Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Building Construction I
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
YEAR I- SE MESTER I
THEORY/PRACTICAL
Version 1: December 2008
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I
COURSE CODE: BLD103
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK5: EXCAVATION
(3.1) Method of Excavation
(3.2) Tools used in manual Excavation
(3.3) Equipment used in mechanical Excavation
WEEK7: FOUNDATION
(3.6) Importance of foundation to building
(3.7) Types of foundation soil
(3.8) Simple calculation of the area of concrete foundation
WEEK15: HARDCORE
(4.7) Hardcore layer
(4.8) Blinding
(4.9) Termite Treatment
Foundation
The function of the foundation is to transmit the load from the building finally to the soil. This, it
must do without excessive settlement and compression of the supporting soil layer.
Functions of Foundations
• Foundation provides suitable support and stability for building
• Transmits to the ground all the loads that come on the building over a sufficient area of
subsoil
• Prevents the failure of the building or uneven settlement.
Fig.1.1.Strip foundation
Floor
Floor can be defined as the horizontal structure which carries imposed and live loads in a
building and divides a building into storeys. It plays an important role in a building.
The most common material used for the construction of floors that will meet the requirement of
building regulations and local bye-laws are concrete and wood.
Wall
This is usually the vertical continuous part of a building which encloses or protects the building
or divides the building into rooms and compartments. It is made up of blocks, concrete, mortar,
stones, metals etc. types of walls include: Internal, External, Buttress, Sleeper, party, parapet
partition and cavity walls.
Door
A door is a movable barrier placed across an opening in a building that provides access into the
building or between spaces within the building.
Windows
Windows provide natural light and ventilation to the interior of a building while excluding rain
and insects.
Windows are usually made of timber, steel. But other materials such as plastics (uPVC) and
aluminium are also popular. Each material has its own advantages and disadvantages.
• Provide privacy.
Roof
This is the topmost covering in a building. It is done during the finishing of a building. It
prevents a lot of sound (minimizing incoming sound), dust, wind and rain and also it helps the
occupants cover their privacy.
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Stability: a roof is constructed to support the dead load of the roof structure and its covering,
insulation and internal finishes, snow loads and pressure of suction due to wind without undue
deflection or distortion. The dead load can be calculated from the unit weight of materials with
which it is covered, varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt covering that can
be laid horizontal to exclude rain, to the small units of clay tiles that are laid overlapping down
slopes so that rain runs rapidly to the covers.
Weather Resistance: A roof excludes rain through the materials with which it is covered;
varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt converging that can be horizontal to
exclude rain to the small units of clay titles that are laid overlapping down slop so that rain runs
rapidly to the covers.
Durability: The durability of a roof is dependant largely on the ability of the roof covering to
exclude rain and snow. Persistent penetration of water into the roof structure may cause or
encourage decay of timber, corrosion of steel or disintegration of concrete.
Fire Safety: The requirements for control of spread of fire in schedule of the building
regulations for dwelling houses limit roof construction relative to the proximity of boundaries of
the site of the building by reference to the materials of roof covering.
Thermal Resistance: The materials of roof structures and roof covering are generally poor
insulators against the transfer of heat. It is usually necessary to use some materials which are
good insulator. Examples of such materials include light weight boards, mats or loose materials.
This is to provide insulation requirements to meet the building regulation for the insulation of
roofs of dwellings is a standard value of 0.25 where the SAP ceiling is over 60.
Sound Insulation: The resistance of a roof to the penetration of airborne sound is not generally
considered unless the building is close to a busy airport. The mass of the materials of a roof is the
main constructions in the reduction of airborne sound.
Test Questions
i. List the basic building components.
ii. State the functional requirements of four building components.
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Site Clearance
The preliminary works on a construction project site usually begin after the sit facilities have
been set up. Clearing the site is essential. First, the vegetation such as bushes and shrubs should
be removed. The roots of trees and bushes must be dug out and cleared away.
Site clearance also may involve the demolition of existing buildings . demolition is a skilled
occupation and should be tackled by experts in that area.
The top soil should also be removed up to a depth of at least 150mm to remove any plant life and
decaying vegetable. The presence of vegetation and decaying materials means that the top soil is
easily compressible and cannot support building foundation. Top soil is however valuable as a
top dressing for gardens and may be disposed of in this manner
The site needs to be cleared of rocks and boulders in the area where the building will be set out.
If they are too large, then the boulders or rocks must be broken into smaller pieces and taken
away.
Site clearance is done by a combination of manual and mechanical means. The method adopted
will be determined by the overall economics which may be influenced by the scale of
development ant consideration for any adjacent buildings.
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Temporary services: These include the provision of such services as water supply and,
electricity supply. Water is required on construction site for drinking and for the works. Where
the site is close to the public water mains, the water can be connected directly from the public
water mains to the site. The stand pipe should be located close to where the mixing of concrete
and mortar will take place. Where the site is far from the public water mains, water can be
supplied to the site with use of water tankers. The water can be stored in reservoir provided on
the site for such a purpose especially for the works.
An electrical supply for power tools, electricity can be supplied from the mains or a petrol
generator.
A telephone line should be provided which is secured so that it can only be used for official or
authorized calls.
Temporary access road: This should be provided to the site for the purpose of providing access
to vehicular traffic that will be bringing men and materials to the site. The access should be
constructed so that vehicles can enter the site in all weather. The access road can become part of
the permanent site services in the final design.
Site accommodation
A site should have an office and sheds for the workers on site to change their clothes and to take
rest on site during breaks from work and also have their meals.
Site accommodation and similar facilities provided on a site depends on the number of people
that are working on the site.
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Sectional timber huts are prefabricated for ease of dismantling and assembly to facilitate the re-
use on other sites. Huts of this nature should be designed, constructed and maintained with the
same care as permanent buildings to ensure their use for many years on a number of different
construction site. A well designed sectional hut should permit the addition of more bays to
increase the modular size by length and/or width. The anticipated use of each hut will govern the
construction and facilities required. Offices need to be weatherproof, provided with artificial
lighting, equipped with furniture that might be required on the site. Similar basic construction
can be used for other units of accommodation such as meal rooms, and toilets should be provided
and equipped with the basic facilities.
Caravan and mobile cabins are available in a wide variety of sizes, styles, and application. The
construction is most times of a plywood clad timber frame suitably insulated and decorated.
They are usually made of modular system so that by using special connection unit any
reasonable plan size and shape is possible. The caravan and cabin are fully equipped with all the
necessary furniture light and heating units. The toilets can be connected to site services or be self
contained.
Material Storage: The type of storage facilities required on a construction site for any material
depends on the following factors
• Durability ie whether it will need protection from the elements
• Vulnerability to damage
• Vulnerability to theft
Cement, plaster and lime supplied in bags form require a dry store free from draughts which can
introduce moist air and cause air set of the material. These materials should not be stored on the
site for long period of time on site; therefore provision should be made for rotational use so that
the material being used comes from older stock.
Aggregates such as sand and gravels require a clean firm base to ensure that foreign matter is not
included when extracting materials from the base of the stock pile. Different materials and
grades should be kept separated so that the ultimate mix batches are consistent in quality and
texture. Care must be taken to ensure that the stock piles are not used as refuse dump. The
moisture content of the aggregates should also be taken into consideration if it is exposed to the
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elements like rain, so as to allow for it in deciding the water cement ratio of the mix.
Bricks and blocks should be stacked in stable piles on a level and well drained surface in a
position where double handling is reduced to a minimum. Facing bricks and other coloured
bricks should be covered with tarpaulin to protect them from being discoloured by the weather
elements. Blocks should be stacked in such a way as to allow for air to flow freely through the
stack.
Timber absorbs water easily. To prevent undue moisture movement it should be stored in such a
manner that its moisture content remains fairly constant. A rack scaffold tubulars with a sheet
roof covering should be used to store timber. The sheet roof protects from rain and the various
sizes allow for free flow of air round the timber.
Ironmongery, hand tools and paints are some of the most vulnerable materials on site. Some
materials such as locks, power tools and cans of paint should be kept in a locked shed or inside
any of the completed rooms in the building under construction.
Test Questions
i. List the activities that precede actual building construction on site.
ii. What are the temporary services needed on construction site?
iii. How is storage provided for the basic materials on construction site?
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• Access Consideration: this must be considered for both on and off site access. Routes to and
from the site must be checked as to the suitability for transporting all the requirements for the
proposed work. Access on site for deliveries and general circulation must also be carefully
considered so that vehicles delivering materials to the site will do so without difficulty or
delay. If is anticipated that large vehicles will be operating on the site it will be necessary to
consider the road surface required. If the road and the paved areas will form part of the
permanent work there should be constructed earlier in the work. If the anticipated traffic at
the end of the work is lighter than the one expected during construction enough protection
should be given to the road against the effect of the heavy traffic load.
• Storage Considerations: the amount and types of material to be stored, security and weather
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protection requirements, allocation of adequate areas for storing materials and allocating adequate
working space around storage areas required, siting of storage areas to reduce double
handling to a minimum without impeding the general site circulation and/or works in
progress.
• Accommodation Consideration: number and type of site staff anticipated, calculate size
and select units of accommodation and check to ensure compliance with the minimum
requirements of the relevant construction regulations. Select siting for offices to give easy
and quick access for visitors and at the same time giving a reasonable view of the site. Select
site for resting sheds and toilets to reduce walking time to a minimum without impeding the
general site circulation.
• Temporary Services Considerations: what, when and where are they required? Possibility
of having permanent services installed at an early stage and making temporary connections
for site use during the construction period. Coordination with the various service providers is
essential.
• Plants Considerations: the type and nature of plants and where they will be required on the
site are important. Whether the plants will be static or mobile. If static the most appropriate
position should be selected and hard standing should be provided. If mobile the circulation
routes should be checked for optimum efficiency and stability. Provision of space and hard
surface for plant maintenance should also be considered.
• Safety and Health Considerations: it should be ensured that all the above considerations
comply with the relevant construction safety regulations.
On taking over the site one of the first jobs is to layout the site boundaries as they are marked out
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on the drawings. The security fence should be set up around the site so as to control the
movement of people and materials. The boundary fence should have only one access so that
someone can check people in and out of the site. The site office should be located close to the
entrance into the site together with the site sheds where meals will be taken. The toilet on the site
should be located at one corner away from where it will constitute a nuisance and to also
enhance privacy.
The aggregates should be stored close to where the mixing will take place which in turn should
be located close to where provision has been made for water storage. Generally materials should
be stored to close to where they will be put to use.
The site should be laid out in such a way that there will be free movement of vehicles around the
site in case it will become necessary to move materials using vehicles around the site.
Administrative area: this will be the location of offices, stores, sub-contractors huts, canteen
and similar accommodation.
Construction area: this is the actual site of the building to be constructed, and it will be located
close to the consumable stores adjacent to the various buildings and equipment required for the
construction purpose. The layout of both these areas form an essential part of the early planning
in every construction work, the neglect of which will lead to delay in the initial progress of the
job leading to extra wastage of resources on the
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After the base line has been established, marked and checked the main lines of the building can
be set out, each corner being marked with stout peg. A check should then be made of the setting
out lines for right angles and correct lengths. The method of establishing of the right angle is
what the setting out sets out to establish in addition to the correct length.
Profiles: When setting out a building, it is an advantage if the line can be secured so that they are
well clear of the building line. The trenches can then be dug without interfering with the lines.
Timber profiles erected for this purpose consist of pegs driven into the ground and boards nailed
across them. The lines can then be stretched above the ground level well clear of any obstruction
and may easily be checked for accuracy.
Datum Pegs: Before starting the actual setting out of the building, it is essential to establish a
level on the site to which references pertaining to the levels of elements of work may be made in
the course of executing the work.
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In planned cities and town ordinance bench marks are established where a bench mark is far
from the proposed site, a levelling instrument such as covering, level can be used to transfer the
datum level to the site from where it can be distributed around the proposed site,
Datum pegs must be located where it would not be disturbed by the operation on the site.
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1. Find out the distance from the site boundary to the building line on the working drawings.
Use the tape measure to measure the same distance from the site boundary to the location
of the building line on the ground. Select a corner on the ground to be corner A.
2. Place a peg in the ground at corner A and hammer a nail into the top of the peg.
3. Repeat these steps to place a peg in the ground for corner B
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4. Tie the string between pegs A and B. Measure the distance between A and B. Check that
the distance on the ground is the same measurement as the distance on the drawing.
5. Repeat these steps for corners C and D
6. Measure the diagonals A-D and B-C (the two diagonals should be equal)
7. Use the builder’s square to check that the corners are at right angles.
Test Questions
1. List the three methods of setting out a building
2. List the equipment used in setting out a building
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WEEK 5: EXCAVATION
• Bulldozer: This is used to push the soil layer by layer to one side and pile it up nearby. A
bulldozer does not dig out or lift out the soil.
• Backacter: This equipment digs down with a bucket on a jointed boom and scoops the soil
towards itself. Since the bucket is narrow it is useful for forming trenches. It can also
deposit soil on trucks or Dumpers.
• Mechanical Auger: This digs pile holes. It is a large piece of equipment which has a large
drill mounted on a platform. The auger drills a hole in the ground and lifts out a column of
soil.
• Dump Truck: Used for the movement of soil over short distances. The body of the dump
truck tips forward and deposits the soil in the required position.
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• Tipper Truck: This is a road vehicle used to remove large amounts of excavated materials
to locations away from the site. The body of the tipper truck tips up and empties the soil at
the back of the vehicle.
Test Questions
1. What are the factors that determine selection of excavation method.
2. State the uses of two mechanical excavating plant.
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If the soil is very wet then the sides of the excavation may become unstable. In both cases it is
better to provide temporary supports to the sides of the excavation. Excavation on a confined site
may also need support in case heavy loads are placed or driven too close to the edges of the
excavation. Earthworks supports retain the size of excavation collapsed during the time the
excavation will remain open. The process of providing temporary support to the sides of an
excavation is referred to as timbering. It is sometime planking and strutting.
Timbering is to:
• Protect the operatives while working in excavation
• Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trend.
• Prevent drainage to adjacent structures that could be caused by excavation
• Enable work to proceed within the excavation without interruption.
Components of Timbering
Timbering is made up of the following parts:
• Polings: These are vertical planks supporting the soil. In sand or gravel, they should be
placed close enough to form a continuous timber wall. Depending on the soil type and
working conditions, they may be placed about 900 mm apart. The purpose of the wailing is to
keep the soil on the sides of the excavation from falling in.
• Wailings: They are horizontal timber strips supporting the polings
• Struts: These are the timbers that span across the trench between the wailings. The struts
hold the opposite walls of the excavation in place.
• Wedges: These are the pieces of timber used to maintain the pressure of the polings against
the soil. If the soil expands or shrinks while the work is carried out, the wedges may need to
be adjusted again.
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(c) Timbering in dry loose soils (d) Timbering in loose wet soils
Fig 1.7 Timbering in various types of soil
Another means of retaining the sides of an excavation without support by sloping the sides of the
excavation to the angle of repose of the soil, which is the natural angle at which the soil will
remain stable without additional support. When a soil is tipped into a mound it settles to its
natural angle of repose. This angle will alter according to the type of soil and its moisture
content. Because the angle of repose can rather be shallow, this method of excavation support
does, take up a large amount of space on site and is therefore not frequently adopted. However,
this technique can be use on talk excavation.
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(3.5) Foundation
The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests
the combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or
other movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.
Test Questions
1. List 4 consideration for providing earthwork support
2. Draw a typical earthwork support to a loose soil.
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WEEK 7: FOUNDATION
30
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Soils that are close to the surface are likely to be more compressible than those at greater depth,
as deeper soil have been compressed by the weight of the overlaying soil. If the applied load on a
clay soil is reduced due to excavation, water tends to move to the unloaded areas and swelling
the soil will occur.
Peat and other soils containing a lot of organic matter shrink and swell easily as their water
content changes. They are very compressible and settle reality even under light loading. Made up
ground behaves in a similar manner unless the materials is well graded, carefully placed and
properly compacted in thin layers. Shallow foundation should not be used on sites consisting of
made up ground. Slight settlement should not cause problems to the structure of the building.
Excessive settlement may cause shear failure of the soil.
Settlement must also be uniform throughout the building; otherwise damage may result from
different settlement. The amount of different movement between parts of a building must be kept
within acceptable limits.
Example 1
Calculate the minimum width of a strip foundation for a house where the total load from the wall
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Solution
Total load from the wall = 50 kN/m
Soil bearing capacity = 150 kN/m2
Minimum width of the strip foundation = load per metre run
Soil bearing capacity
= 50
150
= 0.333m
Test Questions
1. What are the factors that determine the size of a foundation?
2. Calculate the minimum width of a strip foundation that supports a wall that transmits a load
of 65 kN/m, given that the soil bearing capacity is 120 kN/m2.
3. Calculate the minimum plan area of a pad foundation that carries a column supporting a total
load of 250 kN when the load bearing capacity is 200kN/m2.
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Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations transfer load of the building to a sub-soil at a level close to the surface.
They are nearly always the cheapest to construct and generally used where sufficient depth of a
strong soil exists near the surface of the ground. The foundation needs to be designed so that the
soil is not overstressed so that the pressure on the subsoil beneath the foundation is equal at all
points in order to avoid unequal settlement. The common types of shallow foundations are
• Strip foundation
• Pad foundation
• Raft foundation.
Strip Foundation
Reinforced concrete strip foundations are used to support and transmit the loads from heavy
walls. The minimum thickness of a strip foundation is 150 mm. This may be of course, greater
where the projection of the edge of the foundation from the base of the wall is greater than 150
mm. A typical strip foundation is as shown in figure 8.1. The width of the strip should be at least
equal to three times the thickness of the wall it supports.
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The thickness of the foundation should be at least equal to the projection of the foundation from
the base of the wall so that the load transmitted from the wall will not be dispersed over an area
outside the width of the foundation as illustrated in figure 8.2. This is to prevent the shear failure
of the foundation.
(a) Lines of shear failure on wide and thin foundation (b) design of foundation to prevent shear failure
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The effect of the wall on the relatively thin foundation is to act as a point load and the resultant
ground pressure will induce tension on the underside across the width of the strip. Tensile
reinforcement is therefore required in the lower face of strip with distribution bars in the second
layer running longitudinally especially in soft soils and in wide strip foundation. The
reinforcement arrangement for a wide strip foundation is as shown in figure 8.3
In firm clays the sub-soil is capable of carrying substantial loads and may only require a
foundation to be slightly wider than the wall it is supporting. The foundation still needs to be
deep enough to overcome the problems of seasonal changes in moisture content of the soil. A
deep, narrow foundation, of about 350mm in width and up to 1.50m in depth as shown in figure
8.4 could be constructed.
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On a sloppy site it is necessary to step the foundation parallel to the slope of the ground. This is
called a stepped foundation. To prevent differential settlement in a stepped foundation, the height
of the step should not exceed the thickness of the foundation. At each step the higher foundation
should overlap the lower foundation for a distance equal to the thickness of the foundation. An
illustration of a stepped foundation is given in figure 9.5
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Test Questions
1. Describe foundation under these headings
a. Shallow foundation
b. Deep foundation
2. Sketch 4 types of foundation
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Pad foundation
This type of foundation is used to support and transmit the loads from piers and columns. The
most economic plan shape is a square but if the columns are close to the site boundary, it may be
necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area. The reaction of the foundation to
the load and ground pressures is to cup, similar to a saucer, and therefore main steel is required
in both directions. A typical example of a reinforced pad foundation is shown in figure 9.5.
Raft foundation
The principle of any raft foundation is to spread the load over the entire area of the site. This
method is particularly useful where the column loads are heavy and thus requiring large bases or
where the bearing capacity is low, again resulting in the need for large bases. Raft foundation
can be considered under three headings:
• solid slab rafts,
• beam and slab rafts, and
• cellular rafts.
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(a) Reinforce concrete solid slab raft foundation (b) Cellular raft foundation
Fig 9.5 Types of raft foundation
Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is used to transfer heavy load to a soil layer of adequate strength located far
below the ground surface that it will be uneconomical to carry out excavation to reach such a
depth. This is used where the soil condition is poor close to the earth surface. Pile foundations
could be made using concrete, steel or timber. The concrete could be precast or cast insitu.
By the way they carry their loads pile foundations are classified into two types. These are
• End bearing pile, and
• Friction pile
(a) End bearing piles are those piles that are driven down to soil layer of adequate strength in
such a way that the end of the piles actually bear on this particular soil layer.
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(b) Friction piles are used in situations where the soil layer of adequate strength is located far
below the ground surface such that it becomes uneconomical to produce piles that will go
to such a depth. This type of piles carries their load by the friction that exists between the
shaft of the pile and the surrounding soil particles. The surface of the friction piles are
made rough so that the desired frictional force could be produced as the pile is driven into
the ground.
Test Questions
1. Use drawing to describe a pad foundation
2. State the principle behind raft foundation
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Pad foundations: The reinforcement in isolated pad foundation is provided as the bottom of the
foundation slab. This is because the point load coming from the column or pier subject the
bottom part of the foundation to tension. The reinforcement detail is as shown in figure 10.1
Raft foundation: In raft foundation both the top and bottom faces of the slab are subjected to
both tension and compression depending on the position of the columns and other structural
components that are carried by the raft. The reinforcement is therefore provided both at the top
and bottom of the slab as shown in figure 10.2
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Ground beams: Ground beams are provided to support the foundation wall in place of a strip
foundation in poor soil conditions. They are reinforced to enhance their resistance to the loads
that might be coming on them from the wall. There are situations where the ground beams form
component parts of some types of raft foundation. Typical reinforcement arrangement in ground
beams is shown as an integral part of a raft foundation in figure 10.3
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The construction entails first of carrying out the excavation of the foundation trench up to a
depth of at least 1m. This depth is to ensure that the foundation is constructed at a depth where it
will not be affected by the seasonal soil movement that will cause its failure. After the
excavation is concluded the concrete is then placed and compacted in the trench usually in one
single layer.
If the nature of the soil will be such that a wide strip foundation will be used, the reinforcement
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is placed at the bottom of the exaction and the necessary concrete cover is ensured by the use of
spacers placed below the reinforcement before the concrete is poured. This is as shown in figure
11.2
Pad foundation
The construction of the pad foundation entails the excavation of the foundation pit to the desired
depth. The bottom of the excavation is overlaid with a weak concrete referred to as blinding. The
reinforcement which is placed in both directions is usually tied in a basket form and then placed
inside the pit with the spacers to give the necessary concrete cover to the reinforcement. The
column starter bars are cast together with the foundation. The concrete of the desired quality is
then poured into the pit to form the foundation. A reinforced concrete pad foundation is shown in
figure 11.3
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(b) Reinforce concrete solid slab raft foundation (b) Cellular raft foundation
Fig. 11.3 Types of raft foundation
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Pile Foundation
Pile foundations are constructed either by being driven into the ground by pile drivers or the
ground is bored, the reinforcement is placed and concrete pored and vibrated to form the pile
foundation. In the first case it is called driven pile. The second type is referred to as replacement
pile.
Test Questions
1. Describe a method used in carrying out strip foundation
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The process of preventing the passage of moisture to the interior of a building through the walls,
floors, etc. is referred to as damp proofing. Damp proofing is achieved by the use of damp proof
course (DPC) and damp proof membrane (DPM). While the damp proof membrane (DPM) is
defined as an impervious material placed horizontally at the floor level to prevent moisture
penetration into the interior of the building.
(4.2) Damp Poof Course (DPC) and Damp Proof Membrane (DPM)
Damp proof course (D.P.C) simply means an impervious material used to prevent the vertical
rise of moisture through the wall into the interior of the building. The primary function of any
damp-proof course (dpc) or damp membrane (dpm) is to provide an impermeable barrier to the
passage of moisture. However, D.P.C can be used in:
• Reveals of doors and widows opening
• Retaining walls
• Basement walls enclosing laundry
The three basic purposes for which damp-proof courses are used is to:-
• Resist moisture penetration from below (rising damp)
• Resist moisture penetration from above
• Resist moisture penetration from horizontal entry
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• accommodate pipe, insulator and other electrical fitting of the building in terms of concrete
(D.P.C)
• should be capable of adequate resisting any attack by sulphates or any other deleterious
matter present in the subsoil.
The movement of water or moisture into the building is most times upward through the
foundation of wall from the ground.
Paint laid (D.P.C) should be protected on both sides with bitumen to prevent corrosion of the
laid, as it is in contact with cement mortar.
Care should be taken to ensure a good bonding between slate or brick and the mortar.
The diagram above shows the rise of moisture through material to wall above D. P. C too close
to the ground.
Damp proof membrane (DPM) should be impermeable to water either in liquid or vapour from
the ground. It should be rough enough to withstand possible damage during the laying of screeds,
concrete or floor finishes. It may also be sand witched in or under the concrete slab. Being
impermeable to water, the membrane will delay the drying out of wet concrete to the ground, if it
is under the concrete or screed or it is on top of the concrete. Typical details of the procedure
used in laying DPC and DPM are shown in figure 12.1
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(a) DPM laid below the floor slab (b) DPM laid above the floor slab
Fig. 12.1 Damp proof course (DPC) & damp proof membrane
Test Questions
1. Discuss the importance of damp proofing
2. State 3 basic purposes for which damp proofing is provided in a foundation
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Metal sheet
concrete cement Lose soil
Damp proof course maybe horizontal or vertical placed either below the ground level or just
above the ground level is in order prevent water raising up the wall of the building. These below
ground level are provided with the lowest floor in a building.
These consist of both horizontal and vertical D. P. C must be placed at least 150mm above the
ground level and the vertical D.P.C must connect the two D.P.C form a completion barrier to
moisture. Every wall in a building should have a (D. P. C) which is:
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Moreover the wall should be kept about 25mm away from asphalt and each course flushed up
solidly. The asphalt which is laid on the floor slab should also have a protective screed on top to
prevent any damage by people walking over it. Therefore, reinforcement is to be placed on it or
petrol and oil being spilt from machinery.
As an impermeable membrane, the DPC prevents termites from penetrating through into the
building. This is because it is a hard surface through which termite cannot penetrate.
D. P. C will not allow any under ground tree to penetrate through the ground to the floor.
Test Question
1. State the materials for damp proofing
2. Briefly describe various materials for damp proofing on different types of soil
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Asphalt Tanking
Asphalt is a natural or manufactured mixture of bitumen with a substantial proportion of inert
mineral matter. When heated, asphalt becomes plastic and can be moulded by hand pressure into
any shape. Bitumen has both waterproofing and adhesive properties.
The basic principle of asphalt tanking is to provide a continuous waterproofing membrane to the
base and walls of the basement. Continuity between the vertical and horizontal membranes is of
utmost importance, and since asphalt sets rapidly once removed from the heat source used to
melt the blocks it is applied in layers over small areas. Joints in successive coats should be
staggered by at least 150 mm in horizontal work and at least 75 mm in vertical work.
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Test Questions
1. List three basic methods of tanking
2. Describe Asphalt taking
3. Draw an basement tanking using mastic asphalt
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Functions of Hardcore
• Provides support to the floor slab
• Reduces the amount of moisture penetration into the building
• Used in determining different floor levels in a building wit various floor levels (e.g. dinning
area may be higher than sitting area (living room).
• Used for filling in void before construction. Hardcore is important in the construction of solid
ground floor.
• Used in determining the different levels in a building, in reduced level excavation.
• Provides an even level before slab is cast.
• Helps in reducing undergrowth in penetrating into the floor slab and subsequently into the
building.
• Helps to increase the strength level of a building.
(4.8) Blinding
A blinding layer 50 to 75mm thick of weak concrete or coarse sand should be placed under all
reinforced concrete foundations. The function of the blinding are to fill in any weak pockets
encountered during excavations and to provide a true level surface from which the reinforcement
can be positioned. If formwork is required for the foundation some contractors prefer to lay the
blinding before assembling the frame work; the alternative is to place the blinding within the
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frame work and allow this set before positioning the reinforcement and placing the concrete.
Also blinding should be placed on top of the hardcore before the casting of the oversite concrete.
This is to safeguard against the mixture of water, fine aggregates and cement from seeping
through the large voids present in the hardcore layer. It also prevents the rough surface of the
hardcore layer from puncturing the damp proof membrane that may placed on it before the
casting of the floor slab.
The ground around a termite nest is usually treated with toxic chemicals. The chemicals should
be mixed in open air to avoid its health risk to the workers.
Test Questions
1. Define hard core and state site functions
2. State 4 type of materials that can be used for tanking
3. Explain the importance of anti termite treatment