An Investigation of Stress Wave Propagation Through Rock Joints and Rock Masses

An Investigation of Stress Wave Propagation
Through Rock Joints and Rock Masses
Summary of the thesis submitted by Dr. Ricardo Resende

at the Faculty of Engineering of the Porto University, Portugal,
in September 2010
Ricardo Resende Rocha Medal Thesis Summary
Contents
Abstract 2
1. Introduction 3
2. Basics 6
Rock joints 6
Discussion 9
3. Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves Across Rock Joints 10
Joint behaviour simulation 11
Dynamic properties of Bonded Particle Models 13
Propagation of compressive stress waves across fractures in BPM 14
Results and Discussion 15
4. Underground Stress Wave Propagation Testing and Simulation 20
Results of the vibration propagation test 23
Numerical modelling of stress wave propagation 24
Discussion 33
5. Large Scale Underwater Blasting 34
Vibration control during the Leixões harbour deepening works 34
Attenuation Law 35
Numerical modelling 36
Discussion 40
6. Conclusions 42
Bonded particle modelling of dynamic rock joint behaviour 42
Underground vibration propagation and modelling 42
Large scale underwater blasting 43
Selected bibliography 44
1
Abstract
Ground vibration is an unavoidable side-effect and one of rock blasting’s main environmental
impacts. Stress waves disturb populations, may damage sensitive equipment, compromise
serviceability of constructions and, in extreme cases, cause structural damage.
A more profound knowledge of how stress waves propagate in fractured rock masses is needed to
control and manage vibration impacts: traditional methods of prediction such as empirical equations
must be complemented with numerical models that can cope with blast and ground variability.
This thesis contributes to these goals through several means. The first is the development of a
micromechanical numerical model that simulates propagation of stress waves in rock and through
rock joints, which are the most important structural features of rock masses. This innovative model is
based on the particle discrete element method. The dynamic properties of a non-structured
assembly of circular particles are studied, and a new joint contact model is developed allowing the
simulation of rock joints with realistic roughness, contact creation and erosion. This model performs
well in static and dynamic tests, agreeing with the Displacement Discontinuity Theory for rock joints
seismic behaviour.
In a second study, a blast test was performed in a network of adits excavated in rock at a depth of a
few hundred metres and helps clarifying how vibrations travel and are affected by natural and man
made structures. A discussion of two and three-dimensional simulation of blasting stress wave
propagation is followed by the modelling of the test using two and three dimensional numerical
models. The general performance of the models is assessed, while different simulation options are
evaluated. This study delivers important conclusions on how to simulate stress wave generation,
propagation and measurement.
In the third study the object of attention is a larger, underwater, blasting operation. Statistical,
artificial intelligence and numerical modelling techniques suited for the low level of information on
the blasting and the ground are used and developed to study peak particle velocity dispersion.
Simple three-dimensional numerical models were built to test the influence of hypothetical ground
singularities on the peak particle velocity attenuation. These models are a great improvement over
the means usually employed to study wave propagation, showing how dykes, softer ground zones
and blast characteristics may influence vibration levels.
2
1. Introduction
Public awareness and intolerance to annoyances related to construction has grown steadily in the
last decades. The impacts of the underground construction in cities are evident, especially when rock
is blasted. Rock blasting direct environmental consequences are stress wave generation, noise, which
in extreme cases may result in shock waves, and dust and rock projection. Ground vibration, which is
one of the most hazardous and also most difficult to mitigate, induces discomfort in people, be it
directly through the ground or via buildings or other structures. Vibration may also damage or
disrupt equipments and cause aesthetic and, in extreme cases, structural damage.
The most significant structural feature of rock masses is fracturing. Rock masses are stricken by
fractures and faults of different origins and jointing plays an important role in the way most rock
masses bear loads, deform and fail. Interaction with discontinuities through reflection, refraction and
absorption mechanisms is the major cause of stress wave attenuation. Though it is notoriously hard
to investigate joint structure under dynamic loading, the wave–discontinuity interaction has been
subject to experimental and analytical investigations. The resulting Displacement Discontinuity
Theory adequately explains rock joints’ basic dynamic behaviour, but many questions remain
unanswered.
There is need for tools that evaluate the way in which vibrations are generated, propagate across the
ground and damage structures or equipment and disturb people. The problem has traditionally been
addressed by means of semi-empirical attenuation laws parameterized from in-situ measurement.
This method yields results that can be directly compared with regulatory limits and is expedite and
economical, but include only blast energy and the distance to the blast. Other important factors that
are not so easily characterized by scalar variables aren’t considered. These include preferential
directions of vibration emission at the source, ground heterogeneities that may attenuate or channel
vibrations or even ground excavations that block the vibrations.
Three important needs were identified in the domain of stress wave propagation in rock masses, and
three corresponding lines of action are developed.
The first is the simulation and understanding of stress wave interaction with rock joints.
Stress wave – rock fracture interaction is a fundamental investigation area that is mainly done by
laboratory testing of small size samples and must evolve to larger in-situ studies. Particle
micromechanical models replicate the microstructure of rock and its internal mechanisms of
deformation and failure, but their application to the simulation of stress wave propagation in rock is,
at best, incipient. They are used, here, as a complement to laboratory and theoretical study of stress
3
wave–rock fracture interaction. The purpose of this line of investigation is to establish the soundness
of micromechanical models in the simulation of stress wave propagation in rock masses. The studies
done in this field are presented in chapter 3.
The second line of action, closer to the underground engineering practice, aims to answer to the
need for greater insight on how stress waves propagate in rock masses with presence of excavations
and other singularities. A more profound perception and knowledge will lead to better blasting plans,
especially near vulnerable targets, and also to more efficient vibration monitoring. To contribute to
this goal, two case studies are analysed. The first case comprises in situ blast test in the Bemposta
hydroelectric underground complex. The test preceded the excavation of a new hydraulic circuit and
powerhouse and involved blasting and vibration measurements along a network of adits excavated in
rock at a depth of a few hundred metres. In the second case, the vibration monitoring data from a
large underwater blasting operation in an international ocean harbour are compiled and analysed
with the help of statistical tools and numerical models. Important insights in the evolution of stress
waves in rock masses are drawn from the results. The interpretation of these these and the
knowledge gained with them are presented at the beginning of chapters 4 and 5.
The third line of action is the development and improvement of numerical models to simulate
vibration propagation in rock masses at several scales and levels of information of the rock mass
properties. There is a clear need for increased modelling of the propagation of stress waves in rock
masses through more advanced numerical models that permit not only reproduction and
understanding of observed stress waves in complex realistic sites, but also qualitatively forecast
vibration propagation in hypothetical scenarios. Dynamic simulation of blasting still lacks concrete
methodologies or guidelines. For this purpose, two and three-dimensional numerical models were
used to simulate the blast test on the underground hydroelectric complex and the harbour
underwater blasting works and to test a number of hypothetical conditions of the blasts and the
ground. This provides guidance on best practices for the efficient simulation of blast loading, quality
of wave propagation, vibration extraction and treatment, contributing to establishing guidelines for
the dynamical simulation of blast vibration propagation and impact in rock masses. The
developments in the numerical models and the numerical simulations are included in the
applications presented in chapters 4 and 5.
Along the three applications there is an evolution of scale (Figure 1). Fractures studied in the first
application are some centimetres long and are modelled by particles of about 1 millimetre. As such,
the level of characterization (geometric and mechanical) of the problem must be almost grain-size.
On the underground blast test there is a huge jump in geometric scale, which goes up to dimensions
in the order of one hundred metres. The level of information of the rock mass decreases accordingly.
4
Finally, in the underwater blast monitoring the working area is more than two kilometres long and
there is almost no information on the ground characteristics. The methods used and developed
across these situations range from pure phenomenological exploratory micromechanical models to
widely used and established attenuation laws.
Engineering
practice
Figure 1: Evolution of physical

scale, scope and level of
detail along the thesis
Kilometre
Scope of studies. The smallest circle
application
represents the
micromechanical simulation,
Hundred
meters the middle circle the
underground blast test and
Millimetres Physical
Research the largest circle the
scale
underwater blasting
Very detailed Scarce
Level of Information
monitoring.
The following paper, originated from the micromechanical modelling of fracture – stress wave
interaction, was published in the 2010 Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering’s special issue dedicated
to rock dynamics and earthquake engineering.
Resende, Lamas, L.N.,Lemos, J.V., Calçada, R. Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves in Rock and
Rock Fractures. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering Special Issue: Rock Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering; Guest Editors: Prof. Giovanni Barla and Prof. Jian Zhao, 43(6):741-761.
5
2. Basics
Rock masses have flaws differing in size, shape, filling and origin, from microscopic voids and cracks
to faults that are several meters wide, all changing the way in which vibrations propagate. When a
wave interacts with a heterogeneity it can be transmitted, reflected, converted into other kinds of
waves and into sound or heat with loss of mechanical energy.
Three general classes of models have been proposed to describe the propagation of stress waves in
rock masses. An excellent in-depth review of these classes can be found in Cai (2001). In the first
class we have equivalent-continuum models. The rock material and the heterogeneities are modelled
together in a homogeneous continuous material, with properties that balance the intact solid matrix
characteristics and the imperfections’. Wave propagation velocity results from equivalent elastic
parameters. Amplitude loss can be introduced through hysteretic damping included in the
constitutive model or by damping in the equation of motion.
Wave scattering models (e.g. Hudson 1981) are an intermediate class. Waves progressing through
the solid are considered to be scattered by cracks much shorter than the wavelength and far apart
from each other so that no interaction between individual cracks is possible. Cracks are represented
as collections of disc-shaped voids, filled with a fluid (whose bulk and viscosity moduli can be set up
to represent air). Laboratory tests on intact and heat or load damaged samples showed the good
performance of these models, including frequency-dependent attenuation. The frailty of wave
scattering models becomes evident when cracks have large dimensions.
Finaly, the Displacement Discontinuity Theory, or DDT (Schoenberg, 1980), provides a structure to
support wave interaction with macroscopic fractures. DDT does not refer explicitly to the
microstructure of rock masses since fractures are treated individually as non-welded discontinuities
with stress continuity and displacement discontinuity, thus providing a simple theoretical
formulation for the individual wave-joint interaction.
Rock joints
Being the main obstacle to stress waves, rock joints reduce the dynamic quality of the rock mass, in
the same way as they affect static stiffness. In general, jointing causes stress wave peak particle
velocity to decrease, delays wave propagation velocity and filters some frequencies. Nevertheless,
until recently, the influence of joints in the dynamic response had received far less attention than the
voids and micro cracks in the rock matrix, up to a point where joints have been treated as collections
of co-planar cracks (Myer, 2000). In the author’s opinion, this can be attributed to two reasons. The
6
first is that most rock dynamics’ research has been carried out by geophysics and petroleum
researchers. Since they tend to look to rock masses at a bigger scale than rock mechanics, the
dimension of the conceptual models is usually much larger than the joint spacing, leading to rock
mass’ idealizations in terms of distributed features and properties. The second reason is that up to
some years ago investigation methods and hardware capacity did not allow realistic discrete
representation of joints and joint sets.
King et al. (1986) performed a field test that revealed the role of rock joints in wave propagation,
separating it clearly from the effect of rock material. They blasted a charge in a vertical basalt
columnar formation while measuring the waveforms of the seismic waves in the same column and in
neighbour ones, so that it was possible to measure waves that travelled similar distances in
directions parallel and perpendicular to the predominant jointing. Three different facts were
observed when comparing the time-histories (Figure 2) corresponding to direct waves and to waves
that crossed the joints: taking in consideration their distance to the blast, the latter were delayed,
their amplitude was much lower and their principal frequencies were shifted down.
In the authors’ opinion, the main questions demanding to be answered are, then: how can we
quantify the influence of jointing in the amplitude, velocity of propagation and frequency of
transmitted waves? Can a model correctly cover all aspects? What are the major joint features,
concerning dynamic behaviour: roughness, mating, normal stress, shear stress, aperture, filling?
Kendall and Tabor (1971) recognized that the amplitude and phase delay of the transmitted and
reflected waves originated by a compression wave depend on the relation between joint normal
stiffness, impedance of the rock material and wave frequency.
Figure 2: Comparison between

compressive waves propagated
parallel and across well-defined
jointing. Taken from King et al.
(1986)
7
Later, Schoenberg (1980) expressed the joint dynamic response through its compliance, the inverse
of stiffness, managing to integrate the wave equation of P and S waves of arbitrary angles of
incidence.
Pyrak-Nolte and co-workers. (1987) expanded Schoenberg’s solution to the case of discontinuities
filled with Kelvin and Maxwell fluids: joint dynamic response is expressed by means of joint normal
and shear stiffness in parallel with fluid’s viscosity and compressibility.
The Displacement Discontinuity Theory (DDT) has been thoroughly verified by means of
measurement of transmitted ultrasonic waves across natural rock, cement and steel joints. Figure 3
shows the amplitude spectra of compressive waves after they cross intact rock and fractured rock
samples under varying compression. Wave amplitude in intact rock is similar in both samples. The
first effect that can be observed is that when compression stress is enough to close the fracture
(70 MPa) increasing it does not affect wave transmission. In a well mated fracture (mating is higher in
sample E32 and lower in E30) the transmitted wave is higher for the same compression level. It can
also be observed that under low stress (2.9 MPa) sample E32 transmits nearly nothing, while E30, the
well mated fracture, still transmits about 10 % of peak amplitude. DDT predictions of the transmitted
waves are shown in the same figure. The predicted waves are obtained by finding a joint stiffness
that generates a wave transmission function that, multiplied by the incident wave, results in a
transmitted wave that fits the wave recorded in the test. Each joint will, then, display several values
of dynamic joint stiffness. This stiffness grows with the normal stress applied to the joint, similarly to
static joint stiffness. It can be observed that theoretical and laboratory curves match is not always
perfect, especially at high frequencies, which may be caused by dynamic stiffness not being
completely frequency-independent.
Figure 3: Wave spectra from measurements and DDT predictions from fractures with good (right) and bad
mating (left) (Pyrak-Nolte et al. 1990)
8
Discussion
Although some questions remain unanswered, the existing theoretical background provides a
satisfactory theoretical framework through which fracture interference in wave propagation in rock
masses can be understood. However, there is still a gap between the laboratory experiments that
verify Displacement Discontinuity Theory and the in situ practical cases. In the field, rock mechanics
practitioners don’t work on small samples but on rock masses with extensive sets of rock joints with
little known characteristics. Some of the questions, whose answers will contribute to fill this gap, are:
 Is there a direct relation between static and dynamic joint shear and normal stiffness?
 What are the properties that drive dynamic response of joints? Does dynamic stiffness
depend on the same joint features as static stiffness, namely aperture or asperity
distribution, rock wall hardness, filling? What is the relative importance of each feature?
 Is it possible to predict joint dynamic response by observation of joint properties?
 Can a detailed rock joint numerical model (including asperity geometry and rock properties)
simulate and predict static and dynamic response?
 How can the dynamic effects of fractures be represented in a numerical model that, due to
its dimension, cannot yet represent every fracture? Can dynamic properties be scaled to a
smaller number of fractures or included into a material model?
9
3. Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves Across Rock

Joints
To model wave propagation and capture the complete waveforms, a long, 90x600 mm, rock
specimen is produced (Figure 4). The procedure employed to generate the particle assembly is
adapted from Potyondy (2004). It is composed by 34,773 particles with radii varying uniformly
between 0.50 and 0.83 mm. Disk density is set to 3150 kg/m3 resulting in a continuum-equivalent
porosity of 2700 kg/m3. Contacts normal stiffness is set to 6.2 x 1010 N/m, 2.5 times the shear
stiffness. To define the model borders, where loads and other boundary conditions are applied, a
strip of balls is identified at the top, sides and bottom of the sample. An unconfined compression test
of the assembly shows Young's modulus is constant in the range of compressive stresses of interest
with an average value of 43.5 GPa, while Poisson's ratio is 0.2.
Figure 4: Complete model used for dynamic study of

bonded particle dynamic properties. Waves are
injected at the bottom and measured in sections 1 to
5
10
Joint behaviour simulation
Rock joints behaviour under compression has been object of less attention than shear behaviour, but
the demand for the models that realistically incorporate joint closure is driven by the simulation of
hydrocarbon reserves, thermal energy production and storage of CO2 and radioactive waste.
Particle models have been used to model static tests of rough undulating rock joints in shear
(Cundall, 2000; Kusumi et al., 2005). Gutierrez and Barton (1994) employed UDEC to represent a
shear test of a rock joint. Karami and Stead (2008) used the hybrid FEM/DEM code ELFEN to model
the shear behaviour of several JRC profiles under varying normal stresses. Several authors have
employed block discrete element and particle models in a larger scale to represent large volumes of
rock masses including several joint sets, but topography of walls discontinuities is not represented.
Inter-particle contact drives the macroscopic behaviour of synthetic rock samples, but
microproperties are not related to measurable properties like Young’s modulus or Young’s ratio
through analytical laws. Normal displacement in rock joints is mostly caused by elastic asperity
deformation followed by partial or total crushing. It is then postulated that after suffering a certain
amount of deformation and crushing the contact area of each asperity increases and consequently
the same happens to the contact stiffness. To simulate this behaviour, a new contact constitutive
model is developed and compiled, resulting in a C++ dynamic linked library that is invoked by PFC. The
constitutive model is bi-linear in shear and compression, shear strength is governed by a Mohr-
Coulomb and tensile strength is null. The force vs ball overlap curve is shown in Figure 5.
Initial and final stiffness are set as a percentage of the stiffness of the contacts in the rock material
(kn) via the multipliers dki and dkf. The point where stiffness value increases is defined as a fraction of
the radius of the smallest ball in the pair. To conserve model’s simplicity, shear and compressive
stiffness evolve in parallel, and final stiffness is equal to the rock matrix stiffness (implies that dkf=1).
The behaviour is then defined by two parameters only: initial percentage of the rock stiffness, dki,
and percentage of the radius of the smaller ball in contact that triggers hardening: dradius.
Figure 5: Joint constitutive model

diagram
11
Other strategies to represent asperity degradation were studied, such as diminution of ball radius,
ball deletion or ball breakage in a number of smaller particles. Although not completely discarded for
future developments, the alternatives have shown to be too demanding in CPU time or to complex
more difficult to implement adequately.
The normal stress vs normal displacement curve for the parameters dki=1%, dradius=10% and dkf=100%
is depicted in Figure 6. The curve shows the main characteristics of rock joint normal tests. Initial
stiffness is low due to the small number of contacts, but it increases gradually leading to an
asymptotical curve. Figure 7 shows how compressive stress going through active contacts, a great
tool to understand the mechanics of joint.
This method of joint closure modelling still needs improvement, but already provides a simple
method to model joint closure and its main features. Mechanics of joint normal behaviour is
correctly represented and, though very simple, the method of joint generation resulted in a
competent two dimensional representation of planar, low roughness, joints.
(a) (b)
120 120
100 100
normal stress [MPa]
normal stress [MPa]
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
Figure 6: Normal stress vs

0 0 joint closure (a) and
0 2 4 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
joint displacement [m] -4 normal stiffness k n [Pa/m] 11
x 10 x 10 tangent joint stiffness (b)
12
Figure 7: Evolution of contact forces through the test, with black lines denoting compression and red lines,
tension; green balls are in contact, red balls are in contact and in the second branch of the constitutive model
Dynamic properties of Bonded Particle Models
Prior to the study of dynamic properties of the rock bonded particle models, several adaptations of
the method had to be performed. To avoid wave reflections in the boundaries, a mixed boundary
condition, in which static and dynamic loadings coexist with an absorbing boundary, is implemented
in PFC2D via a FISH function. To the authors’ knowing, this is the first time that dynamic boundary
conditions are implemented in a discrete element particle model. The hybrid boundary was
successfully tested with pure shear and compressive waves hitting the boundaries at normal angles.
Verification of the equivalence between force and displacement\velocity\acceleration loading also
had to be performed, and a method for the transition between static and dynamic analysis was
developed. Details of these developments can be found in the thesis full text.
To simulate the stress-wave interaction with the fracture it is necessary to understand how waves
are changed while they cross the dense, non-organized, bonded particle assemblies that simulate the
rock material. Waves propagating in a numerical model inevitably have their characteristics
degraded, and the principle behind wave transmission quality is that the shortest wavelength of
interest must be correctly represented. Quality requirements differ with the modelling situation: if
13
only the wave arrivals are needed, more degradation can be allowed but if peak amplitude or the
entire waveform are to be used, as is the case here, quality requirements increase.
To determine the adequate number of particles per wavelength, compressive waves with central
frequencies from 5 to 200 kHz were injected at the base of the model and measured along the
model, in the five sections shown in Figure 4. The decay of peak amplitude along the model was the
chosen quantitative indicator of wave quality. Dynamic properties of organized hexagonal and
rectangular packings were studied in parallel with the bonded particle models, the conclusions on
their properties and comparison with the rock model are reported in the thesis.
First, it was found that, as is characteristic of dispersive mediums, wave velocity grows slightly with
frequency, as shown in Figure 8. For the static properties previously presented (static Young’s
modulus of 43.5 GPa and a 0.2 Poisson's ratio) the Bonded Particle Model has a compressive wave
velocity of approximately 4200 m/s.
Regarding wave quality degradation, it was found that if a maximum amplitude loss of 5% from
beginning to end of the model is set, the wave frequency and associated wavelength/particle
diameter relation that complies is 82 particles per wavelength. It was also found that the BPM model
is much more demanding in terms of number of particles per wavelength than all organized packings.
1.04
BPM
1.03 Rectangular
HexaKn=Ks
variation of wave velocity [%]
HexaKn=2.5Ks
1.02
1.01
Figure 8: Relative
0.99
variation of compressive
0.98 wave velocity with peak

5 10 20 30 40 80 120 150 200
wave frequency [kHz] frequency
Propagation of compressive stress waves across fractures in BPM
Wave-fracture interaction numerical tests come in the sequence of the static joint closure tests and
on the knowledge on wave propagation gained in the previous section. At the end of each load
increment of the joint compression calculation a Ricker wave with a peak frequency of 15 kHz was
injected at the bottom boundary. The input wave, the wave that crosses the fracture (Transmitted)
14
and the wave that is bounced back (Reflected) are processed and the fracture dynamic behaviour is
calculated according to the Displacement Discontinuity Theory (Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990).
In the joint closure tests, a vertical downwards force corresponding to the normal stress was installed
in the balls at the top boundary. In the dynamic calculation this force was maintained and an
absorbing boundary was added. The balls movement at the bottom boundary was constrained and a
Ricker waveform velocity time-history was injected there. Horizontal movement at the lateral
boundaries was constrained to prevent formation of surface waves and zero damping was used.
Figure 9 shows the wave passage across a compressed joint. One of the rewards of micromechanical
models is the visualization of this kind of fast and microscopic phenomenon. The following link opens
a movie that shows wave passage across the joint under growing normal loading, showing the
passage and reflection of the waves: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kqRIuH7Ougs.
(a) (b)
2
2
Figure 9: Ball velocity vectors of wave passing across fracture. Vectors and balls (left); velocity vectors only
(right)
Results and Discussion
According to the Displacement Discontinuity Theory, the analysis of the waves that originate from a
rock fracture when it is excited by an impinging wave allows the identification of the dynamic, or
seismic, stiffness of the fracture. It is expected that the more the fracture is compressed the better it
will transmit the wave.
Since the input wave frequency content I ( ) and the rock impedance are known, it is possible to
find a dynamic stiffness kdyn that generates transmitted and reflected wave curves T ( ) and R( )
that adjust to the ones recorded in the model. In laboratory tests of rock fractures (Cai, 2001; Pyrak-
Nolte et al., 1990, among others), a good adjustment between measured and theoretical wave
amplitudes has been observed across the frequency spectrum. Can the numerical models that mimic
the fracture microscopic deformation mechanics do the same?
15
Figure 10 shows how waveforms of reflected and transmitted waves evolve as compression
increases. When the joint is lightly closed, the transmitted wave is nearly imperceptible and the
reflected wave almost equals the input wave. With increasing compression, the transmitted wave
grows and the reflected wave shrinks.
0.01
 = 1 MPa
0
-0.01
0 50 100 150 200
0.01
0
 = 5 MPa
-0.01
0 50 100 150 200
0.01
 = 17.5 MPa
0
-0.01
velocity [m/s]
0 50 100 150 200

0.01
 = 25 MPa
0
-0.01
0 50 100 150 200
0.01
0
 = 80 MPa
-0.01
0 50 100 150 200
0.01
0
 = 120 MPa
-0.01
0 50 100 150 200
time [ s]
Figure 10: Input (blue), Reflected (red) and Transmitted (green) waves from fracture submitted to increasing
normal stress
Since each wave passage through the joint produces a reflected and a transmitted wave, two seismic
stiffness values ( k R and kT ) can also be determined. This is an advantage in relation to the
laboratory tests found in the literature where only the transmitted waves are usually measured.
Figure 11 displays the fit between the reflected and transmitted frequency amplitudes and DDT’s
prediction of transmitted and reflected waves. To find these, optimal dynamic stiffness values k R
and kT are calculated through an optimization algorithm. This fit is better in transmitted waves,
which can eventually be explained by the fact that these are not contaminated by the incident wave.
Both model and predicted reflected waves’ central frequency increase with compression stress, but
this effect is more pronounced in the fracture model. As a whole, model and predicted transmitted
waves match up quite well, the correspondence being almost perfect in lower frequencies. It is
thought that this divergence can be due to dynamic stiffness not being constant but a function of
frequency. Pyrak-Nolte and Nolte (1992) investigated this hypothesis and found that the relation of
the wavelength to the irregular spacing between contact zones in the fracture may be the key to this
behaviour. It should be noted that the developed joint model can be used to study this hypothesis.
16
5  = 1 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 5 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 17.5 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 25 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 80 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 120 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
angular frequency [  103 2/s]
5  = 1 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 5 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 17.5 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 25 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 80 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
5  = 120 MPa
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
angular frequency [  103 2/s]
Figure 11: Reflected frequency amplitudes (in red, top plot) and transmitted (in green, bottom plot) frequency
amplitudes for the different normal stress tests. Predicted theoretical values are in black and the input wave, in
dashed blue, is shown for reference
As predicted by the Displacement Discontinuity Theory and observed in laboratory tests, the fracture
acts as a low-pass filter transmitting lower frequencies preferentially, this effect being stronger under
lower normal stresses. But, the wave is not completely transmitted and the reflected wave is still
17
visible under the maximum stress, meaning that the fracture is not totally closed. This is consistent
with the fracture static behaviour, since the stress-displacement curve of the static joint compression
test is also not completely vertical at the maximum stress level, possibly because the rock behaviour
is purely elastic.
The evolution of the transmitted and reflected dynamic stiffness with static normal stress is pictured
in Figure 12. The small gap between k R and kT is thought to be due to the better quality of the
transmitted wave. Energy conservation and the match between both stiffness values demonstrates
that the particle model correctly simulates the dynamic behaviour of rock joints. The trend followed
by the static and seismic stiffness, both being tangent values, is similar, with dynamic value being
higher. In tests of static and dynamic properties of rock and rock joints, dynamic values are generally
higher. Cai (2001) tested artificial cement mortar joints with compression stress from 2 to 20 MPa
and a central wave frequency of 20 kHz under three growing deformation velocities: quasi-static,
dynamic deformation on a dynamic press and ultrasonic waves. He found that dynamic stiffness on
wave passage tests is typically 2 to 3 times the value of dynamic deformation tests, which is itself 1.2
to 2 times the static stiffness. Seismic stiffness values are in the 20 to 1200 GPa/m range, depending
on the compression and the density of contacts in the joint. The values found in the current study are
in the same order of magnitude, increasing from 100 to 1,200 GPa/m for compression stresses of 1 to
120 MPa. On the other hand, values determined by Pyrak-Nolte et al. (1990) for transmission of
waves across natural fractures on quartz compressed up to 85 MPa yielded much larger seismic
stiffness values, from 2000 to 150,000 GPa/m. However, the wave central frequency is higher, from
500 to 1000 kHz. The static stiffness for the same samples is in the same order of magnitude but
always lower ranging from 2000 to 30,000 GPa/m.
11
x 10
12
10
k Static
kR
joint normal stiffness [Pa/m]
8 kT
0
Figure 12: Evolution of the dynamic and
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
normal stress [MPa] static tangent stiffness with normal stress
18
Even though no viscous parcel is present in the discrete element model as it was employed and no
strain-rate effects are included in the contact models of the joint and rock material, dynamic elastic
parameters are higher than static parameters. The reasons for this difference, also found in
laboratory and field tests, are identical for fractures and for intact rock. First, due to inertia effects
when rates of deformation are high, the fractures and asperities do not have enough time to deform.
Second, the stress level induced by the dynamic wave is much smaller than the static stress. Third,
stress wave amplitude is several orders of magnitude smaller than the static stress in the joint. The
wave excites the fracture around the current location in the stress-displacement curve without
changing its configuration.
19
4. Underground Stress Wave Propagation Testing and

Simulation
This chapter describes a vibration propagation test on an underground complex set in a good quality
rock mass, followed by 2D and 3D dynamic numerical modelling. The motivation for the test was the
control of blast vibrations during excavation of a new hydraulic circuit near a hydroelectric complex.
Low intensity blasts were performed to define an attenuation law, the traditional approach. However,
this method has several, already discussed, shortcomings. This chapter develops a 3D
dynamic model that includes the effect of geological accidents in the wav e path, the
“shadow” effect of excavations, the transition of vibrations from the rock to the structures.
Bemposta dam (Figure 13) is a concrete dam, with an underground circuit and a powerhouse cavern
on the right bank. Several auxiliary adits were excavated in the rock to gain access to the complex
during construction and have not been used since. The planned upgrade of the dam consisted on the
construction of a new hydraulic circuit in the right bank and the installation of a new turbine on a
circular shaft (Figure 14). The construction of involved blasting of large quantities of rock nearby the
old cavern and the dam owner was not interested in losing electricity production during the
construction.
Figure 13: The dam and the right bank of the Douro River one year after the test when the new circuit
construction was starting. The old outake is visible, as well as the end of one of the auxiliary galleries above it
20
Figure 14: Map of the dam site showing major geological features, the existing (dashed line) and planned (light
red) underground excavations at the time of the test, in 2006 (EDP 2007)
21
The powerhouse is a 19 x 25 x 76 m brick-shaped, lined cavern. The unlined auxiliary tunnels,

excavated by drill-and-blast, have 6 m wide, 4 m tall horseshoe shape (Figure 15). The interested rock
mass consists of gneissic granites and migmatites with pegmatitic intrusions. Two major discontinuity
sets were found.
Figure 15: 3D representation of the underground complex (hydraulic intake and outlet tunnels are not shown)
Low-intensity blasts were performed in the Outlet (12 blasts) and Intake (9 blasts) adits. Small
(< 0.5 kg) Gelamonite charges were installed in 25 mm boreholes drilled 1.5 m from the floor
perpendicularly to the adit’s wall. Rock mass vibration was measured by an array of six triaxial
accelerometers bases installed on adits’ walls and floor (Figure 16), on the powerhouse cavern and
elevator shaft. This thesis summary focus is on the area highlighted in Figure 17.
22
Figure 16: Data acquisition system (left), triaxial base installed in the wall of an adit (right)
Figure 17: Blasts (red) and monitoring

devices location. Cyan represents the
triaxial accelerometer, green and
yellow other measurement systems
not used in this analysis.P2 and P4 are
in opposite walls of the adit, while P3
is on the floor, and P1 is inside a
concrete plug
Results of the vibration propagation test
A peak particle velocity (PPV) vs scaled distance (R/W1/3) plot of the blasts, grouped in similar source-
target paths, is presented in Figure 18. The point cloud has the usual shape for such plots: dispersion
is high and proportional to the velocity values. The same data classified according to the blast-to-
sensors path, shows that where there is a direct path between the blast and the sensor, vibration is
stronger and dispersion diminishes.
23
1/3
Figure 18: PPV vs R/W plots: blasts divided in sets (left); blasts divided in direct and indirect paths (right)
Figure 19 shows the outcome of blast B15 and enlightens on part of cause for such a high dispersion.
P2, P3 and P4 are nearly at the same distance from the shots, but amplitude in P4 is much lower. P6,
receiving vibrations indirectly also has lower than expected vibration.
Figure 19: PPV vs R/W1/3

from blast B15
Numerical modelling of stress wave propagation
Numerical modelling of blast generated stress waves f o r vibration prediction remains relatively
unusual: practicing engineers depend almost exclusively on semi-empirical methods. The greatest
benefit of numerical models comes when they are used as a complement to observation and semi-
empirical laws, justifying and narrowing predictions, while investigating hypotheses and new
scenarios.
24
The dimension and complexity of the Bemposta site make it too large to be represented in one single
model, so partial two and three dimensional models were developed. Descriptions of the modelling
process steps are scarce, rendering the whole process still obscure. The intention of this section is to
shed some light on this process, showing how results are influenced.
The adits’ geomechanical classification, (Figure 20) shows no dramatic changes from place to place
but provides no information on the rock between the adits, since exploration boreholes were drilled to
the area outside the test volume. Migmatitc rock does show relevant schistosity, but its attitude
changes dramatically from place to place, making it hard to model. An elastic linear model with
uniform properties was used across the model. Model parameters were derived from wave velocity
measured in the test and ultra-sound core testing. Compressive and shear wave velocity were set to 4000 and
2450 m/s.
Figure 20: Geotechnical and geomechanical survey of the test adits (EDP 2007)
2D model
Nevertheless blast wave propagation being inherently three-dimensional, 2D models explore some
aspects of the modelling process. A plane model (Figure 21) is used to simulate a cross section that
intercepts the two adits involved in sets 1 and 2. The two tunnels were represented as being parallel.
The model is 61 x 48 m with 0.25 m square zones, guaranteeing good transmission of frequencies up
to 1500 Hz.
25
P2 P4
P3
B15
Figure 21: Underground complex showing the cross section of the 2D model (left); finite-difference 2D model of
blast
The blast was simulated via normal stress and velocity time-histories, applied at the face of a zone
1.5 m from the floor on the wall of the Outlet tunnel. Figure 22 shows that a stress loading replicates
reality better than velocity, so the former were applied in following simulations. Figure 23 displays
PPV from the test and the numerical simulation, measured on the walls and floor of the target adit.
The model reproduces the much lower vibration in P4, which is indirectly hit by the vibration.
Figure 22: Velocity time-histories recorded at the Target tunnel due to stress (left) and velocity (right) loading
in the source tunnel
26
Figure 23: PPV in bases

P2, P3 and P4,
normalized in P2, from
blast tests B11, B12; B13
and B15 and from the
2D model
3D model
A FLAC3D model of the final parts of the two adits including accelerometer bases P1 to P5. Figure 24
shows the model limits and a plan view of the model, with equivalent location of blast loads and
accelerometers base. Figure 25 displays perspectives of the grid, which is is 110 m long, 60 m high
and its width varies from 40 m to 110 m.
Figure 24: Representation of the underground complex showing the 3D model bounding box (left); op view of
the adits "negative" with location of blasts (blue and yellow stars) and accelerometer bases (green circles)
(right)
27
Figure 26 shows the tunnels “negatives”. The target adit, where the velocity measurements are
made, is modelled in detail, while the emissor tunnel, where blasts are simulated, is simulated in a
much cruder way, to prevent an excessive size of the model, whose grid has 640,000, 1 m long,
zones, taking about 2 Gbytes of RAM.
Figure 25: 3D model of the Surface and Outlet adits with the adits' "negative" over the grid
Figure 26: Comparison of the real geometry and the 3D grid of the source (left, top and bottom) and target
(right, top and bottom) adits
28
Comparison with test blast – reference model
The result of the numerical simulation of blast B15 (0.2 kg of explosive) is shown in Figure 27. The
match is reasonably good in P3, P4 and P5, similarly to the 2D simulation. In P1, inside the concrete
plug, the model visibly overshoots the test result.
Figure 27: Comparison

of the PPV from the test
blast and the 3D
numerical model. PPV in
bases P1 to P5 is
normalized in P2 (from
left to right: P2–P3–P4–
P1–P5)
Vibration measurement localization
This section evaluates sensitivity to small changes in the measurement locations. First, the velocities
were measured in gridpoints deviated 1.5 m from the correct locations of the accelerometers, as
represented in Figure 28. The plot in Figure 29 shows that moving the probe in the direction of the
adit’s length (“Before” and “After”) has no expressive influence, except in P1, where moving closer to
the plug hinders amplification due to the free surface of the floor. When the probe is moved up
(“Above” and “Below”) in the walls that face the blast (P2, P5), the effect is also considerable. In P4,
in the wall opposite to the blast, the lower probe receives more energy than the middle and top
ones, which is explained by the inferior blast location. There is significant amplification/attenuation
due to small changes in the way vibrations are measured, which is an important aspect of vibration
monitoring.
29
Figure 28: Views of the target adit interior showing the exact (green circles) and alternative (colored
triangles) measurement points
Figure 29: PPV evolution

when place of velocity
probing is changed in the
Surface adit’s wall and
floor (from left to right:
P2–P3–P4–P1–P5)
In a second calculation vibrations were measured along a line starting on the tunnel surface into the
rock, to find how amplitude changes when approaching a cavity. Amplitude reduction (Figure 30) is
30
explained by the free-surface amplification effect that occurs in the first three metres around the
adit. The more oblique the path between the blast and the base, the smaller the amplification. In
base P4, where waves do not arrive directly to the wall, but from above and below, there is almost
no amplification.
Figure 30: PPV evolution when

velocity is recorded in the rock
mass (from left to right: P2-P3-
P4-P1-P5)
Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ)
It is well known that the material around a blasted excavation presents weaker mechanical
properties and higher permeability. EDZ was simulated by decreasing the elastic properties in the
first two meters around the target adit (Figure 31).
Figure 31: Seismic velocity variation as a function of radius in a blast-excavated pressure tunnel. Taken from
Kujundzic et al (1970) (left); EDZ simulation on target adit: red zones have a 70% reduction in elastic properties
(right)
31
When a stress wave crosses the interface between two materials of different elastic properties,
amplitude changes proportionally to the ratio of impedances. As EDZ stiffness is 70% smaller, the
ratio is (1/0.3)0.5 = 1.8. Figure 32 shows PPV increases by a factor of 1.7 to 2.2. Effects such as
formation of other types of waves or wave trapping in the EDZ, can also be investigated with this
model.
Figure 32: PPV evolution

EDZ (from left to right:
P2–P3–P4–P1–P5)
Geometry modelling detail – concrete plug discretization
The Surface adit ends in a concrete plug with a 5 m initial hollow part (Figure 33) where P1 was
installed. In the previous models the plug was represented from the section where it fills the whole
adit and vibration corresponding to base P1 was picked on the adit floor.
The calculation shows that a more realistic representation of the plug results in 50% lower PPV
with no effect in the other places. This puts the model’s response in this point very near to the
tests’ (Figure 27) and demonstrates, again, that PPV is very sensitive to changes in the way vibrations
are measured.
32
Figure 33: Realistic geometrical representation of the Surface adit’s concrete plug and base P1
Discussion
The contributions are grouped in three parts. First part shows that a considerable part of the
vibration dispersion is due to the path that stress waves follow from origin to destination. This is the
most important factor in this, and possibly most sites with good rock quality.
A second set of contributions derives from work not entirely presented in this summary and is linked
to the simulation of wave propagation in rock masses with excavations. The possibilities and limits of
the conditions in which wave propagation can be simulated in one, two and three dimensional finite
difference models were studied. The two-dimensional run and the parametric study of the test blast
in three dimensions helps in establishing the conditions for good numerical simulation practice in
stress wave propagation and monitoring, while also hinting on how deep a numerical analysis can go
in the exploration of this class of problems.
The most important characteristics of load representation and stress wave capture were found.
When motion is extracted in underground openings’ surfaces it is amplified, so the underground
opening geometry should be faithfully represented and motion recorded in a grid-point or node in
the exact place. Adits and caverns’ dimensions and details, lining properties or the excavation
damage zone should also be simulated accurately. Also, placement of model limits must be carefully
considered: is the representation of free-surfaces necessary or is the representation of an interior
volume surrounded by absorbing boundaries that simulate an infinite medium enough? Finally,
geometry of the place where the blast is simulated does not seem to be so important: it should
emulate the basic shape of its real correspondent in order to retain its dynamic characteristics. Blast
loads should be generated as stress/force instead of displacement/velocity/acceleration loadings.
33
5. Large Scale Underwater Blasting

Vibration nuisance level depends mainly on vibration intensity and frequency content and these
depend mainly on the charge in each blast time delay, distance from the blast location and geology
of the ground crossed by the waves. Other less relevant factors are the type of rock where the blast
occurs and the geometric configuration of the blast (existence of free surfaces, borehole length,
steeming, etc.).
In most practical situations it is not possible to monitor all structures that may be hit by vibrations so
spots where vibration is measured must be picked having in mind two goals: the immediate
protection of existing structures and future analysis that extrapolates the results to places where
measurements could not be made. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to find places that satisfy both
requirements.
The works for increasing the depth of the Leixões Harbour in a densely populated urban area
involved blasting a large volume of submerged rock. The monitoring of vibrations was achieved
through the use of several seismometers positioned according to a continuously updated plan. Upon
completion of the blasting it was necessary to provide the Harbour Administration with elements to
assess which complaints from the population (mainly related to cosmetic cracking inside buildings)
were fair. Vibrations measured at the monitoring points were extrapolated and peak velocity values
in non-monitored buildings were estimated and compared with the limits of the Portuguese vibration
code. Two different estimation methods were used. The first consisted on the classical approach of
adjusting an attenuation equation. The second method made the use of Multilayer Perceptron
Neural Networks and is presented in the complete thesis text. A velocity distribution was estimated
for the region around the harbour, allowing the drawing of iso-velocity maps.
Finally, numerical modelling was employed to study if these tools are adequate to study alternative
scenarios.
Vibration control during the Leixões harbour deepening works
The Leixões Harbour is located in the metropolitan area of Oporto, the second Portuguese city. Set
on the mouth of river Leça, the harbour is crossed on the Eastside by a 6-lane motorway (Figure 34).
The underlying inland rock mass consists of fractured alkaline granite, outcropping schist formations
are visible at the transition from land to sea, but geotechnical characteristics of the superficial
ground are not thoroughly known by the authors, as the land is heavily built. The soil overlying the
rock substratum inside the harbour area was deposited during the harbour construction. From
34
contact with the population it was learned that a number of older buildings have shallow foundations
on sand.
Figure 34: Aerial view of

the Leixões harbour
(from www.apdl.pt)
The blasting area was extensive and included the whole harbour. Monitoring points were chosen
between the blasts and the built areas, and also in some of the most representative structural
typologies. Blasting was done during 2006 by three companies. Each blast consisted of successive
detonations in boreholes arranged in a regular 2.0 x 2.5 m mesh. Electronic-delay caps were used to
reduce the instantaneous charge but in some occasions two or more explosive columns were
detonated simultaneously originating larger vibration values.
Attenuation Law
It is possible (Dowding, 1996) to establish a law that characterizes the attenuation of Peak Particle
Velocity (PPV):
PPV(W,R) = k R m W n
where R is distance to the blast, W is the instant charge weight and parameters k, m and n depend
on the characteristics of the blast and propagation path. The resulting law (PPV = 1904 R-1.46 W0.31)
only gives average PPV values, meaning that there is a 50% probability that this value is exceeded in
any given blast. Therefore, an upper-limit equation, corresponding to a 5% probability was also
determined. This equation was compared with peak vibration values measured by a second entity
and was used to address populations complains with good results (Figure 35).
35
Figure 35: Attenuation

laws (50 and 95%
percentile) obtained by
non-linear regression
Figure 36 shows the distribution of peak velocities in the surrounding area of the harbour obtained
by the attenuation law and also a neural network model (not presented in this summary).Both
methods provided similar results and overall matched peak particle velocity values.
Figure 36: Iso-velocity lines calculated using the 50% regression equation (black) and neural network (red).
Velocities increase from the inside to the outside. Numbers in blue indicate monitoring stations
Numerical modelling
A FLAC3D model with 500,000 cubic-shaped zones with 3 m long sides representing a section of the
canal was built (Figure 37). Model length, width and height are is 850 m, 90 and 165 m, respectively.
Compressive and shear wave velocity are 3000 and 1500 m/s, so compressive waves with
frequencies up to 125 Hz (Itasca, 2008) are propagated without loss of quality. Absorbing boundaries
were installed in four lateral borders and at the base.
36
Loading was simulated by a negative exponential wave (Figure 38) applied within an element dug in
the centre of the channel. The actual loads consist of multiple sequential blasts, but it is considered
that the time delay is enough for each burst to generate a distinct wave. Thus, in the model, the load
simulates the explosion that causes the larger wave amplitude.
Figure 37: Finite-difference model
Figure 38: Velocity waveform of the blast function (top left) and its frequency content (bottom left), loading
location, in the bottom of channel (right)
37
Reference model
Figure 39 shows the horizontal and vertical displacement (in the x-direction) along a 500 m line
starting at the quay, going from north to south. The elliptical shape of the curve is typical of Rayleigh
surface waves.
Figure 40 shows evolution of PPV in the same alignment and, for comparison, the average
attenuation law. Unlike the law of mitigation, the curve of the numerical model is not linear (in
logarithmic space). Not being wedged to a pre-determined shape, the numerical model delivers a
more faithful reproduction of reality, especially near the source.
Figure 39: Horizontal vs vertical displacement along the surface of the model (the progression of the wave is in
the positive direction)
38
Figure 40: PPV vs distance to the

canal axis
Fault with soft soil filling
This calculation tested the influence of a vertical fault located 60 m from the quay wall (Figure 41).
For a filling stiffness that is 1/500 of the remaining rock’s, the influence of the fault width (set to 3
and 9 m) was tested. Then, for a 3 m fault width, the effect of filling stiffness (1/100, 1/500 and
1/1000 that of the rock) was studied. The PPV plot (Figure 42) shows that waves reflect at the fault,
causing amplitude to decrease after the fault and to increase between the fault and the quay wall, in
the area where the incident and reflected waves overlap. As expected, the reflection increases with
fault width and with contrast of the ground properties.
Figure 41: Detail of the 3 m (left) and 9 m wide fault, located 60 m away from the quay wall.
39
Figure 42: Effect of fault thickness (left) and fault filling stiffness (right)
Geometry and material modelling detail
This calculation tested how a greater detail in the representation of the quay wall and filling
influences vibration levels. The quay was built by filling the banks of a stream that used to run where
the channel is today with loose material. The filling material of the quay wall was modeled by
assigning it a stiffness 1/100 and 1/500 of the bank’s rock (Figure 43). The PPV plot shows that there is
a local increase of vibration intensity in the region with softer material but it vanishes with distance.
Figure 43: Simulation of quay filling material properties (left); PPV evolution with quay filling stiffness (right)
Discussion
Several finite-difference numerical models demonstrated how singularities of the ground such as
faults, or the detail in representing ground and structural characteristics, may cause considerable
variations in the amplitude of the vibration. Other scenarios addressing loading and other types of
ground singularities were studied and are not presented in this summary for lack of space. The
numerical models accuracy is proportional to knowledge on the blasting actions and the ground.
40
Results must be received and used accordingly. Due to inherent phenomenon three-dimensionality
and the demands of a dynamic calculation, even simple models are expensive from the
computational point of view, but deliver results that are an useful upgrade to traditional attenuation
laws.
41
6. Conclusions
Bonded particle modelling of dynamic rock joint behaviour
A simple method to generate a fracture in the BPM model is proposed and a contact constitutive
with stiffness hardening is employed in wall-to-wall interaction. The goal of the first part of the study
is to reproduce the response of a rock joint under normal loads. The limitations of this part of the
study are also the ground for future developments. First, rock non-linear behaviour and failure
should be integrated in the model. Second, real joint profiles are extremely varied with peaks and
valleys of different wavelengths and heights, so richer and more varied joint topographies should be
tested. Third, though having a physical meaning, the contact model parameters do not correspond to
rock joint walls measurable characteristics like hardness or wall material strength, so a
correspondence should be investigated. Fourth, 3D modelling will allow for a better representation
of the joints rich spatial variation.
On the second part of the work, the conditions for propagation of stress waves on bonded particle
models of rock were tested and a number of modelling details such as the transition from static to
dynamic calculation modes, static and dynamic load conditions and absorbing boundary were
implemented.
Then, stress wave interaction with rock fractures was simulated. Compressive waves are sent into
compressed fractures and the resulting waves are captured and compared with the theoretical
solutions. Transmitted and reflected waves are captured with good quality, energy conservation is
verified, and dynamic fracture stiffness values for both waves are in agreement. Moreover, when
dynamic and static joint stiffness are compared, the former shows to be higher, as in experimental
studies.
Underground vibration propagation and modelling
A global analysis of the test results showed that wave travel path is the main cause of high PPV
dispersion (even in such a controlled environment). A more detailed analysis of the test, by dividing it
in sets according to blasts and sensors location, and analysis of individual blasts, shows other sources
of dispersion, part of which were then studied using numerical modelling. The test was simulated in
2D and 3D models. The first showed the possibilities and shortcomings of in-plane stress wave
simulation. It was possible to run a series of different simulations that studied the impact of the way
vibration is picked up from the model, the detail of geometrical representation, rock properties
around the excavation and the input of the blast.
42
Regulations focus on above-ground structures. When protecting targets housed in caverns or

tunnels, guidance on how to perform vibration measurement is, to say the least, scarce. Vibrations
are significantly altered by excavations, so they should, if possible, be measured both in the surface
of the excavations and inside the rock mass, outside their zone of influence. Since the shape of the
excavations influences appreciably the way in which they are amplified, the placement of the sensors
should take this into account.
Large scale underwater blasting
There is a hundred to thousand-fold jump in scale between chapters and the level information on the
rock mass and detail in the model declines accordingly. In the last chapter, very little is known about
the geology, in clear contrast with previous ones, so the models employed reflect this.
High dispersion of vibration peaks is usual in most blasting situations, and this is increased here due
to the large scale of the problem. A classical attenuation model consisting on empirical laws
corresponding to different levels of confidence was developed and proved very useful to the Port
Authority during claim management. This model was complemented with a numerical model that
confirms and expands its predictions opening the way to a more sophisticated and useful method of
vibration impact mitigation.
43
Selected bibliography
Cai, J. G. Effects of Parallel Fractures onWave Attenuation in Rock. PhD thesis, Nanyang Technological
University (2001).
Cundall, P. “Numerical experiments on rough joints in shear using a bonded particle model.” In F. K.
Lehner and J. L. Urai (editors), “Aspects of Tectonic Faulting (Festschrift in Honnour of Georg
Mandl),” 1–9. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (2000).
Dowding, C. H. Construction Vibrations. Prentice Hall International Series in Civil Engineering and
Engineering Mechanics. Prentice Hall, 1st edition (1996).
Gutierrez, M. and Barton, N. “Numerical modelling of the hydro-mechanical behavior of single

fractures.” In “1st North-American Rock Mechanics Symposium,” Balkema, Texas, Austin (1994).
Hudson, J. “Wave speeds and attenuation of elastic waves in material containing cracks.”
Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astrophysical Society, 64: 133–150 (1981).
Karami, A. and Stead, D. “Asperity degradation and damage in the direct shear test: A hybrid
FEM/DEM approach.” Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 41(2): 229–266 (2008).
Kendall, K. and Tabor, D. “An ultrasonic study of the area of contact between stationary and sliding
surfaces.” Procedings of the Royal Society of London, A 332: 321–340 (1971).
King, M. S., Myer, L. R. and Rezowalli, J. “Experimental studies of elastic-wave propagation in a

columnar-jointed rock mass.” Geophysical Prospecting, 34: 1185–1199 (1986).
Kusumi, H., Matsuoka, T., Ashida, Y. and Tatsumi, S. “Simulation analysis of shear behavior of rock
joint by distinct element method.” In Konecny (editor), “EUROCK 2005 - Impact of Human Activity on
Geological Environment,” Taylor and Francis, Brno (2005).
Myer, L. R. “Fractures as collections of cracks.” International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 37(1-2): 231–243 (2000).
Potyondy, D. O., Cundall, P. A. and Lee, C. A. “Modelling rock using bonded assemblies of circular
particles.” In “Rock Mechanics US’ 96,” (1996).
Pyrak-Nolte, L. J., Cook, J. M. and Myer, L. R. “Seismic visibility of fractures.” In I. W. Farmer (editor),
“28th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics,” Balkema, Tucson (1987).
Pyrak-Nolte, L. J., Myer, L. R. and Cook, N. G. “Transmission of seismic waves across single natural
fractures.” Journal of Geophysical Research, 95(B6): 22 (1990).
Schoenberg, M. “Elastic wave behavior across linear slip interfaces.” Journal Acoustic Society of
America, 68(5): 1516–1521 (1980).
44

An Investigation of Stress Wave Propagation Through Rock Joints and Rock Masses

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An Investigation of Stress Wave Propagation

Through Rock Joints and Rock Masses

Summary of the thesis submitted by Dr. Ricardo Resende

3. Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves Across Rock Joints 10

Joint behaviour simulation 11

Dynamic properties of Bonded Particle Models 13

Propagation of compressive stress waves across fractures in BPM 14

Results and Discussion 15

4. Underground Stress Wave Propagation Testing and Simulation 20

Results of the vibration propagation test 23

Numerical modelling of stress wave propagation 24

5. Large Scale Underwater Blasting 34

Vibration control during the Leixões harbour deepening works 34

Bonded particle modelling of dynamic rock joint behaviour 42

Underground vibration propagation and modelling 42

Large scale underwater blasting 43

Figure 1: Evolution of physical

Figure 2: Comparison between

3. Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves Across Rock

Figure 4: Complete model used for dynamic study of

Joint behaviour simulation

Figure 5: Joint constitutive model

normal stress [MPa]

Figure 6: Normal stress vs

Dynamic properties of Bonded Particle Models

0.98 wave velocity with peak

Propagation of compressive stress waves across fractures in BPM

Results and Discussion

0 50 100 150 200

4. Underground Stress Wave Propagation Testing and

The powerhouse is a 19 x 25 x 76 m brick-shaped, lined cavern. The unlined auxiliary tunnels,

Figure 17: Blasts (red) and monitoring

Results of the vibration propagation test

Figure 19: PPV vs R/W1/3

Numerical modelling of stress wave propagation

Figure 23: PPV in bases

Comparison with test blast – reference model

Figure 27: Comparison

Vibration measurement localization

Figure 29: PPV evolution

Figure 30: PPV evolution when

Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ)

Figure 32: PPV evolution

Geometry modelling detail – concrete plug discretization

5. Large Scale Underwater Blasting

Vibration control during the Leixões harbour deepening works

Figure 34: Aerial view of

Figure 35: Attenuation

Figure 37: Finite-difference model

Figure 40: PPV vs distance to the

Fault with soft soil filling

Geometry and material modelling detail

Bonded particle modelling of dynamic rock joint behaviour

Underground vibration propagation and modelling

Regulations focus on above-ground structures. When protecting targets housed in caverns or

Large scale underwater blasting

Gutierrez, M. and Barton, N. “Numerical modelling of the hydro-mechanical behavior of single

King, M. S., Myer, L. R. and Rezowalli, J. “Experimental studies of elastic-wave propagation in a

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