Sampling - uses the most
be used during the sampling process
readily available group of people as study respondents.
b) Sampling Frame - comprises a complete list of
Also called as volunteer samples
sampling units from which sample is drawn
c) Sampling Design - scheme that specifies the
B) Quota Sampling - divides the population into
number of samples drawn from the population, the
homogenous sub-populations to ensure the presence of
inclusion and exclusion criteria for their choice
representative proportions of the various strata in the
and the sampling technique used, such as
sample.
purposive, random sampling, stratified and
convenience sampling.
C) Purposive or Judgment Sampling - subjects are
d) Sampling Size - total number of samples who will
handpicked to be included in the sampling frame based
participate in the study after the sampling design
on certain qualities for purposes of the study.
was completed
Sloven Formula - to get sample size from population
D) Snowball or Network or Chain Sampling - consists
n = N/ 1+Ne2
of identifying the persons who meet the inclusion
n - number of samples
criteria of the study and who in turn refer other
N - population
individuals who may be interviewed.
E - sampling error ranging from 1%-10%
E) Modal instance sampling - used when one wishes to
Sampling Bias - when data is influenced by external
investigate thoughts and actions of typical people and
factors so that the data no longer represents the entire
when the researcher fears that signification data about
population
this group of people might be lost in a more general
study.
Sampling error may arise when the value of one sample
size differ from another drawn from the same population
Advantages of non-probability sampling
 Convenient

1
 Economical
Disadvantages of non-probability sampling
 Biased samples/ errors in judgment
 Cant estimate precise population
 Certain elements no chance to be included in
sample
2. Probability Sampling - random selection of subjects
or elements of the population. The goal is to examine
representative elements of the pop.
Types of Probability Sampling
A) Simple Random Sampling - selection of samples on
random basis from a sampling frame. Each element has
an equal chance or probability of being chosen as
subjects of the study.
B) Stratified Random Sampling - divides the
population into homogenous subgroups from which
elements are selected at random.
C) Cluster Sampling or Multi-Stage Sampling -
successive selection of random samples from larger to
smaller units by using either simple random or stratified
random methods.
D) Systematic or Sequential Sampling - selection of
sequence according to predetermined modality such as
every 10th name in a list of patients in odd or even
numbered.
Advantages:
 less bias
 Everyone equal chance to be selected
Disadvantages:
 Time consuming
 Expensive
 Inconvenient & impossible to obtain
Theoretical Sampling
 used in grounded theory studies. It seeks to
discover categories and their properties in order to
explain interrelationships that exist within the
theory that has already been studied.
 The goal is to gain a deeper understanding of the
phenomena under study and facilitate the
development of theory.
 This method is also known as “handy sampling”
CHAPTER 13
Nature of Research Instruments
Research instruments serve as measurement tools and
are an integral component of any nursing research study.
It should be reliable, consistent, and valid.
Types of research instruments
1. Questionnaire
 self-directing instrument structured with questions;
it is a paper and pencil approach
 Most frequently used clerical research instrument
2. Scanning Questionnaires
 Face to face interviews, mail surveys, interview
over the telephone
 Paper questionnaire that can be scanned
2
 More accurate than reading a complicated
questionnaire
3. Interview
 Next most used research instrument
 One on one dialogue with the subject
Types of Interview
A) Structured Interview
 Interview is guided by prepared questions
B) Unstructured Interview
 Ask the questions at random
Methods of interviewing are as follows
A) Personal Interview - interviewer facing the
interviewee
B) Telephone Surveys - most popular; easily contacted
C) Mail Surveys - allows respondent to answer during
his or her leisure time; least expensive method
D) Computer Directed Interviews - answers directly
into the computer
E) E-mail Surveys - Efficient and economical; limited
only to simple questions
F) Internet Surveys - fast and can gather several
thousand responses within a few hours. Can give more
honest answers
4. Scales - devices designed to assign a numeric
score.
Types of scales:
A) Social psychological - used in quantitative studies;
can discriminate among people having different
attitudes, fears, motives, perceptions, etc.
B) Likert scale - consist of declarative statements or
items that expresses viewpoint on a topic. Respondent
shall indicated the degree of agreement of disagreement
C) Sematic Differential scale - technique for measuring
attitudes; variables being measured affects them.
D) Visual analog scale - used to measure subjective
experiences of the respondents
E) Vignettes - brief descriptions of situations; subjects
are asked to react.
Written descriptions but can also be videotaped.
F) Q sorts - is a sorting technique. Subjects are given
set of cards and to sort it along a specified bipolar
dimension
5. Self-reports
 Report his/her own behavior or mental contents
 Notoriously inaccurate & unreliable
 Least accurate is to ask about his/her own past
6. Anecdotal Records - personal accounts of
researcher written on notebook or typewritten;
primary data
7. Mechanical Instruments
Types of questions asked in the interview:
1. Structured
 Formal interview
 Interview schedule is used
 Structured & well sequenced
 Easier to organize and analyze
2. Unstructured
 Informal interview
 Need longer time to organize and analyze
 Questions asked: information on knowledge
question, opinion questions, application questions,
analysis questions, synthesis questions
 Criteria for Evaluating the Instrument
1. Reliability - high degree of consistency or
Open ended - respondents use their own words to accuracy
answer questions than those listed in the questionnaire 2. Validity - should be measure precisely
3. Efficiency - Desired time frame
Close ended - respondents answer a number of fixed, 4. Sensitivity - distinguish characteristics of
alternatives responses called dichotomous items. individuals under study
5. Objectivity - able to gather factual and impartial
Types of close ended questions data
A) Dichotomous Items 6. Speed - quick, fast, and complete
 two response alternatives such as yes or no. 7. Reactivity - should not influence the attributes
 Useful in gathering factual data. being measured
 Hard to analyze, used only when no other type of 8. Simplicity - clear and simple; easy to understand
question is appropriate 9. Meaningfulness - valuable and practical

B) Multichotomous Items
 allows respondents to answer questions with a
range of responses such as multiple choice test CHAPTER 14
C) Fixed-Alternative/ Multiple choice items
Nature of Data Collection
 allowed multiple response alternatives. Good
when possible responses are few and clear cut
Data collection is precise systematic process of
gathering information relevant to the purpose of
D) Projective Questions
research, or specific objectives, questions, or hypothesis
 Uses vague questions; attempts to project a
of the study.
person’s attitudes from the response
 Uses fill in the blank sentences
Types of Research Data
 Difficult to analyze; better used for exploratory
1. Cross-sectional Data
research
 Gathers present data on events occurring at that
time.
E) Cafeteria Questions - to respond according to their
 Limited to the subjects at one point in time
own viewpoint
 Best gathered when the time frame is of short
duration
F) Rank Order Questions - Rank answers from most to
least important
2. Retrospective Data
 Frequently called ex-post facto studies
G) Checklist
 Data are collected on events in the past before a
 Aka “matrix questions”
study design in completed, “after the fact”
 two dimensional patterns
 Events have occurred prior to the initiation of the
 Questions written horizontally while respondents
study
answer vertically
 Results are limited to the availability of data
Types of response error:
3. Prospective Data
A) Telescoping error - an error resulting from the
 Refers to future data or events that occurred after
tendency of the respondents to remember events as
the study design has been completed
occurring more recently than they actually did
 Prospective and retrospective researchers are
Dominates for recent events
sometimes called longitudinal studies because they
extend over a long period of time.
B) Recall loss - When respondents forget that an even
 All experimental studies are prospective
occurred. Dominates events that happened in the distant
past

The Pilot Study or Pre-test of Instruments

 A pilot study is a smaller version of a proposed
study and it is conducted to refine the
methodology.
Categories of Data collection
 Pilot study is also known as the Filed Test or Dry-
1. Primary Data collection
Run
 Researcher personally collects data from actual
 Dry run is a trial version of the study
respondents.
 Not accessible to anyone until it is published

2. Secondary Data collection

 Researcher uses data that was collected for another
purpose
 Easier to collect and gather than primary data
Purpose of conducting a Field Test
Steps in data collection
 Determine feasibility of the study
1. Explain
 To validate instruments for measuring the
2. Clarify
variables
3. Administer
 Check the reliability of the instruments
4. Describe
 Ensure its efficiency and effectiveness
 Ensure to use correct language
Methods of collecting Data
 Assess and evaluate study procedure
 Can make revisions
1. Used of Already Existing or Available Data

3
a) Raw Data - from basic documents such as records of Coding - process of transforming data into numerical
patient’s admission, birth dates, discharges symbols

b) Tabular Data - indicating number of patients

admitted or discharged by year or month, total number
of deliveries, surgeries.
CHAPTER 15
Nature of Measurement of Variables
2. Use of Observers’ Data
 Measurement is a procedure for assigning
Types of Observers
numerical values to variables.
a) Non Participant Observer - does not share the same
 Numbers are numerical that have quantitative
milieu with the subjects and is not member of the group
meaning and are amendable to statistical analysis.
of the study
 “Level of measurement” or scales of measure are
expressions that typically refer to the theory of
scale type.
Types of Non-Participant Observers
 Four different types of scales that he called
1. Overt non-participant Observer - Observer
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
identifies herself and her task of conducting research
 Levels of measurement are determining factors of
and informing the subjects of the type of data to be
the type of statistics ti be used in analyzing data.
collected
1. Quantitative Measurement of Variables
2. Covert non-participant observer - the observer does
 Data are defined in such a way that they can
not identify herself to the subjects she will observe.
be explained according to the Scale of Measurement
 Scale of Measurement - device that assigns
b) Participant Observer - observer share the same
code numbers to subjects. Code numbers ranges from 0-
milieu and is better acquainted with the subjects.
100.
 Data in numerical form are easily
Types of Participant Observers
manipulated and analyzed.
1. Overt Participant Observer - is involved with the
subjects and has full knowledge and awareness of the
2. Qualitative Description of Variables of the
subjects to be observed
Descriptive Analysis Phase
A) Nominal scale
2. Covert Participant Observer - Observer interacts
 Used to classify variables or events into categories
with the subject and observes their behavior without
but cant be ranked.
their knowledge. “spying”
 Lowest level of measurement by assigning
characteristics of variables into categories.
 Not measured on a scale
 Cant be in more than one category
 The numbers are called categorical or classified
variables
 If nominal data fall in two categories, they are
referred to as binomial or dichotomous data

B) Ordinal Scale
 Used to show relative rankings of variables or
Two Methods of Observation
events.
A) Structured Observation - researcher has prior
 Used in ordering observations according to
knowledge of the phenomenon of interest
magnitude or intensity
 Ranked order from most to least or highest to
B) Unstructured Observation - researcher attempts to
lowest
describe events with no preconceived ideas of what will
be seen. Requires high degree of attention and
Types of Ordinal Scale
concentration
1. Likert Scale - respondents are asked to indicate the
degree to which they agree to disagree with the ideas
3. The use of Self Recording or Reporting Approach
expressed by the indicator. Used to assess the attitude of
respondents towards the variables
4. Use of Delphi Technique - uses a series of
questionnaires to gather a consensus of opinions from a
2. Graphic Rating Scale - asked to respond in a bipolar
group of experts
continuum such as from highest to lowest or most to
least. A simple line on which one marks an X anywhere
Types of Delphi Technique
between the extremes with an infinite number of places
 Classic Delphi - questions are presented to a panel
where the X can be placed
of informed individuals in a scientific field asking
their opinions on a particular issue or problem.
3. Guttman Scale - used to assess attitudes of
 Modified Delphi - uses interview or focus groups
respondents, using a continuum of cumulative
to gather their opinions on certain issues or trends
statements
 Policy Delphi - uses mostly in organizations to
examine and explore policy issues
4. Semantic Differential Scale - used to measure the
 Real time Delphi - uses a structured time,
meaning of concepts to determine the emotional
avoiding delay cause by pen or paper time, hence a
evaluative component of the respondents’ attitude.
face to face analysis is done by researcher.
Respondents are asked to rate their attitude
 E-Deplhi - uses electronics of e-mails
a) Interval Measurement
5. Critical Incident Technique - a set of principles for
 Shows ranking of variables or events on a scale
collecting data on observable human activities.
with equal intervals between the numbers

4
 Consists of real numbers
 Specifies the distance between ranks
b) Ratio Measurement
 Shows ranking of variables or events on scales
with equal intervals and absolute zeros.
Measurement Problems
1. A misplaced belief in precision
2. Measures that go against social conditions
3. The operational definition does not correspond to
the conceptual definition
4. The researcher depends on certain statistics
Errors in Measurements
 Measurement error - difference between the
actual amount of the attributes (true score) and the
amount of the attribute that was measured
(observed score).
 Measurement error is a threat to internal validity,
which leads to spurious or inaccurate data.
Types of Measurement errors
1. Random error - expected and affected by a host of
influences that may be present in an experiment. May be
due to human factors such as confusion, bias, and
variation.
2. Systemic error - seriously affects the results of a
research; appears to be accurate while remains to be
consistently biased
Sources of Measurement Errors
 Environmental contaminants
 Variation in personal factors
 Quality of responses
 Variations in data collections
 Clarity of the instrument
 Sampling of items
 Format of the instrument
STRATEGIES TO MINIMIZE MEASUREMENT
ERRORS
1. Measurability or Reliability
 Measurability or Reliability of instrument is the
consistency with which an instrument measures
the attribute, like a MP apparatus that gives a
reading of 120/80 in one minute and 130/80 after 5
minutes.
 Reliability also measures the accuracy of an
instrument which shows true score and minimizes
the error component of the obtained scores.
 Reliability affects the precision of a measure.
a) Stability of measurement
 the extent to which the scores are obtained when
the instrument is used with same samples on
separate occasions.
 This is derived through a test-retest reliability
procedures.
 The instrument is administered to a sample in two
occasions then compare the scores by computing
the reliability coefficient which measures the
magnitude of the test’s reliability.
b) Internal Consistency
 The instrument shows that all indicators or
subparts measures the same characteristics or
attributes of the variables.
 The split half technique and cronbach’s alpha or
coefficient are the two ways to measure internal
consistency.
5
c) Equivalence
  instrument shows high consistency or agreement
and congruence in the observations ratings of the
different observers or raters of certain
phenomenon, hence scores are likely to be
accurate and reliable.
2. The split-half technique
 Used to determine homogeneity of items in the
instruments, in which the items are split in half
and a correlational procedure performed between
the two halves.
 Measures the items on a scale that are split in two
groups.
3. The Cronbach’ alplha or coefficient alpha
 Technique that gives an estimate of the split half
correlation of ways in dividing the measure into
two halves, not just the odd or even items
 The higher the reliability, coefficient, the more
accurate the measure for internal consistency
4. Kuder-Richardson Coefficient
 This will determine the homogeneity in the
instrument using dichotomous response format.
5. Validity
 Degree by which the instrument measures what it
intends to measure.
 Face validity is one aspect to consider that the
instrument looks like it is measuring the
appropriate concepts.
4 types of Validity
a) Content Validity
 concerned with the adequacy of the content area
being measured.
 Relevant to measure cognitive and affective
domains and complex psychosocial traits which
may be based on judgment.
b) Face Validity
 The instrument measure the concept or variables
desired by the researcher in the study.
 It is an intuitive type of validity
 Useful in pre-testing the instruments to determine
readability and clarify of items being measure
before an actual investigation is done.
c) Criterion-related validity
 Degree to which scores on an instrument are
correlated with some external criterion.
 The instrument is valid if it strongly corresponds
with scores on the criterion.
 Predictive validity - instrument has the ability to
differentiate between respondents performance or
behavior on some future criterion outcome.
 Concurrent Validity - Instrument’s ability to
measure the differences in respondents present
status on some criterion.
d) Construct Validity
 Process of reducing concept abstraction into a
more concrete and suitable criterion related
validation.
 A hypothesis testing approach is then used to
validate the instrument
 Known-Group technique - this is where the
differences in the group’s attribute are measured
and scores are compared.
 Factor analysis - used to identify and group or
cluster together related items on a scale to measure
the different attributes
6. Sensitivity and Specificity
 Sensitivity is the ability of the instrument to
correctly screen or identify the variables to be
manipulated and measured to diagnose its
condition.
 Specificity is the ability of the instrument to
correctly identify non-cases or extraneous
variables and screen out those conditions not
necessary for manipulation
Assessing Qualitative Data
1. Credibility - refers to confidence in the truthfulness
of data and their interpretations.
Steps to demonstrate credibility are:
a) Prolonged engagement
b) Persistent Observation
c) Triangulation
d) Peer Debriefing and Member checks
e) Search for disconforming evidence
2. Dependability - concerned with the stability of
qualitative data for a long period of time
3. Confirmability - refers to the objectivity and
neutrality of data to show congruence between two or
more independent variables to determine accuracy,
relevance, and meaning of data.
4. Transferability - refers to research findings which
can be transferred or applied to other settings.
5. Authenticity - criteria to establish trustworthiness
of qualitative studies. This refers to the extent to which
the researcher describes truthfully and accurately varied
existence of different realities
Nature of Statistics
 Statistics is a branch of Mathematics used to
summarize, organize, present, analyze and
interpret numerical data.
Kinds of Statistics
 Statistical methods can be used to summarize or
describe a collection of data, this is called
descriptive statistics.
 Useful in research, particularly when
communicating the results of experiments
 Randomize and and uncertainty in the
observations may be used to draw inferences about
the process or population being studied, this is
called inferential statistics.
 Inference is a vital element of scientific research,
since it will predict a phenomenon based on the
data leading to theory development
 Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics or
predictive statistics together comprise applied
statistics.
1. Descriptive statistics or Summary Statistics -
intended to organize and summarize numerical data
from the population and sample
Uses of Descriptive Statistics
a) Measures and condenses data in:
 Frequency distribution - scores are tested from
highest to lowest or from lowest to highest
 Graphic presentation - data are presented in
graphic form
2. Inferential Statistics - concerned with population
and the use of sample data to predict future occurrences.
Uses of Inferential Statistics
a) To estimate population parameter, the following facts
are considered using inferential statistics
6
 Sampling error
 Sampling distribution
 Sampling bias
b) Testing the Null Hypothesis
 State the research hypothesis
 State null hypothesis to be tested
 Choose appropriate statistical test for the given
data
 Determine level of significance difference , the
relationship or correlation between the given
variables
 Normal Curve - theoretical frequency distribution
of all possible values in a population although no
real distribution exactly fits the normal curve
 Non-directional hypothesis - assumes that an
extreme score can occur in either tail of the normal
curve
 One-tailed test of significance - test for
directional hypothesis and the extreme statistical
values that occur on a single tail of the curve
 Two-tailed test of significance - analysis of non-
directional hypothesis.
3. Use Decision Theory
 Theory based on the assumptions associated with
the theoretical normal curve used in testing for
differences between groups with the with the
expectations that all the groups are members of the
same population.
 Level of significance is set at 0.05 before data
collection
Two types of errors can occur:
 Type I error - when null hypothesis is rejected
when in reality it is not. Occurs when the level of
significance is at 0.05 than with a 0.01. Type I
error decreases when the level of significance
become more extreme
 Type II error - occurs when null hypothesis is
regarded as true, but it is in fact false. It has
greater risk error when the level of significance is
0.01 than when it is 0.05.
4. Power Analysis
 This is the way to control type II error
 Determine the probability of the statistical test to
detect significant differences that exists.
5. Degree of freedom (DOF)
 The interpretation of a statistical test depends on
the number of values that are free to vary.
6. Frequency Distribution
 Method to organize the research data. Types of
frequency distribution include:
 Grouped frequency distribution - used
with nominal data or when continuous
variables are being examined.
 Ungrouped frequency distribution - used
when data are categorized and presented in
tabular form to display all numerical values
obtained for a particular variable.
7. Percentage Distribution
 Shows percentage of subjects in a sample whose
scores fall into a specific group and the number of
scores in that group.
Statistical Tools for Treatment of Data
1. Percentage (P) - is computed to determine the
proportion of a part to a whole
2. Ranking - used to determine the order of decreasing
or increasing magnitude of variables. The largest
frequency is ranked 1 and so on.

3. Weighted Mean (WM) - refers to the overall average

or responses/ perceptions of the study respondents.

4. Measures of Central Tendency

a) Arithmetic mean or average weighted mean
describes the central tendency of the given criteria or
variables.
CHAPTER 16
Nature of Data Analysis
b) Median - means central position. Arranges the ratings
 Data analysis is a process to sort, reduce, organize
from highest to lowest or vice versa and it is the middle
and give meaning to the data collected. The
number score.
technique in data analysis include descriptive and
inferential statistics
c) Mode - score which has the most number of
observation
Strategy for Quantitative Analysis
 Quantitative analysis - process of organizing
numerical data into a series of steps for purpose of
analysis and interpretations.
5. Measures of Dispersion
a) Range - the simplest measure of dispersion; obtained
1. Pre-analysis phase - consists of various activities
by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score
such as clerical and administrative tasks.
b) Standard deviation - determines the homogeneity or
2. Preliminary Assessment of Data - researcher
sameness of degree or dimension of given variables or
outlines activities to anticipate major problems that may
the heterogeneity or degree of dispersal of variance of
arise while dealing with data
variables
3. Preliminary Actions - researcher prepares data for
computer use prior to analyses and interpretation
c) Variance - the standard deviation multiplied by itself
is largely used for purposes of reference rather than for
4. Principal Analysis - researcher can now proceed with
data description
substantive data analysis having cleaned data, problems
are resolved regarding missing data, data transformation
d) Interquartile range - set of ordered numbers in a
are completed.
series. It is the difference between the number at the 75 th
percentile.
5. Interpretation of Results - research findings must
have substantive bearing with the objectives of the
6. T-test - compares the responses of two respondent
study, existing theories, related literature and research
groups. Used to test for significant differences between
methods.
two samples.
a) Credibility of Results - studies must be based on
7. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - test the differences
truthfulness
between two means which can be used to examine data
b) Meaningfulness of the results - outcomes must be
from two or more groups
within the context
 One-Way Analysis of Variance is a statistical
c) Importance of the Results - research findings are
procedure for testing mean differences among
significant or important
three or more groups
d) Generalizability of the Results - applicable to a
 Two-way Analysis of Variance is used to test the
wider population
relationship between one independent variable and
e) Implications of the Results - credibility, meaning,
multiple dependent variables. This is commonly
importance and generalizability of results
used in factorial design.
Writing a Research Report
8. Factor analysis - examines relationship among large
number of variables and isolate those relationships to
1. Findings of the Study - study results are presented
identify cluster of variables that are most closely linked.
based on empirical data or facts. Data must be in an
Aids in identifying theoretical constructs and confirms
objective process and written in the present or past tense.
its adequacy
Descriptive statistics is used to present findings, while
inferential techniques are used to predict and generalize
9. Regression Analysis - used to predict the value of
results after the hypotheses are tested.
one variable when the value of one or more variables are
Khowrt. The variable to be predicted in regression
2. Presentation of Findings
analysis is referred to as the dependent variable.
a) Textual form - consists of statements with numerals
or numbers to describe data. It is supported by direct
10. Multiple Regression Analysis - used to correlate
quotes, summary of findings
more than two variables.

11. The Complete Randomized Block Design - same as

the ANOVA, except that complete blocks are used
b) Tabular form - used in organizing and presenting
instead of items
data in a systematic way in which numerical or
statistical data are arranged in rows and columns to
make them easily understood and interpreted

Parts of the Statistical Table

1. Tables number

7
2. Title
3. Headnote - written below the title
4. Stub - contains the sub head and the row labels
5. Box Head - contains the master captions that describe
column captions
6. Main body, field or text - contains all the
quantitative and qualitative information
7. Footnote - appears immediately below the bottom
line of the table
8. Textual Presentation of tabular data

 Figures - are visual presentations of processed

data. They include graphs, diagrams, line drawings
and photographs

3. Interpretation of Findings - is a subjective section

of a research report which allows the researcher to
discuss findings; also explains results that considered a
concrete means of presenting research results

4. Interpretation of Results of the Test on the Null

Hypothesis - involves examining results from data
analysis, forming conclusions. Research hypotheses
predict study results based on the theoretical or on
previous research studies
Inferential statistics are used to either accept or reject
null hypothesis.

5. Conclusions - logical outgrowth of the summary of

findings consists of conceptualizations and
generalizations in response to the problems raised in the
study. Focus on the answers to the major problem.
6. Recommendations - suggest solutions to the
problems to prevent the occurrence of these or minimize
their impact or effect. Also intended to improve the
particular discipling or field of the study