applied

sciences
Article
Safety Issues Referred to Induced Sheath Voltages in
High-Voltage Power Cables—Case Study
Stanislaw Czapp * and Krzysztof Dobrzynski
Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12,
PL-80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; krzysztof.dobrzynski@pg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: stanislaw.czapp@pg.edu.pl




Received: 20 August 2020; Accepted: 23 September 2020; Published: 25 September 2020


Abstract: Load currents and short-circuit currents in high-voltage power cable lines are sources of
the induced voltages in the power cables’ concentric metallic sheaths. When power cables operate
with single-point bonding, which is the simplest bonding arrangement, these induced voltages may
introduce an electric shock hazard or may lead to damage of the cables’ outer non-metallic sheaths
at the unearthed end of the power cable line. To avoid these aforementioned hazards, both-ends
bonding of metallic sheaths is implemented but, unfortunately, it leads to increased power losses in
the power cable line, due to the currents circulating through the sheaths. A remedy for the circulating
currents is cross bonding—the most advanced bonding solution. Each solution has advantages and
disadvantages. In practice, the decision referred to its selection should be preceded by a wide analysis.
This paper presents a case study of the induced sheath voltages in a specific 110 kV power cable line.
This power cable line is a specific one, due to the relatively low level of transferred power, much lower
than the one resulting from the current-carrying capacity of the cables. In such a line, the induced
voltages in normal operating conditions are on a very low level. Thus, no electric shock hazard exists
and for this reason, the simplest arrangement—single-point bonding—was initially recommended at
the project stage. However, a more advanced computer-based investigation has shown that in the
case of the short-circuit conditions, induced voltages for this arrangement are at an unacceptably
high level and risk of the outer non-metallic sheaths damage occurs. Moreover, the induced voltages
during short circuits are unacceptable in some sections of the cable line even for both-ends bonding
and cross bonding. The computer simulations enable to propose a simple practical solution for
limiting these voltages. Recommended configurations of this power cable line—from the point of
view of the induced sheath voltages and power losses—are indicated.

Keywords: power cables; high-voltage; induced sheath voltages; electric shock hazard; overvoltages;
power losses

1. Introduction
High-voltage transmission and distribution power lines are usually used overhead with bare
conductors. The main reason for the widespread use of overhead power lines, instead of cable lines,
is their lower investment cost. However, there are cases in which the application of overhead lines is
precluded. These refer mainly to urban areas but also to rural areas when an increased risk of electric
shock hazard or exposure to electromagnetic fields exists [1]. With many undoubtable advantages,
the utilization of high-voltage cable lines is associated with some problems. One of the main problems
is the induced voltage generated in the power cable’s metallic concentric sheath. With reference to
this voltage, power cables may operate as single-point bonded, both-ends bonded or cross-bonded.
Recommendations for the performance of power cables bonding and earthing are mainly included

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706; doi:10.3390/app10196706 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 2 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 2 of 16

in the standards [2,3] as well as the report [4]. Figure 1 presents the three aforementioned cable
mainly included in the standards [2,3] as well as the report [4]. Figure 1 presents the three
bonding arrangements.
aforementioned cable bonding arrangements.

copper sheath aluminium conductor

PE outer sheath XLPE insulation

L1 L1

L2 L2

L3 L3

(a) (b)

L1

L2

L3

(c)

Figure 1.
Figure High-voltage power
1. High-voltage power cables
cables arrangements:
arrangements: (a)
(a) single-point
single-point bonding;
bonding; (b)
(b) both-ends
both-ends bonding;
bonding;
(c) cross bonding.
(c) cross bonding.

The simplest cable sheath bonding arrangement is single-point bonding. In such a solution
The simplest cable sheath bonding arrangement is single-point bonding. In such a solution
(Figure 1a) the load current in the cable conductor (core) induces a voltage in the sheath, which value
(Figure 1a) the load current in the cable conductor (core) induces a voltage in the sheath, which value
is the highest at the unearthed end of the power cable line. The induced sheath voltages for any cables’
is the highest at the unearthed end of the power cable line. The induced sheath voltages for any
formation in a single-circuit system can be calculated (in simplified form) as follows [2]:
cables’ formation in a single-circuit system can be calculated (in simplified form) as follows [2]:
  2  √ !
  1 1  2D 2L1−L2   3 2D  
7− ln 2 DL1-L2   + 3j  2ln
−7− DL1-L3 
L1−L3 
VL1=
VL1−sh jωI
= ω 2 · 10⋅ − +  (1)

j
L1I 2 10 ln j ln  (1)
2 2 D DCu
-sh L1
 2 2 D 

DCu ⋅· DDL1−L3 
  
  Cu L1- L3   Cu 
" ! √ !#
−7 1  1 4D4 DL1−L2 ⋅
·D
D L2−L3  3
3 D DL2−L3  
VL2-sh = jωL2I L2 2 ⋅ 10 2 ln
VL2−sh = jωI 2 · 10 − 7 ln L1- L2 L2- L3 + j+ j ln lnL2- L3  (2)
(2)
 2  DCu22
DCu 
 2 2  DL1D-L2 
L1−L2
 √
 1  2D2L2−L3 
   !
−7  3 2D L1−L3 
VL3−sh = jωIL3 2 · 10 − ln 2   − j ln

(3)   
V
21 D 2 D· DL1−L3 − j 32ln  2 D L1D
= jωI 2 ⋅ 10 −7  − ln  Cu L2-L3 Cu 
- L3
(3)
 2  D ⋅ D  2  D Cu  
L3-sh L3
where: V L1-sh , V L2-sh , V L3-sh are the induced  Cu
 sheath 
L1-L3(V/m)
voltages  and L3, respectively;
in phases L1, L2
IL1 , IL2 , IL3 , are the load currents in the cable conductor (core) of phases L1, L2 and L3, respectively;
where: VL1-sh, VL2-sh, VL3-sh are the induced sheath voltages (V/m) in phases L1, L2 and L3, respectively;
D is the geometric mean sheath diameter; DL1-L2 is the axial spacing of phases L1 and L2; DL2-L3 is
IL1cu
, IL2, IL3, are the load currents in the cable conductor (core) of phases L1, L2 and L3, respectively;
the axial spacing of phases L2 and L3; DL1-L3 is the axial spacing of phases L1 and L3.
Dcu is the geometric mean sheath diameter; DL1-L2 is the axial spacing of phases L1 and L2; DL2-L3 is the
For more accurate calculation of the voltages, especially taking into account the electromagnetic
axial spacing of phases L2 and L3; DL1-L3 is the axial spacing of phases L1 and L3.
couplings, computer-based tools should be employed. The computer-aided modelling of the induced
For more accurate calculation of the voltages, especially taking into account the electromagnetic
sheath voltages with the use of the PSCAD/EMTDC software is presented in [5], whereas [6] presented
couplings, computer-based tools should be employed. The computer-aided modelling of the
the calculation by the Pearson Correlation. Multiple-circuit systems require the application of
induced sheath voltages with the use of the PSCAD/EMTDC software is presented in [5], whereas [6]
advanced computer-based tools to calculate these voltages, as presented by the authors in [7] or
presented the calculation by the Pearson Correlation. Multiple-circuit systems require the
other researchers in [8,9].
application of advanced computer-based tools to calculate these voltages, as presented by the
To avoid electric shock, the induced voltage-to-earth at the unearthed end should not exceed
authors in [7] or other researchers in [8,9].
permissible values determined by the standard [10]. For a long-time of touch voltage duration,
To avoid electric shock, the induced voltage-to-earth at the unearthed end should not exceed
permissible values determined by the standard [10]. For a long-time of touch voltage duration, the
permissible value is equal to 80 V. When the load current is relatively low or a cable line is not long,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 3 of 16

the permissible value is equal to 80 V. When the load current is relatively low or a cable line is not
long, values of the induced voltages are usually below the permissible limit. A more serious problem
occurs in the case of a line-to-earth fault at the unearthed end. If the value of the short-circuit current is
high, this current produces a high-value induced voltage, which may damage the cables’ non-metallic
polyethylene (PE) outer sheath. It is assumed in the engineering practice that during the short-circuit
conditions the induced voltage should not exceed 5 kV. To limit values of the induced voltage, an earth
continuity conductor (ECC) is buried in the ground, parallel to the cables, what was widely studied
in [11]. The extensive analysis conducted in [12] shows that in special cases the ECC may reduce the
induced voltages by even over 60% compared to a system without the ECC. Despite this, the induced
voltages may still exceed the acceptable level. Moreover, the study results presented in [13] indicate
that in the case of the uninsulated ECC, dangerous touch voltages may appear around this parallel
cable. For these reasons or when the voltages are too high in normal operating conditions, both-ends
bonding of cables is used as an alternative (Figure 1b).
When both-ends bonding is used, metallic sheaths are bonded and earthed in the accessible points in
substations and no risk of electric shock occurs in normal operating conditions. Moreover, in the case of
a line-to-earth short circuit, the current distribution through the earthing system is more favourable [14],
especially when a global earthing system exists in the analyzed area [15]. The most unfavourable
effect of the both-ends bonding is the presence of sheath circulating currents. These currents produce
additional power losses in the cables and hence decrease the current-carrying capacity. Such power
losses, due to the induced voltages, may occur even in HVDC power cable systems, as underlined in [16].
Therefore, it is important to evaluate sheath circulating currents with relatively high accuracy [17],
taking into account different geometries of the cables [18], sheath resistance, phase rotation and cable
armouring [19] as well as varied load conditions [20]. High circulating currents and high power
losses resulting from them are required to be reduced [21–24]. The most effective method of sheath
currents suppression, but relatively complicated, is the implementation of the cross-bonded cable
system (Figure 1c). Broad studies of this method are included in [25–30]. Transposition of the cables’
sheaths in particular phases compensates induced voltages and theoretically, no production of the
sheath circulation currents occurs.
The literature study leads to the conclusion that methods of the induced sheath voltages and
sheath circulating currents reduction should be applied very carefully. Any given cable system,
especially a complicated one, should always be analyzed individually. Unfortunately, the selection of the
type of bonding in the particular case of the cable system is not an easy task. In practice, a compromise
between technical and economic aspects should be reached.
This paper presents a comprehensive study of the induced voltages in the 110 kV power cable
line. The power cable line is relatively long (12 km) but the power transferred via this line is very
low (approx. 12% with reference to max permissible power transfer via the cables) due to a specific
type of the industrial consumer at the end of the line. Such a low transferred power suggests the
application of the single-point bonding in the analyzed power cable line because the induced sheath
voltages at the unearthed end are clearly below the permissible limit equal to 80 V, hence no electric
shock hazard exists. However, the short-circuit analysis has shown that the single-point bonding is
excluded—very high values of the induced voltages are dangerous for the non-metallic PE outer sheath.
The results of the calculations suggest to apply both-ends bonding or cross bonding, but detailed
analysis for these arrangements has shown that the risk of outer sheath damage still exists in some
sections of the power cable line. A solution for the elimination of too high induced voltages during
a short circuit is indicated.
As an extension of the analysis related to induced voltages, power losses in the cable system,
including in cables’ sheaths, have been calculated for all types of bonding. In some cases, values of the
power losses may be a decisive factor in selecting the type of the bonding system.
The presented results of the analysis of the induced voltages and power losses in the example
high-voltage power cable line can be useful for practical applications, especially for the designers of
parameters of the cable/cable line are as follows [31]:
• nominal voltage of the cable: 110 kV (line-to-line), 64 kV (line-to-earth);
• nominal cross-sectional area of the aluminium conductor (core): 240 mm2; (external diameter
DAl2020,
Appl. Sci. = 17.9
10, mm);
6706 4 of 16
• resistance of the aluminum conductor (core): 0.125 Ω/km (DC in 20 °C), 0.161 Ω/km (AC in max
temp. 90 °C);
•
the cable lines.cross-sectional
nominal The analysis hasareaindicated the possible
of the copper sheath:critical/weak
95 mm2 (mean points in such
diameter lines,
DCu which
= 58.5 mm);could
•
be resistance of the copper sheath: 0.192 Ω/km (DC in 20 °C);
overlooked at the design stage.
• inductive reactance of the cable line in the trefoil formation: 0.143 Ω/km;
2. Description of the Analyzed 110 kV Cable Line
• XLPE insulation external diameter: DXLPE = 52.9 mm;
• PE outer
The power sheath
cable external diameter
system under (the outer
analysis diameter
connects of the
a 110 kV cable):
power DPE = 66.6
substation mm; service) and
(supply
a• dedicated
the current-carrying capacity
consumer/load (Figure 2). in
Thethe trefoil
total lengthformation: 421 A (single-point
of the single-circuit bonding),
three-phase cable 409 A
line is approx.
12 km.(both-ends bonding); length of the cable (minor section) is equal to approx. 1 km and the points
The manufacturer’s
•
with short-circuit
connections of power at the supply
the consecutive service
sections arepoint: 1120p.0–p.12
marked MVA. in Figure 2. In some of these points,
earthing and bonding (including cross bonding) of the cables’ sheaths are possible. Generally, cables are
On the base of the nominal parameters of the cable/cable line, it can be stated that the maximum
laid in trefoil formation without spacing. Some spacing, as well as short sections with flat formation,
permissible power transmitted via this line is approx. 80 MW. However, the consumer’s demand is
are applied in the cable ducts, what is included in the computer model.
only 10 MW and the connection of other loads to this 110 kV cable line is not planned.

Power Supply service Consumer Load

system 10 MW
110 kV tgφ = 0.4
p.0 p.12

p.1 p.11

~3 km ~3 km

p.2 p.10

~1 km p.5 p.6 p.7

p.4 p.8
p.3 p.9

~3 km ~3 km

Figure 2. General data of the analyzed power cable system; p.0–p.12—possible points for earthing
Figure 2. General data of the analyzed power cable system; p.0–p.12—possible points for earthing
and bonding.
and bonding.
The type of cable used in this line is presented in Figure 3 (a simplified view). The nominal
parameters of the cable/cable line are as follows [31]:

• nominal voltage of the cable: 110 kV (line-to-line), 64 kV (line-to-earth);

• nominal cross-sectional area of the aluminium conductor (core): 240 mm2 ; (external diameter
DAl = 17.9 mm);
• resistance of the aluminum conductor (core): 0.125 Ω/km (DC in 20 ◦ C), 0.161 Ω/km (AC in max
temp. 90 ◦ C);
• nominal cross-sectional area of the copper sheath: 95 mm2 (mean diameter DCu = 58.5 mm);
• resistance of the copper sheath: 0.192 Ω/km (DC in 20 ◦ C);
• inductive reactance of the cable line in the trefoil formation: 0.143 Ω/km;
• XLPE insulation external diameter: DXLPE = 52.9 mm;
• PE outer sheath external diameter (the outer diameter of the cable): DPE = 66.6 mm;
• the current-carrying capacity in the trefoil formation: 421 A (single-point bonding), 409 A
(both-ends bonding);
• short-circuit power at the supply service point: 1120 MVA.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 5 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 5 of 16

Figure 3. A
Figure 3. simplified view
A simplified ofofthe
view thepower
powercable
cableused
used in
in the analyzedcase.
the analyzed case.

On theThebase
power of the
cablenominal
system parameters
under analysis of the hascable/cable
been modelled line, with
it canthebe use
stated thatPowerFactory
of the the maximum
permissible
softwarepower[32]. Thetransmitted
computervia this takes
model line isintoapprox.
account 80 MW. all dataHowever,
delivered thebyconsumer’s
the investor, demand
among is
onlyother:
10 MW and the connection of other loads to this 110 kV cable line
cable technical parameters, cable line layout (including the arrangement with cable ducts),is not planned.
The power
possible pointscable system
of the under
bonding analysis The
or earthing. has entire
been modelled
model of the withlinethe use ofofthe
consists 161PowerFactory
sections, of
software
which[32]. Thecable
61 are computer model
ducts with takes into
different cable account all data delivered
arrangements. Two typesby of the
cableinvestor,
ducts are among
used:other:
the
cableflat
technical
formation parameters, cable line
and the trefoil layout The
formation. (including the arrangement
participation with cableducts
of the flat formation ducts),in possible
the length points
of
the line is 1.7%, and the participation of the trefoil formation ducts is
of the bonding or earthing. The entire model of the line consists of 161 sections, of which 61 are cable 8.2%. Thus, 90% of the cable
ductsline length
with is the cable
different trefoilarrangements.
formation withoutTwospacing
types ofand cable without
ductsducts—for
are used: the roughflatcalculations
formation and of the
the
induced
trefoil voltages,
formation. Theitparticipation
is acceptableofto the
assume such a formation
flat formation ducts in along the entire
the length length
of the lineofisthe line.and the
1.7%,
Figure
participation 4a trefoil
of the presents a cable ducts
formation route,iswhich is reflected
8.2%. Thus, 90% ofinthe the computer
cable line lengthmodel—small
is the trefoilblue dots
formation
indicate a change in cable spacing (due to ducts application). The cables’
without spacing and without ducts—for rough calculations of the induced voltages, it is acceptable joints are marked as big redto
dots.
assume such a formation along the entire length of the line.
The PowerFactory software allows for modelling cable lines, including cable spacing, which
Figure 4a presents a cable route, which is reflected in the computer model—small blue dots indicate
means that the software automatically determines the selected power line electrical parameters.
a change in cable spacing (due to ducts application). The cables’ joints are marked as big red dots.
Impedance Z and admittance Y of cables are defined in two matrix equations presented in [33] and
The PowerFactory software allows for modelling cable lines, including cable spacing, which means
implemented in the software as well as described in its guide [34]:
that the software automatically determines the selected power line electrical parameters. Impedance Z
and admittance Y of cables are defined in two ∂matrix V = −equations
Z⋅I presented in [33] and implemented (4) in
the software as well as described in its guide [34]: ∂ x
∂
∂ ∂x  I = − Y ⋅ V (5)
V  = −Z · I (4)
∂x
where: |V| and |I| are the voltage and current vectors respectively, at distance x along the cable line;
∂  
|Z| and |Y| are square matrices of the impedance  and
  admittance
 respectively.
I = −Y  · V  (5)
∂x
The complexity of |Z| and |Y| matrices depends on the number of cables and the number of
where: |V| per
layers |I| arecable.
andsingle The impedance
the voltage and vectors
and current admittance matrices can
respectively, be described
at distance in the
x along thefollowing
cable line;
|Z| and |Y| are square matrices of the impedance and admittance respectively.
way:
The complexity of |Z| and |Y| matrices
[ Z ] = depends
[ Z i ] +  Z on
 + [Z c ] + [Z 0 ]
p
the number of cables and the number of layers
(6)
per single cable. The impedance and admittance matrices can be described in the following way:
h i [Y h] = is ⋅ [Ch ] i h i
−1
(7)
[Z] = Zi + Zp + Zc + Z0 (6)
[C ] = [Ci ] + C p  + [Cc ] + [C0 ]
  (8)
[Y] = s · [C]−1 (7)
where: the matrices with subscript i include cableh parameters
i (core, sheath and armour); the matrices
[C]of=the
with subscript 0 include parameters [Ccable
i] + C [Cc ] +(air,
p +media
outer [C0 ]earth); the matrices with subscripts p(8)
and c include parameters of a pipe (an enclosure—if applied); C is a potential coefficient matrix; s = jω.
where: the matrices with subscript i include cable parameters (core, sheath and armour); the matrices
Detailed information on the calculation of individual components of the impedance and
withadmittance
subscript 0matrices
includecan
parameters
be found of
in the cable outer media (air, earth); the matrices with subscripts
[33,34].
p and c include parameters of a pipe (an enclosure—if applied); C is a potential coefficient matrix; s = jω.
Detailed information on the calculation of individual components of the impedance and admittance
matrices can be found in [33,34].
Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2020,10,
Sci.2020, 10,6706
x 6 6ofof1616

(a)

point point
p.0 p.1
~1 km

p.0(c) p.0.1(c) p.0.2(c) p.0.3(c) p.0.4(c) p.1(c)

Core L1 ...
Core L2 Electric
...
circuit of cores (c)
Core L3 ...
68 m 9m 22 m 3m

p.0(sh) p.0.1(sh) p.0.2(sh) p.0.3(sh) p.0.4(sh) p.1(sh)

Sheath L1 ...
Electric
Sheath L2 ... circuit of sheaths (sh)
Sheath L3 ...

Cable arrangement
Cables directly 160 mm in consecutive sections
buried in the ground
(trefoil formation) Cables in ducts Cables in ducts
(flat formation) (trefoil formation)

(b)

Figure4.4.Real
Figure cable
Real route
cable of the
route of analyzed cablecable
the analyzed system reflected
system in the PowerFactory
reflected software software
in the PowerFactory (a); an example
(a); an
part of the computer model of the cable system (minor section between point p.0 and point
example part of the computer model of the cable system (minor section between point p.0 and pointp.1) (b).
p.1) (b).
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 7 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 7 of 16
In the considered case, the cable line model consists of two electromagnetically coupled circuits:
cores electric circuit (c) and sheaths electric circuit (sh) (Figure 4b). The results of the multi-variant
computer analysis included
In the considered case, theincable
the next
line sections show theoflevels
model consists of voltages induced incoupled
two electromagnetically the cables’
circuits:
coressheaths
electricand risks(c)
circuit referred to them,
and sheaths as wellcircuit
electric as the(sh)
power losses4b).
(Figure influencing the current-carrying
The results of the multi-variant
capacity
computer of the cables.
analysis included in the next sections show the levels of voltages induced in the cables’
sheaths and risks referred to them, as well as the power losses influencing the current-carrying capacity
3. Results of the Induced Voltages Computer Simulations
of the cables.
3.1. Induced Voltages for Single-Point Bonding
3. Results of the Induced Voltages Computer Simulations
In the first stage of the analysis, the induced sheath voltages in normal operating conditions, in
case of the
3.1. Induced single-point
Voltages bonding, Bonding
for Single-Point have been analyzed. The load current flow in the cable cores, as
well as the induced voltages, are calculated by the software taking into account the electromagnetic
In the firstAll
couplings. stage ofpresenting
charts the analysis, the induced
the induced voltagessheath voltages
include in normal
the highest operating
rms values conditions,
among phases
in case of the
L1, L2, L3. single-point bonding, have been analyzed. The load current flow in the cable cores,
as well asThe
theanalyses
inducedhave
voltages, are calculated
been conducted for thebyfollowing
the software taking into account the electromagnetic
variables:
couplings.
•
All charts presenting the induced voltages include the highest rms values among phases L1,
the transferred power equal to 1 MW (an example very low power), 10 MW
L2, L3. (contracted/declared consumed power), 80 MW (maximal permissible power in terms of the
The current-carrying
analyses have been conducted
capacity for the
of the cables; followingvalue,
a theoretical variables:
used for the comparison purposes);
• the single-point-bonding at the 110 kV supply service substation (p.0 in Figure 2) or at the
• the transferred power equal to 1 MW (an example very low power), 10 MW (contracted/declared
consumer substation (p.12 in Figure 2);
consumed
• power), 80 MW
the reactive-to-active (maximal
power ratio: tgpermissible
φ = Q/P = 0 orpower in terms
tgφ = Q/P of the current-carrying capacity
= 0.4 (contracted).
of the cables; a theoretical value, used for the comparison purposes);
Figure 5 presents the induced sheath voltages for the case with the tgφ = 0. When the
• the single-point-bonding at the 110 kV supply service substation (p.0 in Figure 2) or at the
single-point bonding is performed at the 110 kV supply service substation (Figure 5a), the induced
consumer
voltages aresubstation (p.12
significantly in Figure
below 2); limit 80 V indicated in the standard [10], both for the
the assumed
• the reactive-to-active
power power ratio:
1 MW and the contracted powertgφ = Q/P
10 MW. = 0value
The or tgφ =isQ/P
80 V many= 0.4 (contracted).
times exceeded in the case of
the 80 MW (approx. 330 V), but it is presented only for the comparison purposes. When the
Figure 5 presents
single-point bonding theisinduced
performed sheath
at thevoltages
consumer forsubstation
the case with the5b),
(Figure tgφthe= 0. Whenvoltages
induced the single-point
are
bonding is performed at the 110 kV supply service substation (Figure 5a),
generally higher than for the case presented in Figure 5a. For the transferred power 10 MW, the induced voltages
it is are
significantly below
close to the the assumed
permissible limit 80 limit 80 unearthed
V at the V indicated endinofthe
the standard
line (point[10],
p.0). both for the power 1 MW
and the contracted power
The differences 10 MW.
in the inducedThevoltages
value 80 V is many
(Figure 5a vs. times
Figureexceeded
5b) are theineffect
the case ofnatural
of the the 80 MW
load 330
(approx. of the
V),cable line
but it (capacitive),only
is presented whichforforces a capacitive purposes.
the comparison current flow of a changing
When value along
the single-point bonding
the length of the cable line. It indicates that the location of the point of the earthing
is performed at the consumer substation (Figure 5b), the induced voltages are generally higher than for (reference point)
is important.
the case presented Note, that for5a.
in Figure theFor
case presented
the in Figure
transferred power 5a,10
theMW,induced voltages
it is close at the
to the unearthed limit
permissible
end are practically the same for the power 1 MW and 10 MW. In the case of Figure 5b, the respective
80 V at the unearthed end of the line (point p.0).
voltages at the unearthed end differ about two times.

400 400
80 MW
350 350
induced voltage (V)
induced voltage (V)

80 MW
300 300

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100
80 V 80 V 10 MW
50 50
1 MW
1 MW
0 10 MW 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
length (km) length (km)

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Induced sheath voltages as a function of the cable line length, for three values of the
Figure 5. Induced sheath voltages as a function of the cable line length, for three values of the
transferred power
transferred (1 MW,
power 10 10
(1 MW, MW,
MW, 8080MW), tgφ =
MW),tgφ 0:(a)
= 0: (a)single-point
single-point bonding
bonding at point
at point p.0 inp.0 in Figure
Figure 2; 2;
(b) single-point bonding at point p.12 in Figure 2.
(b) single-point bonding at point p.12 in Figure 2.

The differences in the induced voltages (Figure 5a vs. Figure 5b) are the effect of the natural load
of the cable line (capacitive), which forces a capacitive current flow of a changing value along the
length of the cable line. It indicates that the location of the point of the earthing (reference point) is
important. Note, that for the case presented in Figure 5a, the induced voltages at the unearthed end are
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 8 of 16

practically the same for the power 1 MW and 10 MW. In the case of Figure 5b, the respective voltages
at the unearthed end differ about two times.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2020,
2020, 10,
10, xx 88 of
of 16
16
Similar general conclusions flow from the analysis of the results presented in Figure 6 (tgφ = 0.4).
However,Similar
the variations
Similar general of the induced
general conclusions
conclusions flow voltages
flow from
from the along the
the analysis
analysis of length
of the
the ofpresented
results
results the cablein
presented line
in Figure
Figure (tgφφ == 0.4).
are slightly
66 (tg different
0.4).
thanHowever,
for the
However, the tgφ = 0,
the variationsespecially
variations of of the if one
the induced compares
induced voltages Figure
voltages along
along the 5a vs.
the length Figure
length ofof the 6a
the cable for 1
cable line MW
line are and
are slightly
slightly 10 MW.
Thus,different than
than for
for the
the reactive-to-active
different tgφφ == 0,
the tg 0, especially
power ratioifif tgφ,
especially one
one compares
natural Figure
compares Figure 5a
5a vs.
capacitive Figure
Figure 6a
vs.power of for
6a the11 cables
for MW
MW and andas10 MW.
10well
MW.as the
Thus,
Thus,
location ofthe
thereactive-to-active
the reactive-to-active
point of the single-point power
power ratio
ratio
bonding tgφφ,, natural
tg natural capacitive
capacitive
and earthing power
power
should beof
of the
the cables
taken cables as
as well
into account wellin as
asthe the
thesafety
location
location of
of the
the point
point of
of the
the single-point
single-point bonding
bonding and
and earthing
earthing should
should
analysis. In the light of the aforementioned investigation, it can be concluded that for the contracted be
be taken
taken into
into account
account in
in the
the
safety
safety analysis.
analysis. In the
the light
In MW, light of the
the aforementioned
of 0.4), aforementioned investigation, itit can
can be
be concluded that for the
transferred power (10 tgφ = the single-pointinvestigation,
bonding is acceptable, concluded
whether in that
p.0for the
(preferred)
contracted
contracted transferred
transferred powerpower (10 (10 MW,
MW, tg tgφφ == 0.4),
0.4), the
the single-point
single-point bonding
bonding is is acceptable,
acceptable, whether
whether in in
or in p.12.
p.0
p.0 (preferred)
(preferred) or
or in
in p.12.
p.12.

400
400 400
400
80
80 MW
MW 80
80 MW
MW
350 350

(V)
350
(V)

350

voltage (V)
voltage (V)

induced voltage
induced voltage

300
300 300
300
250
250 250
250

induced
induced

200
200 200
200
150
150 150
150

100
100 100
100
80
80 VV 80
80 VV
50 10
10 MW
MW
50 10 50
50
11 MW
MW 10 MW
MW
11 MW
MW
00 00
00 22 44 66 88 10
10 12
12 00 22 44 66 88 10
10 12
12
length
length (km)
(km) length
length (km)
(km)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 6. Induced
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Induced
Inducedsheath
sheathvoltages
sheath voltages as
voltages as aaa function
as function
function of ofofthe
thecable
the cable
cable lineline
line length
length
length for for
for three
three
three values
values values
of theof the
of the
transferred power
transferred
transferred (1 MW,
power
power (1
(1 MW,
MW,1010MW,
10 MW,
MW, 8080
MW),
80 MW),tgφ
MW), tgφφ ==
tg 0.4:(a)
= 0.4:
0.4: (a)single-point
(a) single-point
single-point bonding
bonding
bonding at at point
at point
point p.0 inp.0
p.0 in in Figure
Figure
Figure 2;
2; 2;
(b) single-point
(b) bonding
(b) single-point
single-point at at
bonding
bonding point
at point
pointp.12
p.12in
p.12 inFigure
in Figure 2.
Figure 2.

The The
next step step
The next
next of
steptheof
ofanalysis
the is to evaluate
the analysis
analysis is
is to the induced
to evaluate
evaluate the sheathsheath
the induced
induced voltages
sheath in casein
voltages
voltages of case
in the line-to-earth
case of
of the
the
faultline-to-earth
at the unearthed
line-to-earth fault at end.
fault at the Like in end.
the unearthed
unearthed the previous
end. Like
Like in thescenarios,
in the previous the single-point
previous scenarios,
scenarios, the bonding
the single-point
single-point was was
bonding
bonding assumed
was
assumed
assumedatalternatively
alternatively alternatively
the 110 kV supplyat
at the
the 110
110 kV supply
supply service
kV substation
service service
(Figuresubstation
7a) or at(Figure
substation (Figure 7a)
7a) or
the consumer at
at the
the consumer
or substationconsumer
(Figure 7b).
In the short-circuit analysis, the induced voltages have been calculated for the cases without the
substation
substation (Figure
(Figure 7b).
7b). In
In the
the short-circuit
short-circuit analysis,
analysis, the
the induced
induced voltages
voltages have
have been
been calculated
calculated for
for the earth
an
cases
cases without
without an
an earth
earth continuity
continuity conductor
conductor (ECC)
(ECC) or
or with
with this
this conductor.
conductor.
continuity conductor (ECC) or with this conductor. The ECC was laid parallel to the cable line at The
The ECC
ECC was
was laid
laid parallel
parallel
to
to the
the cable
cable line at
at aa distance
distance of 20
20 cm
cm (Figure
(Figure 8a).
8a). An
An insulated
insulated cable
cable with
with aa copper
copper conductor of
of the
a distance of 20 line
cm (Figure 8a). of
An insulated cable with a copper conductor of theconductor
cross-sectional the
area
cross-sectional
cross-sectional
2 area
area of
of 120
120 mm
mm 22 was assumed as the ECC. Halfway along the cable line (in p.6), the
was assumed as the ECC. Halfway along the cable line (in p.6), the
of 120 mm was assumed as the ECC. Halfway along the cable line (in p.6), the ECC was transposed to
ECC
ECC waswas transposed
transposed to to the
the other
other side
side ofof the
the line
line (Figure
(Figure 8b),
8b), according
according to to the
the recommendations
recommendations
the other sideinofthe
included
included in
theguide
line [2].
the guide
(Figure
[2].
8b), according to the recommendations included in the guide [2].

25
25 25
25 without
without
without without
ECC ECC
ECC
ECC
20
20 20
20
(kV)
voltage (kV)

(kV)
voltage (kV)
induced voltage

15
15 15
15
induced voltage

with
with with
with
ECC
ECC ECC
ECC
induced

10
10 10
10
induced

55 55

00 00
00 22 44 66 88 10
10 12
12 00 22 44 66 88 10
10 12
12
length
length (km)
(km) length
length (km)
(km)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 7. Induced
Figure
Figure 7. sheath
7. Induced
Induced voltages
sheath
sheath voltagesas as
voltages aasfunction
aa function
functionofofthe
of the
thecable line
cable
cable linelength,
line length,in
length, incase
in caseof
case ofthe
of theline-to-earth
the line-to-earth fault
line-to-earth
fault
at the
fault at
at the
the unearthed
unearthed end;
end; single-point
end; single-point
unearthed bonding
single-point bonding
at: at:
bonding (a)(a)
at: supply
supply
(a) service
service substation
supplyservice substation
substation (point p.0
p.0 in
(point
(point p.0
in Figure 2);
in Figure
Figure 2); 2);
(b)
(b) consumer
consumer
(b) consumer substation
substation
substation (point p.12
(pointp.12
(point in
p.12inin Figure
Figure 2).
Figure 2).
2).
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 9 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 9 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 9 of 16

p.0 p.6 p.12

p.0 p.6 ECC p.12
ECC
20 cm
20 cm
ECC ECC
ECC ECC

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8.
Figure Arrangementofof
8. Arrangement thethe earth
earth continuity
continuity conductor
conductor (ECC):
(ECC): (a) a(a) a distance
distance to theto the line;
cable cable(b)
line;
its
Figure
(b) 8. Arrangement
its transposition.
transposition. of the earth continuity conductor (ECC): (a) a distance to the cable line; (b) its
transposition.
Induced sheath
Induced sheathvoltages
voltagesatatthe theunearthed
unearthed endend of of
thethelineline
reach values
reach overover
values 22 kV 22without
kV without the ECCthe
ECC Induced
and approx.
and approx.12sheath
kV12 withvoltages
kVthe withECC. at the
the All
ECC. unearthed
respective end ofare
values
All respective thesimilar,
values line
arereach values
regardless,
similar, oversingle-point
the
regardless, 22 the
kV without bonding
single-point the
ECC
bonding and and
and earthing approx.
are
earthing12 kVare
performed with inthep.0ECC.
performed or inin All respective
p.12.
p.0 Such
or in high values
p.12. values
Such arehigh
ofsimilar,
thevaluesregardless,
induced voltages
of the the between
induced single-point
voltagesthe
bonding
copper and
sheath earthing
and the are
earth performed
may be a in p.0
source or
of in
the p.12.
damage
between the copper sheath and the earth may be a source of the damage of the non-metallic outer Such ofhigh
the values of
non-metallic the induced
outer sheath voltages
of the
between
cable (PE
sheath ofthethe copper
outer cablesheath sheath
(PE in
outer and
Figure the
3). earth
sheath a may
ItinisFigure
common be Ita is
3). source
design
a commonof thedesign
practice damage
to assume of the
practice that non-metallic
to this
assumenon-metallic
that outer
this
sheath
non-metallic outer sheath will not be damaged if the induced voltage does not exceed 5 kV. As this
outer of
sheaththe cable
will not(PEbe outer
damaged sheath if in
the Figure
induced 3). It
voltage is a common
does not design
exceed 5practice
kV. As to
it is assume
seen in that
Figure 7,
it is
non-metallic
the value
seen 5 kV
in Figure outer
is7,notsheath
the exceeded
value will5 not
only
kV be
isfor damaged
notthe length
exceeded if the induced
ofonly
the cable
for thevoltage
linelength
(fromdoes not
thethe
of exceed
earthing
cable line 5 kV.
point) (fromAs itthe
approx. is
seen
2.5 km in Figure
without 7,
thetheECC value
and 5 kV
approx. is not
5 kmexceeded
with the only
ECC.
earthing point) approx. 2.5 km without the ECC and approx. 5 km with the ECC. Thus, in the for the
Thus, length
in the of the
considered cable line
power (from
line of the
the
earthing
length 12point)
considered km, the
power approx.
line of2.5the
single-point km without
bonding
length the acceptable—too
12iskm,
not ECCsingle-point
the and approx. high 5 km
bondingvalueswith
is of ECC. Thus,
nottheacceptable—too
induced voltagesinhigh
the
in
considered
case of of
values thethe power
short-circuit
induced line of the length
conditions
voltages in exist
case12 (despite
km,
of the theshort-circuit
single-point
the bonding isexist
possibleconditions
application not acceptable—too
of sheath
(despite voltage high
limiters
the possible
values
(SVL); of
a the
high-levelinduced margin voltages
of in
reliabilitycase of
and the
safetyshort-circuit
is required). conditions
application of sheath voltage limiters (SVL); a high-level margin of reliability and safety is required). exist (despite the possible
application of sheath voltage limiters (SVL); a high-level margin of reliability and safety is required).
3.2. Induced Voltages for Both-Ends Bonding or Cross Bonding
3.2. Induced Voltages for Both-Ends Bonding or Cross Bonding
3.2. Induced Voltages for Both-Ends
Since single-point bonding in Bonding or Cross cable
the analyzed Bonding line is not acceptable, both-ends bonding is
Since single-point bonding in the analyzed cable line is not acceptable, both-ends bonding is
considered as an
Since single-point alternativebondingsolution.
in theFor For the
analyzed both-ends
cable line bonding, the
is not the induced sheath voltages
acceptable, in the
considered as an alternative solution. the both-ends bonding, induced both-ends
sheath voltages bonding in theis
normal operating
considered as an conditions solution.
alternative (10 MW) For are close
the to 0 V. Therefore,
both-ends bonding, they
the are not presented
induced sheath in the form
voltages in of
the
normal operating conditions (10 MW) are close to 0 V. Therefore, they are not presented in the form
the chartoperating
normal in this paper. However, the induced voltages0 V. distributions areare
very interesting inincase of the
of the chart in thisconditions
paper. However, (10 MW) theare close
induced tovoltages Therefore, they
distributions are not
verypresented
interesting thecase
in formof
ofline-to-earth fault. The cable line comprises straight-joints approx. every 1 km. After discussion with
thethe chart in thisfault.
line-to-earth paper. The However,
cable linethe induced straight-joints
comprises voltages distributions approx. are very
every interesting
1 km. in case of
After discussion
the industrial partner
the involved inline
the cable line project, it was decided toevery
analyze the induced voltages
withline-to-earth
the industrial fault. The cable
partner involved comprises
in the cablestraight-joints
line project, itapprox.was decided 1 km.
to analyzeAfterthe discussion
induced
distribution
with in
the industrial case of the
partner earth
involvedfault in the selected joints. The line-to-earth fault was consecutively
voltages distribution in case of the in the cable
earth fault line
in the project, it was
selected decided
joints. The to analyze thefault
line-to-earth inducedwas
assumed distribution
voltages in the following in points
case of (Figure
the earth9): fault in the selected joints. The line-to-earth fault was
consecutively assumed in the following points (Figure 9):
consecutively assumed in the following points (Figure 9):
•• p.3:
p.3: aa quarter
quarter of of the
the line
line length;
length;
••• p.3:p.6: a quarter
half of the of the
line
p.6: half of the line length; line
length; length;
••• p.6: p.9: half
p.9: of the line length;
three-quarters
three-quarters of the
of the line
line length;
length;
••• p.9:p.12: the consumer substation.length;
three-quarters of the line
• p.12: the consumer substation.
Power system
Power
110system
kV
110service)
(supply kV
(supply service)
p.0 p.1 p.2 p.3 p.4 p.5 p.6 p.7 p.8 p.9 p.10 p.11 p.12
p.0 p.1 p.2 p.3 p.4 p.5 p.6 p.7 p.8 p.9 p.10 p.11 p.12

Figure 9. Simplified diagram of the cable system presenting points of the assumed consecutive
Figure 9. Simplified
line-to-earth faults. diagram of the cable system presenting points of the assumed consecutive
Figure 9. Simplified
line-to-earth faults. diagram of the cable system presenting points of the assumed consecutive
line-to-earth faults. of the induced voltages for the aforementioned points of the fault are presented
The distributions
in Figure
The 10. For the both-ends
distributions of the bonding
induced(Figure 10a)for
voltages thethe
line-to-earth-fault
aforementioned at point
pointsp.12
of gives induced
the fault are
The
voltage distributions
practically
presented in Figureequal of the
to 0the
10. For induced voltages
V. Itboth-ends
is obviousbondingfor the
because(Figure aforementioned
this point is the
10a) located points of
at the consumer
line-to-earth-fault the fault are
at substation,
point p.12
presented in Figure
gives induced 10. practically
voltage For the both-ends
equal tobonding
0 V. It (Figure 10a)because
is obvious the line-to-earth-fault at pointatp.12
this point is located the
gives induced voltage practically equal to 0 V. It is obvious because this point is located at the
sheaths are performed in p.4 and p.8; see Figure 10b), the induced voltages in the characteristic
points are only slightly lower compared to the both-ends bonding. Unfortunately, the voltages still
exceed the assumed permissible level of 5 kV.
To decrease the induced voltages below the permissible 5 kV, an additional earthing in point
p.6 has been proposed. The earthing is relatively easy to perform in this place—the cables’ metallic
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706
sheaths are accessible. With this additional earthing, the power cable system is composed of10three of 16

earthing points
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x (p.0, p.6 and p.12) and the induced voltages distributions are as in Figure 11.10As it
of 16
was expected, in the case of the line-to earth fault in p.6, for the both-ends
which contains an earthing system. An earth fault in points p.3, p.6 or p.9 gives the induced voltages bonding (Figure 11a), the
consumervoltage
induced substation, which
in this contains
point an earthing
is reduced system. An earth fault in points p.3,see
p.6that
or p.9 gives
higher than the assumed permissible limit 5practically
kV (at theto 0 V.
point ofHowever,
the fault). one Thecanhighest valuefor the
of the
the induced
arrangement voltages
with the higher
cross than
bondingthe assumed
(Figure permissible
11b), in the limit
case of5 kV
the (at the
line-to point
earth of the
fault fault).
in p.6, The
the
voltage is in p.6 (over 7 kV) mainly because it is located at the farthest distance from the earthed points
highest value
induced voltageof between
the voltage isand in p.6
p.6 (over 7 kV) mainly250because it is locateddistribution
at the farthest distance
(p.0 and p.12). In the case p.0 of the cross reaches
bonding approx.
(transpositionsV. Similar
of thevoltage
cable sheaths are performedis observed in
from
between the earthed
p.6seeand points (p.0
p.12, 10b),
in the and p.12). In the case of the cross bonding (transpositions of the cable
p.4 and p.8; Figure thecase of thevoltages
induced line-to in earth
the in p.12. For both
characteristic pointsarrangements (both-ends
are only slightly lower
sheaths are
bonding and performed
cross in p.4the
bonding), andhighest
p.8; seevalueFigure 10b), the induced
of the voltages in the characteristic
compared to the both-ends bonding. Unfortunately, the voltage
voltagesisstill
around
exceed 4 kV
the (line-to-earth
assumed permissiblein p.3),
pointsisare
what onlybelow
clearly slightlythe lower compared
permissible valueto (5thekV).
both-ends bonding. Unfortunately, the voltages still
level of 5 kV.
exceed the assumed permissible level of 5 kV.
To decrease the induced p.6
voltages below the permissible 5 kV, an additional earthing in point
p.6
p.6 has 8 been proposed.
p.3 The earthing is relatively easy to8 perform in this place—the cables’ metallic
p.9 p.3 p.9
sheaths 7 are accessible. With this additional earthing, the 7 power cable system is composed of three

induced voltage (kV)

induced voltage (kV)

earthing6 points (p.0, p.6 and p.12) and the induced voltages 6 distributions are as in Figure 11. As it
was expected, in the case of the line-to earth fault in p.6,5for the both-ends bonding (Figure 11a), the
5
4 4
induced voltage in this point is reduced practically to 0 V. However, one can see that for the
3 3
arrangement
2
with the cross bonding (Figure p.1211b), in the 2 case of the line-to earth fault in p.6, the
p.12
induced 1 voltage between p.0 and p.6 reaches approx. 250 1 V. Similar voltage distribution is observed
between 0 p.6 and p.12, in the case of the line-to earth 0in0 p.12.2 For both 4
arrangements10(both-ends
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 6 8 12
bonding and cross bonding), the highest value of the voltage is c-b 4 kV (line-to-earth
around c-b in p.3),
length (km) length (km)
what is clearly below the(a)permissible value (5 kV). (b)
Figure 10. Induced sheath voltages as a function of the cable line length, in case of the line-to-earth
line-to-earth
p.6 p.6
fault
8 in the
in the characteristic
characteristicpoints
points(p.3,
(p.3,p.6,
p.6,p.9
p.9ororp.12):
p.12):(a)
(a)both-ends
8both-ends bonding;
bonding; (b)(b) cross
cross bonding
bonding (c-b)
(c-b) in
p.3
p.9 p.3 p.9
in7 p.4
p.4 andand
p.8.p.8. 7
(kV) voltage (kV)
voltage (kV)

6 6
To
5 decreasep.3 the induced voltages below the permissible 5 5 kV, anp.3additional earthing in point p.6
4.5 4.5
has been
4 proposed. The earthing is relatively p.9 easy to perform4 in this place—the cables’ metallic p.9 sheaths
4.0 4.0
induced voltageinduced
induced voltageinduced

3 3
are accessible.
3.5
With this additional earthing, the power3.5 cable system is composed of three earthing p.12
(kV)

2 p.12 2
points3.0(p.0, p.6 and p.12) and the induced voltages distributions 3.0 are as in Figure 11. As it was expected,
1 1
2.5
in the2.5case of the line-to earth fault in p.6, for the both-ends 0
bonding (Figure 11a), the induced voltage
0 2.0
2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
in this point is reduced practically to 0 V. However, one can 1.5 see that for c-bthe arrangement c-b with the cross
1.5 length (km) length (km)
bonding (Figure 11b), in the p.6case of the line-to p.6
earth fault1.0in p.6, the induced voltage between p.0
p.12 p.12
and
1.0
(a) 0.5 (b)
p.6 reaches
0.5 approx. 250 V. Similar voltage distribution is observed between p.6 and p.12, in the case of
0
0
the line-to earth in p.12. For both arrangements (both-ends 0 bonding and
2length,4 incross
6 ofbonding), the
10 highest
8 line-to-earth
12
Figure
0 10.2 Induced
4 sheath 6 voltages
8 as10a function
12 of the cable linec-b c-b
case thec-b c-b
valuefault
of the voltage is around 4 kV (line-to-earth in p.3), what is clearly
in the characteristic points (p.3, p.6, p.9 or p.12): (a) both-ends bonding;length below the
(b) cross permissible
(km) bonding (c-b)
value
length (km)
(5 kV).
in p.4 and p.8. (b)
(a)
Figure 11. Induced
p.3 sheath voltages as a function of the cable p.3 in case of the line-to-earth
line length,
4.5 4.5
p.9
fault
4.0
in characteristic points (p.3, p.6, p.9 or p.12); additional
4.0 earthing in p.6: (a) both-endsp.9
bonding;
3.5
induced voltage (kV)

(b)
3.5 cross bonding (c-b) in p.2, p.4 as well as in p.8, p.10.
induced voltage (kV)

3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
Thus, the additional earthing in p.6 eliminates in a simple way the problem of too high induced
2.0
2.0
sheath voltages in case of the short-circuit conditions. The
1.5 both-ends bonding, as well as the cross
1.5
p.6 p.12 1.0 p.6 p.12
1.0
0.5
0.5
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 c-b c-b c-b c-b
length (km)
length (km)

(a) (b)

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Induced
Induced sheath
sheath voltages
voltages asas aa function
function of of the
the cable
cable line
line length,
length, in
in case
case of
of the
the line-to-earth
line-to-earth
fault in
fault in characteristic
characteristic points
points (p.3,
(p.3, p.6,
p.6, p.9
p.9 oror p.12);
p.12); additional
additional earthing
earthing in
in p.6:
p.6: (a)
(a) both-ends
both-ends bonding;
bonding;
(b) cross
(b) cross bonding
bonding (c-b)
(c-b) in
in p.2,
p.2, p.4
p.4 as
aswell
wellas asin
inp.8,
p.8,p.10.
p.10.

Thus, the additional earthing in p.6 eliminates in a simple way the problem of too high induced
sheath voltages in case of the short-circuit conditions. The both-ends bonding, as well as the cross
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 11 of 16

Thus, the additional earthing in p.6 eliminates in a simple way the problem of too high induced
sheath voltages in case of the short-circuit conditions. The both-ends bonding, as well as the cross
bonding, can be employed (with additional earthing in p.6) but the latter is a more complicated solution.

4. Power Losses for the Analyzed Types of Bonding

During the selection of the type of bonding, which is to be used in a high-voltage cable system,
an analysis of the power losses in this system is recommended to be performed. In the total power
losses in the cable system, additional losses produced in the cable sheaths should be included.
Generally, power losses ∆P3sh generated in three cables’ sheaths and power losses ∆P3c generated in
three cables’ conductors (cores) can be calculated according to the following expressions:
 
2 2 2
∆P3sh = Rsh Ish−L1 + Ish−L2 + Ish−L3 (9)
 
2 2 2
∆P3c = Rc IL1 + IL2 + IL3 (10)

where: ∆P3sh represents the power losses in three cables’ sheaths; ∆P3c represents the power losses in
three cables’ conductors (cores); Ish-L1 , Ish-L2 , Ish-L3 are the currents flowing through the sheath of the
cable in phases L1, L2 and L3, respectively; IL1 , IL2 , IL3 are the currents flowing through the conductor
(core) of the cable in phases L1, L2 and L3, respectively; Rsh is the resistance of the cable’s sheath; Rc is
the resistance of the cable’s conductor (core).
One of the main problems in the power losses calculation is to evaluate the real current distribution
in each cable sheath (currents Ish-L1 , Ish-L2 , Ish-L3 ). It is relatively difficult to calculate analytically,
especially when the arrangement of the cable line is varied or the cross bonding is applied. In this
investigation, all the parameters have been calculated on the base of the data obtained from the
PowerFactory software, taking into account the arrangement of the cables in every of 161 sections of
the cable line.
Power losses in the cables’ sheaths can be very high in the case of both-ends bonding. Relatively high
circulating currents may give a significant heat flux generation across the sheath’s resistance,
which increases the temperature of the cables. However, in the power cable line under consideration,
the contracted transferred power is relatively low compared to the transmission capacity of the
line, so the selection of the type of the bonding system, from the point of view of the power losses,
is not obvious.
The power losses have been evaluated with the use of the aforementioned computer model of the
cable system. Figure 12a presents power losses in the cable sheaths (all three phases) for the contracted
transferred power (10 MW, tgφ = 0.4) and the cable system arrangements, which are to be implemented
in practice. The both-ends bonding gives, in fact, the highest value of the power losses, but it is only
slightly higher than for the single-point bonding. Generally, for these two aforementioned types of
bonding, the power losses are on the low and acceptable level. This is not a typical phenomenon.
The almost equal power losses for these two arrangements are the effect of the natural capacitive power
of the line. Since the consumer load (active power) in the cable line is at the low level, the natural power
forces a reactive (capacitive) current circulation in the system, which gives observable losses. When the
cross bonding is used, power losses in the copper sheaths are negligible, due to the compensation of
the induced voltages in the consecutive minor sections. The comparison of all the analyzed types of
losses (in cores, in sheaths, total; for 10 MW, tgφ = 0.4) is presented in Figure 12b. The total power
losses (in copper sheaths + aluminium cores) are almost the same, both for the single-point bonding
and both-ends bonding. They are within the range 15.4–15.8 kW, whereas for the cross bonding they
are at the level of 13 kW. Power losses in the cores are the same for every type of bonding.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 12 of 16

reactive/capacitive current coming from the natural power of the line is not the same along its whole
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 12 of 16
length—it is a normal phenomenon of the current flowing via capacitance-to-earth of the cables.

Losses (sheath)
3.0

2.5
power losses (kW)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
s-p s-p b-e c-b b-e c-b
in p.12 in p.0 +earthing +earthing
in p.6 in p.6
bonding type

(a)

Losses (core) Losses (sheath) Losses (total)

18.0
16.0
14.0
power losses (kW)

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
s-p s-p b-e c-b b-e c-b
in p.12 in p.0 +earthing +earthing
in p.6 in p.6
bonding type

(b)
Figure12.
Figure 12. Power
Power losses
losses in
in the
the analyzed
analyzed three-phase
three-phase cable
cable system
system for
for the
the transferred
transferred power
power 10 MW,
MW,
tg φ
tgφ = 0.4: (a) losses in the metallic sheaths; (b) comparison of the losses in the metallic sheaths, cores and
= 0.4: (a) losses in the metallic sheaths; (b) comparison of the losses in the metallic sheaths, cores
and losses;
total total losses; s-p: single-point
s-p: single-point bonding;
bonding; b-e: both-ends
b-e: both-ends bonding;
bonding; c-b: cross
c-b: cross bonding.
bonding.

The effect
If the cableofline
the transfers
natural reactive
the powerpower
equalofto
the80cable
MW,linetgφ is
= 0seen especially
(Figure in Figure
13b), giving 13a when
practically the
the
maxtransferred
permissiblepower
loadis(load
only 1current
MW, tgφ = 0 (for
approx. theA),
420 simplicity
the value of the analysis,
of the poweronly the is
losses active
two power
orders
transfer is modelled).
higher, compared Theresults
to the natural reactive
from Figurepower of thewas
13a. What analyzed line the
expected, of the length
highest 12 km
value is approx.
of the power
6losses
Mvarisand forsignificantly
the both-ends exceeds
bonding.the In
transferred
this case,active
when power (1 MW). In
the transferred suchislow-load
power many timesconditions
higher
(active
than the load current
natural in thepower,
reactive cable core is approx.
the effect of the 5latter
A; reactive/capacitive
power is negligible. current in the cable core is
approx.The30analysis
A), the ofsingle-point
the resultsbonding gives losses
of the power the highest total power
calculations shows losses.
that allIt should
types ofalso be noted
bonding are
that the reactive/capacitive
acceptable current
for the transferred coming
power fromtothe
equal 10natural power of thethe
MW. Admittedly, linecross
is notbonding
the same gives
along the
its
whole length—it is a normal phenomenon of the current flowing via capacitance-to-earth
lowest losses but introduces the most complicated technical solution to the power line. of the cables.
If the cable line transfers the power equal to 80 MW, tgφ = 0 (Figure 13b), giving practically the
max permissible load (load current approx. 420 A), the value of the power losses is two orders higher,
compared to the results from Figure 13a. What was expected, the highest value of the power losses is
for the both-ends bonding. In this case, when the transferred power is many times higher than the
natural reactive power, the effect of the latter power is negligible.
The analysis of the results of the power losses calculations shows that all types of bonding are
acceptable for the transferred power equal to 10 MW. Admittedly, the cross bonding gives the lowest
losses but introduces the most complicated technical solution to the power line.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci.2020, 10,x6706
2020,10, 13 of
13 of 16
16

Losses (core) Losses (sheath) Losses (total)

10.0

power losses (kW)

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0
s-p s-p b-e c-b b-e c-b
in p.12 in p.0 +earthing +earthing
in p.6 in p.6
bonding type

(a)

Losses (core) Losses (sheath) Losses (total)

1000

800
power losses (kW)

600

400

200 147 147

2 2 <1 <1
0
s-p s-p b-e c-b b-e c-b
in p.12 in p.0 +earthing +earthing
in p.6 in p.6
bonding type

(b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Power
Power losses
lossesin
inthe
theanalyzed
analyzedthree-phase
three-phasecable
cablesystem:
system:(a)
(a)for
forthe
thetransferred
transferredpower
power11MW,
MW,
tg φ ==0;0;
tgφ (b)(b)
forfor
thethe
transferred power
transferred 80 MW,
power tgφ =tgφ
80 MW, = 0;
0; s-p: single-point bonding;bonding;
s-p: single-point b-e: both-ends bonding;
b-e: both-ends
bonding;
c-b: c-b: cross bonding.
cross bonding.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Most of
Most of the
the high-voltage
high-voltage power
power cable
cable lines
lines are
are significantly
significantly loaded
loaded inin practice,
practice, soso in
in normal
normal
operating conditions the induced sheath voltages or power losses may be high.
operating conditions the induced sheath voltages or power losses may be high. In order to exclude In order to exclude the
risk of the electric shock and the negative effect of the power losses in the long cable lines,
the risk of the electric shock and the negative effect of the power losses in the long cable lines, during during such
load load
such conditions, crosscross
conditions, bonding of theofcable
bonding sheaths
the cable is most
sheaths oftenoften
is most indicated as theasbest
indicated thesolution.
best solution.
However, if the cable line carries a relatively low load, as in the analyzed case, the the
However, if the cable line carries a relatively low load, as in the analyzed case, choice
choice of
of the
the best
best typetype of the
of the bonding
bonding system
system is not
is not obvious.
obvious. For For the
the analyzedcable
analyzed cableline,
line,aacomparison
comparisonof of the
the
possible bonding and earthing solutions is presented
possible bonding and earthing solutions is presented in Table 1. in Table 1.

Table 1. A summary of the properties of the bonding systems in the analyzed cable line.
Table 1. A summary of the properties of the bonding systems in the analyzed cable line.
Criterion Single-Point Bonding
Single-Point Both-Ends Bonding Cross Bonding
Cross
Criterion Both-Ends Bonding
Induced voltages in normal Bonding Bonding
(0) 1 (0) (0)
operating
Induced condition
voltages in normal operating
Induced voltages in the case of (0) 1
(+)(0) (0)
(+)
condition (-)
Inducedthe short circuit
voltages in the case of the short with earthing(+) in p.6 with earthing
(+) in p.6
Power losses (-)
circuit (0) with earthing
(0) in p.6 with earthing
(+) in p.6
in the cable system
Power losses
Simplicity of the solution and (+) (0) (0) (+)
in the aspects
cable system (+) (0)
economic (0) with ECC
Simplicity of the solution and economic (+)
1 Markings: (+) preferred solution; (0) acceptable solution; (-) (+)
excluded solution. (0)
aspects (0) with ECC
1 Markings: (+) preferred solution; (0) acceptable solution; (-) excluded solution.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6706 14 of 16

When the risk of electric shock in normal operating conditions is considered, the values of the
induced sheath voltages are acceptable in every case—for single point-bonding the highest value is
below the permissible 80 V and for both-ends bonding or cross bonding the voltages are close to 0 V.
In case of the line-to-earth fault, the single point-bonding is excluded in this cable line, due to
very high induced voltages. For the system without ECC, the voltage reaches 22 kV. When the ECC is
installed, it decreases only to 12 kV. In the light of the assumed permissible level being equal to 5 kV,
these high-value voltages are dangerous for the outer non-metallic sheath of the cable. It should also be
noted that, due to the induced voltages in the case of the earth fault, the both-ends bonding, as well as
the cross bonding, requires an additional earthing in the middle of the power cable length (point p.6).
Without this additional earthing, the voltages may exceed 7 kV but with the earthing, they are reduced
to approx. 4 kV.
A comparison of the power losses shows that the best solution is the cross bonding but two other
solutions are acceptable as well—the total losses in the cable system are within the range 15.4–15.8 kW
for the single-point bonding and both-ends bonding, whereas for the cross bonding they are equal to
13 kW. Such low and comparable power losses are the effect of the relatively low transferred power
(10 MW).
Considering the economic aspect and simplicity of the solution, the single-point bonding without
ECC (no additional parallel cable is installed) or both-ends bonding (no equipment for transpositions
of the sheaths is required) are recommended.
Taking into account all the aforementioned aspects, the both-end bonding or cross bonding can
be used in the analyzed cable line. For each of the two solutions, the additional earthing in p.6 is
required. To achieve safe operation of relatively long high-voltage cable lines, which are loaded in
a low percentage, special attention must be given to the study of short-circuit currents. The induced
sheath voltages coming from high-value currents can give unacceptably high-voltage stress, not only in
the case of single-point bonding, but also in the case of both-ends bonding. In the latter case, this stress
applies to points located close to the centre of the cable section between the earthing arrangements.
In such a cable system, shorter distances between the earthing arrangements should be used.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.C.; software, K.D.; validation, S.C. and K.D.; formal analysis, S.C.;
investigation, S.C. and K.D.; resources, S.C.; writing—original draft preparation, S.C. and K.D.; writing—review
and editing, S.C.; supervision, S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by Gdańsk University of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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