SPECIAL INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT 3

NAME: QUAH KAH CHUN

NO.MATRIKS: D20191088390
COURSE: BASIC ELECTRONICS (SFE3013)
GROUP: B

1.0 Introduction

Before we discuss the operation of the audio circuit which employs Bipolar Junction

Transistors (BJTs) to amplify the power of an electrical signal in audio frequency range,

we have to understand that what is sound actually? By definition, sound is a vibration that

propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium. Theoretically, human

can only hear the sound from 20Hz to 20 kHz. (Audio frequency range) In an electronic

circuit, only alternating current (AC) can be used to carry the information of sound

waves. This is due to the reason that the waveform of AC signal is similar to sound wave.

For example, the voltage can represent the amplitude or pressure of sound wave while the

rate of direction change of current can represent the frequency of sound wave. We can

name this type of electrical signal as audio signal.

We not only want to convert sound to audio signal and audio signal back to sound by

using microphone and speaker in our amplifier, but also we want to design a circuit which

can amplify the power of the sound. To clarify, power amplifier does not amplify the

power because it will break conservation of energy, the function of power amplifier is to

draw power from dc supply in the output circuit and convert to ac signal power.
2.0 Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

What is Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)? BJT is a type of semiconductor that uses both

electron and hole charge carriers. It is formed by joining two types of semiconductors, P-type

and N-type. BJT has two junctions compared to P-N diode which has only 1 junction. BJT

has three terminals, which are Base, Collector and Emitter. Base is very lightly doped and it

is used to control the current flow, collector is lightly doped to collect electrons and emitter is

heavily doped to emit electrons. Therefore, there are three different configurations of

transistors, they are common base (CB) configuration, common collector (CC) configuration

and common emitter (CE) configuration. In a circuit, we have two terminals for input and

two terminals for output. Since BJT has only three terminals, hence one terminal is common

to both input and output. There are also two types of structure for BJT: NPN and PNP. The

examples are shown in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Transistor configurations

Figure 2.1: Transistor construction and symbol

3.0 Working principle of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) as amplifier

𝑉2
𝑉1

Figure 3.1: Common Emitter Amplifier

From Figure 3.1, we could observe that the electron flows from emitter to base (N-type

semiconductor to P-type semiconductor), therefore the base-emitter junction is forward

biased. The electrons from emitter will recombine with holes in base. However, only a

tiny percentage of electron will flow back to the first power supply, V1 and recombine

with holes in base, there are two reasons behind this phenomena. The first reason is the

base is very lightly doped and small in size as we have discussed earlier, hence there are

less holes for the electrons to recombine. The second reason is the base-collector junction

is reverse biased as we can see the positive terminal of second power supply, V2 is

connected to the collector terminal (N-type semiconductor). The large depletion region in

base-collector junction is created and makes the effective base become even smaller, it

causes even lesser electrons could recombine with holes in base. Therefore, excess

electrons from V1 will flow through collector as it is attracted by the positive terminal of

V2. As a result, the light bulb is on because there is a small current flow to base. The

higher the base current, the brighter the light bulb. Therefore, we can say that this BJT is

operating in linear or active region and it acts as an amplifier. The BE junction is forward

bias and CB junction is reverse bias to allow electron flow from emitter to collector. The

equation to describe the linear relationship between base current, 𝐼𝐵 and collector current

𝐼𝐶 as shown below. 𝛽 is the current gain.

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
4.0 Operation of an audio circuit (Audio signal amplification)

VCC

Q2
Q1

Figure 4.1: Audio amplifier by using two BJTs

NAME OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENT FUNCTION

Dynamic Microphone To convert sound into audio signal

Coupling Capacitor (𝐶1 & 𝐶3 ) To block DC signals from passing

Bypass Capacitor (𝐶2 & 𝐶4 ) To short AC signals to the ground

NPN-Transistor in CE configuration (𝑄1) To amplify the power of audio signal

NPN-Transistor in CC configuration (𝑄2 ) To amplify the current of audio signal

Voltage Divider (𝑅1 & 𝑅2 ) To provide DC voltage to the AC signals

and turn on the transistor

Load Resistor (𝑅3 ) To provide amplified output voltage for 𝑄2

Feedback Resistor (𝑅4 & 𝑅5 ) To stabilize DC bias voltage by using

negative feedback

Loudspeaker To convert audio signal into sound

Table 4.1: The name and function of electrical components in audio amplifier
Now, we will discuss about the operation of this circuit in details. We will divide the

operation into four parts: Conversion of sound into audio signal, First stage amplification,

Second stage amplification and Conversion of audio signal into sound.

1) Conversion of sound into audio signal

Figure 4.2: Cross-section of dynamic microphone

In this process, only dynamic microphone is involved. Dynamic microphone is an

electromechanical transducer that can convert sound waves into audio signals by using

electromagnetic induction. According to Faraday’s Law, when there is a change in magnetic

flux, the current will be induced. Similarly, the sound waves vibrate the diaphragm and coil

in the magnetic field provided by permanent magnet, electrical audio signal is induced and

entered the circuit.

The relationship between induced voltage, current and the sound waves is shown by two

formulae below:

dΦ
𝜀 = −𝑁
d𝑡

𝑁 dΦ
𝐼=−
𝑅 d𝑡
Where 𝜀 is induced voltage, 𝐼 is induced current, 𝑁 is the number of turns of the coil, 𝑅 is the

dΦ
resistance of the coil, and is the rate of change of magnetic flux.
d𝑡

Therefore, from these formulae, we can conclude that the magnitude of induced voltage can

be used to represent the amplitude or pressure of sound waves while the rate of change of

current direction can be used to represent the frequency of the sound waves, AC signal is

produced in this situation to carry the information of the sound waves.

2) First stage amplification

In this stage, 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 , 𝑅4 and 𝑄1 are involved.

a) Coupling capacitor (𝑪𝟏 )

From Figure 4.1, we could observe that a coupling capacitor (𝐶1 ) is used after the

dynamic microphone to allow AC signal and block DC signal, but why we should do

that? There are three reasons behind it. The first reason is to avoid DC current from

amplifier circuit to enter the microphone coil. If no coupling capacitor is added in this

stage, the amplifier circuit will be influenced by the impedance of microphone, which

will increase the complexity of the circuit. The second reason is to remove any DC

element from the AC signal to avoid distortion. (We will discuss it in detail in part b)

b) Voltage divider (𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 )

Figure 4.3: Graph of amplifying AC voltage over time

Before we talk about the function of voltage divider, we want to ask that does the voltage can

be amplified as shown in Figure 4.3? The answer is no. To understand why the voltage

cannot be amplified as shown, we have to recall the depletion region in the base-emitter

junction. As we all know, the silicon BJT will work if the applied base-emitter voltage,

𝑉𝐵𝐸 ≥ 0.7𝑉. Therefore, the negative voltage and voltage below 0.7V of the AC audio signal

cannot be amplified because the BJT will operate in cut-off region. (Base-emitter junction is

reverse biased) To overcome this distortion, voltage divider is used to provide DC bias

voltage to the AC signal. The AC signal is superimposed with the DC bias voltage as shown

in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.4: Initial AC signal Figure 4.5: Biased AC signal Figure 4.6:Amplified AC signal

Therefore, by adding DC element to AC signal, we can amplify the AC signal without

distortion because all the voltage for AC signal can overcome the depletion region at base

emitter junction of BJT. A lot of people are confused because we have removed DC element

from AC signal by using 𝐶1 but we add the DC element to AC signal again by using 𝑅1 and

𝑅2 , why we should do that? This is because the DC element in AC signal before 𝐶1 is

uncontrolled, adding DC element to AC signal by using potential divider can be controlled.

The voltage is divided by using 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 such a way that,

𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼2

𝐼𝐵 ≈ 0 when 𝐼1 & 𝐼2 ≫ 𝐼𝐵
 𝐼1 ≈ 𝐼2

𝑅2
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

*Note: Approximate analysis is used where 𝜷𝑹𝟒 ≥ 𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟐

Therefore, voltage divider is to provide voltage to turn on the transistor and provide DC

biasing voltage to AC audio signal to avoid distortion.

c) Load resistor (𝑹𝟑 )

The function of 𝑅3 is to provide amplified output voltage for 𝑄2 .

The voltage gain, 𝐴𝑉

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝐼𝐶 𝑅3
𝐴𝑉 =
𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝑒

𝐼𝐶 ≈ 𝐼𝐸

𝑅3 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑉 = =
𝑅𝑒 𝑍𝑖𝑛

Where 𝑅𝑒 the internal resistance of emitter terminal is, 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the output

impedance, and 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is the input impedance.

From this equation, we can know that the higher the 𝑅3 , the higher the output

voltage will be.

d) Feedback resistor (𝑹𝟒 )

The function of 𝑅4 is to stabilize DC bias and Q point by using negative feedback.

Before we talk about how 𝑅4 stabilize the circuit, we have to know that there are

two type of biasing circuit, which are fixed bias circuit and voltage divider bias
circuit. For the circuit that we have designed as shown in Figure 4.1, it is voltage

divider bias circuit. However, we don’t use fixed bias circuit as our design

because it is unstable and it is beta dependent circuit. In other words, the

temperature change will affect the value of 𝛽. The change in 𝛽 will cause a

change in the operating point of the circuit, it provides the least stability compared

to voltage divider bias circuit. Voltage divider bias circuit is beta independent

circuit and it is stable under changing temperature. Let’s us compare fixed bias

circuit and voltage divider bias circuit as shown in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.1.

*Fixed bias circuit*

Figure 4.7: Common emitter fixed-bias circuit

Mathematically,

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵

𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶

When 𝛽 increases, 𝐼𝐶 will increase because 𝐼𝐵 is always constant. (Value

of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , 𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝑅𝐵 are fixed) When 𝐼𝐶 increases, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 will decrease. We can say
that the operating point of this fixed-bias circuit is changed and it is not a stable

circuit. Distortion might be happened in this situation.

*Voltage divider bias circuit*

The secret of why this type of circuit is more stable compared to fixed bias circuit

is because of the feedback resistor 𝑅4 .

Mathematically,

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐸 = (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵

𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐸

𝑅2
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

When temperature, 𝑇 of BJT increases, 𝛽 increase. When 𝛽 increases, 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐸

will increase. When 𝐼𝐸 increases, the voltage drop across 𝑅4 will increase. When

the voltage drop across 𝑅4 increases, the voltage of emitter terminal, 𝑉𝐸 will

increase. The base voltage 𝑉𝐵 is constant because it is only dependent on supplied

voltage and resistance of resistors with fixed values. Therefore, voltage across

base emitter junction, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 will be decreased. When 𝑉𝐵𝐸 decreases, 𝐼𝐵 will

decrease. When 𝐼𝐵 decreases, 𝐼𝐶 will decrease back to normal level because they

have linear relationship. In other words, 𝐼𝐶 will decrease when 𝐼𝐶 tend to increase

when temperature of BJT increases. Therefore, 𝑅4 is used to stabilize the Q point

of the circuit when there is a change in temperature and ensure that this circuit is

beta independent by using negative feedback.

 In conclusion,

𝑇 ↑→ 𝛽 ↑→ 𝐼𝐶 ↑→ 𝐼𝐸 ↑→ 𝑉𝐸 ↑→ 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ↓→ 𝐼𝐵 ↓→ 𝐼𝐶 ↓

e) Bypass capacitor (𝑪𝟐 )

We have the coupling capacitor 𝐶1 as we have mentioned earlier. What is the

difference between bypass capacitor and coupling capacitor? In fact, both are the

same capacitor but they just have a different function. The function of 𝐶2 is to

short AC signals to the ground. Bypassing the 𝑅4 resistor for AC signal is

important to avoid low voltage gain.

Mathematically,

Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑉 with 𝐶2 ,

𝑅3
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅𝑒

Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑉 without 𝐶2 ,

𝑅3
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑒

Obviously, we can observe that the voltage gain with 𝐶2 is much higher compared

voltage gain without 𝐶2 , but why?

To answer this question, we have to recall the formula of impedance of capacitor,

1
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where 𝑋𝐶 the impedance of capacitor is, 𝑓 is the frequency of audio signal and 𝐶

is capacitance of capacitor.
 We could observe that 𝐶2 is connected parallel to 𝑅4 , the input impedance, 𝑍1 is

1 1 1
= +
𝑍1 𝑋𝐶 𝑅4

Since 𝑅𝑒 is series with both 𝐶2 and 𝑅4 , the total input impedance, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍1 + 𝑅𝑒

From the equations above, we could see that the high frequency of AC signal will

cause the 𝑍1 to be very low,

𝑍1 ≈ 0

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒

Therefore, with the presence of 𝐶2 ,

𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅3
𝐴𝑉 = =
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑒

f) NPN-Transistor in CE configuration (𝑸𝟏 )

The function of 𝑄1 is to amplify the power of the audio signal. CE configuration

is selected as first stage because the loudness of sound is determined by the

power, not only current or voltage. (𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉) Compared to CC and CB

configuration, CE configuration has the highest power amplification because it

can amplify both current and voltage at the same time as shown in Table 4.2. Two

stages of amplifier are applied in the design of circuit instead of one only because

it could amplify very weak signal. However, CC configuration is selected as the

second amplifier instead of CE configuration. Why we don’t use both CE

amplifier to form a Darlington pair or super beta transistor as shown in Figure

4.8? We will discuss it in detail later on.

 Table 4.2: Transistor configuration summary table

Figure 4.8: Darlington pair

3) Second stage amplification

The electrical components involved in this process are 𝑄2 , 𝐶3 , 𝐶4 and 𝑅5 . The

function of 𝑄2 , 𝐶3 , 𝐶4 and 𝑅5 are very similar to the function of 𝑄1, 𝐶2 , and 𝑅4 .

However, there is a tiny difference only.

a) NPN-Transistor in CC configuration (𝑸𝟐 )

The objective of this circuit is to amplify the power of the sound, therefore both of

the current and voltage should be amplified together instead of only one of them.

The best choice to amplify to power is CE configuration. However, CC

configuration is used as second amplifier instead of CE configuration. In other

words, we want to amplify the current of audio signal only not voltage. We will

answer this question in the last part, which is the Conversion from audio signal

to sound by using loudspeaker. The working principle of loudspeaker is the

reason why CC configuration is used.

 b) Coupling capacitor (𝑪𝟑 )

The function of 𝐶3 is to block DC current to pass through which will damage the

loudspeaker.

c) Bypass capacitor (𝑪𝟒 )

The function of 𝐶4 is to filter out AC noise from the circuit. Without 𝐶4 , the AC

signal will flow back to DC power supply and it will cause an unstable circuit.

d) Feedback resistor (𝑹𝟓 )

It has the same function with 𝑅4 , which is to help stabilizing the circuit by using

negative feedback.

4) Conversion of audio signal to sound

Figure 4.9: Cross section of loudspeaker

Still remember how microphone convert sound to audio signal by using

electromagnetic induction? In fact, loudspeaker is just a reverse process to convert

audio signal back to sound wave. Microphone uses force and magnetic field to

produce AC signal current while loudspeaker uses AC signal current and magnetic

field to produce force that vibrate the diaphragm to form sound waves.
The formula of Lorentz force, 𝐹

𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿 × 𝐵

Where 𝐼 is the current, 𝐿 is the length of wire and 𝐵 is the strength of magnetic

field.

From this equation, we can see that the loudspeaker depends on current and not

voltage. Therefore, CC configuration instead of CE power amplifier is used to

create large output current to drive the loudspeaker. As a result, an amplified

sound is produced by using this audio amplifier circuit.