applied
sciences
Article
Experimental Study on the Influence of Delay Time on Rock
Fragmentation in Bench Blasting
Hong-Liang Tang 1, * , Xin Liu 2, *, Jun Yang 1 and Qi Yu 3
Citation: Tang, H.-L.; Liu, X.; Yang, J.;
Yu, Q. Experimental Study on the
Influence of Delay Time on Rock
Fragmentation in Bench Blasting.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app13010085
Academic Editor: Lola Pereira
Received: 17 November 2022
Revised: 8 December 2022
Accepted: 19 December 2022
Published: 21 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010085
1 State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology,
Beijing 100081, China
2 School of Mining Engineering, University of Science and Technology Liaoning, Anshan 114051, China
3 China Safety Technology Research Academy of Ordnance Industry, Beijing 100053, China
* Correspondence: thlluck@foxmail.com (H.-L.T.); xinliu0412@foxmail.com (X.L.)
Abstract: Delay time is an important factor in the quality of bench blasting. The development
and application of electronic detonators make it possible to control the timing of detonation by
a highly precise delay time. It is an easily achievable way to seek a better blast fragmentation by
controlling the delay time. In order to investigate the influence of delay time on rock fragmentation,
eight experiments on bench blasting models with double holes were carried out. The average weight
of 4.59 g of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) was charged into each blast hole with a diameter of
10 mm. Delay times between the double holes were set as: 13.69, 27.36, 54.72, 60, 90, 120, 180, and
339.6 µs. During blast loading, the breakage processes of specimens were captured in detail by high-
speed cameras. Full-field strains on the bench slope were analyzed by the three-dimensional digital
image correlation (3D-DIC) technique. After each experiment, the coarse fragments were backfilled
into the post-blast specimen to observe and record the bench slope’s final breakage pattern. The
experimental results showed that the fragmentation of the bench slope transformed from horizontal
crack dominance to vertical crack dominance as the delay time increased. In addition, post-blast
fragments were collected and sieved, including fine materials. In the premise of approximate
excavation, the optimum delay time was 180 µs. Compared to short delay times such as 27.36 µs, x50
was improved by approximately 25% at the delay time of 180 µs. The results showed a significant
difference and great improvement in fragmentation when the delay times were in the time range of
no-shock-wave interaction compared to interactions. When determining the optimum delay time in
multi-hole blasting, except for the stress wave interaction, factors such as crack propagation should
also be considered. The results of experiments could contribute to references for relevant research.
Keywords: bench blasting; delay time; dynamic breakage process; fragment size distribution;
3D-DIC analysis
1. Introduction
As a common method of rock excavation, the borehole blasting technique is widely
used in mining engineering. However, inappropriate blasting designs depending on expe-
rience may result in high ground vibration, poor fragmentation, and even safety risks [1,2].
In bench blasting, poor fragmentation will directly increase downstream costs and reduce
ore utilization [3–5]. Many studies have been carried out by relevant practitioners and
researchers on bench blasting to obtain better fragmentation [6–10].
It was found that delay time is one of the important factors affecting the fragmentation
of rock [8]. With the development of electronic detonators with a highly precise delay
time, controlling stress wave interactions to improve blasting fragmentation has become
a hot topic. Rossmanith [11,12] studied the stress wave interaction between two adjacent
blast holes by the Lagrange diagram based on stress wave theory, and he suggested that
the superposition of stress waves induced by short delay times has a positive effect on
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 2 of 19

rock fragmentation. Vanbrabant and Espinosa [13] carried out a series of short-delay
blasting experiments by using electronic detonators to enhance the tensile effect of the
stress wave tail. Field experiments showed that the mean size of fragments was improved
by 45.6% than that with a long delay time. Chiappetta [14] believed that the optimum
delay time should be short enough to make the stress waves generated by adjacent holes
interact between blast holes and validated this conclusion based on image analysis and
fragment size statistics. Mckinstry [15] suggested a delay time of 3 ms between the blast
holes of the same row, which can ensure the superposition of stress waves and improve
rock fragmentation.
Unfortunately, the view of stress wave superposition improving fragmentation cannot
be widely accepted. Blair [16,17] stated that the potential of stress wave interactions
was overestimated by adopting the simplified two-dimensional analysis. Specifically,
the stress wave interaction was uncertain in realistic three-dimensional models, and the
superimposed region had a limited effect on the fragment size distribution. Katsabanis
et al. [18] carried out small-scale blasting experiments with granite. The results showed that
the blasting fragmentation of simultaneous initiation was the worst. When the delay time
between adjacent blast holes was longer than 1 ms, corresponding to 11 ms/m of burden,
the fragmentation was improved. Johansson and Ouchterlony [7] used bench models with
a single free surface to conduct a series of delay blasting experiments. The statistical results
of fragments indicated that the stress wave superposition had no significant improvement
for fragmentation. By comparing experiments with simultaneous initiation, short delay
time, and long delay time, Schimek [19] found that the fragment size distribution with
long delay time is better than that with short delay time. Omidi [20] screened fragments
under different delay times and found that the relatively long delay time would improve
fragmentation. In the numerical study of Schill and Sjöberg [21], the stress wave interactions
were not significant enough to improve fragmentation, which was contradictory to the
views of Rossmanith [11,12]. Therefore, it is necessary to study the influence of delay time
on rock fragmentation.
The evolution of the strain fields and the dynamic breakage process can assist the study
of rock fragmentation [22–24]. Many techniques have been developed to detect surface
deformation and crack growth in brittle materials under different loading [25,26]. With the
development of high-speed cameras and the DIC technique, a non-contact measurement
method successfully captured the full-field on the specimen before fracture occurred [27–35].
In the experimental study of blast loading, Yang et al. [36] obtained the strain evolution
process of rock blasting under a high-ground stress state using the 2D-DIC technique in
model tests. Chi et al. [37] analyzed the surface deformation of granite specimens under
single-hole explosion by using the 2D-DIC technique. In the study, the crack initiation
time on the free surface was determined by DIC analysis and strain gauge measurements.
Yang et al. [38] studied full-field strain characterization of the bench slope surface under
simultaneous detonation. The DIC analysis showed that the distribution of strain fields in
the vertical direction correlates with the propagation direction of the dominant horizontal
crack. He and Yang [39] obtained the strain fields of single-hole and double-hole rock
specimens under blast loading from the 3D-DIC technique. The results showed that
the stress waves superposition caused by symmetrical loading made the radial crack
between the two holes easily and fully fractured. The application of the DIC technique for
measuring deformation is ideal for obtaining information on the dynamic deformation of
rock materials because of its accuracy, applicability, and operability [40].
Fragment size distribution is an important indicator for evaluating the fragmentation
of rock. Zhang et al. [41,42] studied the effects of different boundary and stemming condi-
tions on the fragmentation with cylindrical granite specimens by analyzing the particle size
of fragments. Many empirical models were proposed to describe and predict the fragment
size distribution [43]. The Swebrec function proposed by Ouchterlony [44] can effectively
characterize the size distribution of post-blast fragments, including fine and coarse parti-
cles. Sanchidrián et al. [45] analyzed 448 groups of sieving data for blasting fragments and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 3 of 19

compared the fitted results of the Weibull, Swebrec, Gilvary, Grady, and Lognormal models
and their two-component versions. The results indicated that the Swebrec function was
one of the most suitable functions to describe the fragment size distribution of rock blasting.
Yi et al. [46,47] used Wipfrag software to process the numerical damage contours and used
the Swebrec function to obtain the overall fragment size distribution. In this paper, the
Swebrec function was used to fit and analyze the experimental data about fragment size,
and the blasting quality was evaluated by the fragment size distribution.
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of delay time on fragmentation.
Eight experiments of bench blasting models with double holes were carried out to provide
the experimental data. In Section 2, the size of the bench specimen, the charge structure,
the experimental device, and the monitoring system are introduced in detail. In Section 3,
the full-field strains of three typical specimens are calculated by the 3D-DIC technique.
The progressive breakage process captured by two high-speed cameras and the post-blast
pattern with fragments backfilled under different delay times are compared and analyzed.
Furthermore, the fragment size distribution of excavated rock is fitted by the extended
Swebrec function. In Section 4, the influence of the delay time on fragmentation is discussed
based on the full-field strains, high-speed images, post-blast pictures, and fragment size
distributions. Finally, the conclusions of this study are provided in Section 5.

2. Experiments
Eight experiments of double-hole bench blasting models with different delay times
were carried out in the Beijing Institute of Technology.

2.1. Specimen Design and Explosive

The granite used for the bench specimens was quarried from an intact rock mass in
Shandong, China. The size of the bench model was designed as 1/50 of the real bench size
in the field. The bench model was elaborately machined from a rock block with a size of
667 mm × 509 mm × 400 mm. Every bench model had double holes and a 70◦ sloping
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 surface. Two vertical through-holes with a diameter of 16 mm were drilled,4 of 19 their
and
distance was 120 mm. The detailed dimensions of the bench model are shown in Figure 1.
The material properties of the granite were determined by static strength tests, as mentioned
60 µs, 90
by Yang µs, [40].
et al. and 120 µsdensity
The were chosen to study
of the granitethewas
influence
2.578ofg/cm
the further increaseratio
3 , Poisson’s in delay
was 0.15,
time on rock fragmentation. Delay times of 180 µs and 339.6 µs were
Young’s modulus was 35.43 GPa, the P-wave velocity was 4386 m/s, the static designed to corre-tensile
spond to 9 ms and 17 ms, respectively, which are two commonly used delay segments of
strength was 3.26 MPa, and the static compressive strength was 70.65 MPa. There were no
highly precise detonators in field bench blasting.
visible joints and geological structures on the surface of the bench specimens.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Details dimensions of the double-hole bench model: (a) three-dimensional view; (b) top
Figure 1. Details dimensions of the double-hole bench model: (a) three-dimensional view;
surface.
(b) top surface.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 4 of 19

The powdered PETN was filled in a transparent plastic tube with a length of 240 mm
and a diameter of 5.5 mm. The average charge weight was 4.59 g in each blast hole with
a density of 0.81 g/cm3 , corresponding to a velocity of detonation (VOD) of 4818 m/s.
Referring to Johnson’s experiments [7], the delay time of detonation between the blast
holes was controlled by two detonating cords with different lengths. The linear density
of the detonating cord was 4.25 g/m, and the velocity of detonation was 6850 m/s. The
segment of the detonating cord located in the blast hole was placed inside the steel tube
to(a)
weaken its blasting effect on the rock. Black tape was wrapped
(b) around both ends of
the plastic tube to ensure that the charge was equipped in the center of the blast hole. The
Figure 1. Details
assembled dimensions
explosive device of
is the double-hole
shown in Figurebench model:
2. The (a) of
details three-dimensional view;
the experiments, (b) top
including
surface.
the experimental number, the delay time, and the charge weight, are listed in Table 1.

Figure2.2.The
Figure ThePETN
PETNcharge
chargestructure.
structure.

Table1.1.Delay
Table Delaytimes
timesand
andcharge
chargeweights
weightsfor
foreight
eightgranite
granitebench
benchspecimens.
specimens.

Charge
Charge Charge
Charge
SpecimenNo.
Specimen No. Delay Time
Delay Time(µs)
(µs) Weight
Weight ofofAA Weight
Weight ofofBB
(g)
(g) (g)
(g)
DT1
DT1 13.69
13.69 4.6
4.6 4.63
4.63
DT2
DT2 27.36
27.36 4.58
4.58 4.57
4.57
DT3
DT3 54.72
54.72 4.59
4.59 4.61
4.61
DT4
DT4 60
60 4.58
4.58 4.59
4.59
DT5
DT5 90
90 4.63
4.63 4.58
4.58
DT6
DT6 120
120 4.61
4.61 4.57
4.57
DT7
DT7 180
180 4.56
4.56 4.62
4.62
DT8 339.6 4.57 4.59
DT8 339.6 4.57 4.59

The delay times in Table 1 were mainly selected from short delays with stress wave
superposition to long delays without stress wave superposition. The delay of 13.69 µs was
to make the P-wave superpose between the blast holes. A delay of 27.36 µs was selected
to make the P-wave from borehole-B interact with the tensile wave formed by the P-wave
from borehole-A reflected at the free surface. A delay time of 54.72 µs was chosen to
investigate the effect of weakened stress wave interactions on fragmentation. The delays
of 60 µs, 90 µs, and 120 µs were chosen to study the influence of the further increase in
delay time on rock fragmentation. Delay times of 180 µs and 339.6 µs were designed to
correspond to 9 ms and 17 ms, respectively, which are two commonly used delay segments
of highly precise detonators in field bench blasting.

2.2. Experiment Setup

Before experiments, a steel rod with a 10 mm diameter and 300 mm length was
assembled into the blast hole. Then, the gap between the rod and the blast hole wall was
filled with cement mortar. The steel rod was pulled out after the cement mortar solidified,
and the diameter of the blast hole was reduced to 10 mm. The cross-section of the bench
specimen with charge is shown in Figure 3.
 2.2. Experiment Setup
Before experiments, a steel rod with a 10 mm diameter and 300 mm length was as-
sembled into the blast hole. Then, the gap between the rod and the blast hole wall was
filled with cement mortar. The steel rod was pulled out after the cement mortar solidified,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 and the diameter of the blast hole was reduced to 10 mm. The cross-section of the bench
5 of 19
specimen with charge is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The cross-section of the bench specimen with filled charge structure and detonati

An assembled blasting model before detonation is shown in Figure 4. In o

match
Figure 3. the boundaryofconditions
The cross-section in a practical
the bench specimen bench
with filled charge blasting,
structure several cord.
and detonating steel
Figure 3. The cross-section of the bench specimen with filled charge structure and detonating cord.
plates
thickness of 20 mm were welded to a device to constrain the displacement of th
An assembled blasting model before detonation is shown in Figure 4. In order to
An
right, assembled
and bottom
match the boundary blasting
of themodelin before
bench
conditions detonation
specimen.
a practical bench is
Duringshown
blasting,theinassembling
Figure
several 4. In
steel order to rubb
process,
plates with
match
with the boundary
a thickness
a thickness of 20 mm conditions
ofwere
10 mm in
were
welded a practical
to filled bench
intothe
a device blasting,
gap between
constrain several steel plates
the specimen
the displacement with
anda the ste
of the back,
thickness
right, and of 20 mm were welded to a device to constrain the displacement of the back,
Four steelbottom
sticksofwere
the bench specimen.
bolted During the assembling
to the constraining device at process, rubber
the front andmats
left of th
right,
with aand bottomofof
thickness 10the
mmbench specimen.
were filled in theDuring the assembling
gap between process,
the specimen and therubber
steel mats
plate.
men.a thickness of 10 mm were filled in the gap between the specimen and the steel plate.
with
Four steel sticks were bolted to the constraining device at the front and left of the specimen.
Four steel sticks were bolted to the constraining device at the front and left of the speci-
men.

Figure 4. The assembled DT2 bench blasting model.

Figure 4.4.The
Figure Theassembled
assembledDT2 DT2
benchbench
blastingblasting
model. model.
A schematic of the experimental layouts is shown in Figure 5. After two detonating
cordsAwith different
schematic lengths
of the were initiated
experimental layoutssimultaneously by a5.detonator,
is shown in Figure the PETN
After two detonating
A schematic of the experimental layouts is shown in Figure
cords with different lengths were initiated simultaneously by a detonator, the PETN 5. After
chargestwo det
cords with blast
in the double different lengths
holes were were
detonated initiated
with simultaneously
a delay time. In addition, whilebytheadetonator
detonator, the
was being initiated by an electrical pulse signal, the electrical pulse signal was captured by
a trigger box to start high-speed cameras.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 6 of 19
charges in the double blast holes were detonated with a delay time. In addition, while the
detonator was being initiated by an electrical pulse signal, the electrical pulse signal was
captured by a trigger box to start high-speed cameras.
charges in the double blast holes were detonated with a delay time. In addition, while the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 detonator was being initiated by an electrical pulse signal, the electrical pulse signal
6 of 19 was
captured by a trigger box to start high-speed cameras.

Figure 5. Schematic of the experimental layouts.

After each blasting experiment, the fragments of the bench specimen were collected,
Figure 5. Schematic of the experimental layouts.
Figure
weighed, 5. and
Schematic
sieved. of Moreover,
the experimental layouts.
the coarse fragments were backfilled into the post-blast
After each blasting experiment,
specimen for photographic recording. the fragments of the bench specimen were collected,
After each blasting experiment, the
weighed, and sieved. Moreover, the coarse fragments werefragments of the bench specimen
backfilled were collected,
into the post-blast
weighed,
specimen
2.3. and sieved.
for photographic
High-Speed Moreover,
Camera and DIC recording.the coarse fragments were backfilled into the post-blast
specimen for photographic recording.
2.3.In experiments,
High-Speed Camera twoandhigh-speed
DIC cameras (Fastcam SA5, Photron Inc., Tokyo, Japan)
were used to record
In experiments,
2.3. High-Speed Camerathe breakage
twoandhigh-speed
DIC process
camerasof(Fastcam
the areaSA5,
of interest
Photron(AOI) on theJapan)
Inc., Tokyo, specimen.
The
wereprojections of thethe
used to record AOI on the cross-section
breakage process of the of bench
area specimens
of interest (AOI)are on shown in Figure 6.
the specimen.
In experiments, two high-speed cameras (Fastcam SA5, Photron Inc., Tokyo, Japan)
Three different camera
The projections of the AOIsettings
on thewere used. Inof
cross-section the experiment
bench specimens of are
DT1, the high-speed
shown in Figure 6. cam-
were
Three used to record the
different breakage
were process ofthe
theexperiment
area of interest (AOI)high-speed
on the specimen.
eras were set at acamera
frame settings
rate of 70,000 used.
framesInper second (fps) of DT1,
with anthe
image resolution of
The projections
cameras of the
were setInatthe AOI
a frame on the cross-section
rate of 70,000 frames of bench specimens
per second (fps) with an are
image shown in Figure 6.
320 × 280 pixels. experiment of DT2, the high-speed cameras were setresolution
at a frame rate
Three
320 different
×fps camera thesettings were used. In the experiment of DT1,
were the high-speed cam-
of of
30,000 280with
pixels.
anInimage experiment
resolutionofof DT2,
512the high-speed
× 416 pixels. Incameras
the experimentsset at aofframe
DT3-DT8,
eras
rate were set at
of 30,000 fpsa with
frame anrate of 70,000
image frames
resolution of 512per×second (fps) In
416 pixels. with
thean image resolution
experiments of of
the high-speed cameras were set at a frame rate of 35,000 fps with an image resolution of
DT3-DT8, the high-speed cameras were set at a frame rate of 35,000 fps
320 × 280 pixels. In the experiment of DT2, the high-speed cameras were set at a frame rate with an image
512 × 392 pixels.
resolution of 512 × an
392image
pixels.resolution of 512 × 416 pixels. In the experiments of DT3-DT8,
of 30,000 fps with
the high-speed cameras were set at a frame rate of 35,000 fps with an image resolution of
512 × 392 pixels.

Figure 6. The projections of AOI on the cross-section of bench specimens.

Figure 6. The projections of AOI on the cross-section of bench specimens.

Figure 6. The projections of AOI on the cross-section of bench specimens.

 The DIC obtains the speckle pattern of the specimen before and after deformation by
high-speed cameras, calculates the surface displacement field by matching pixel subsets,
and uses the displacement field information to obtain the strain field of the surface [37].
The two high-speed cameras used in the experimental program were designed to facilitate7 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85
the analysis of 3D-DIC. For 3D-DIC analysis, the DIC software named Match ID was used.
In this paper, the DIC software calculated the deformation of the bench surface based on
the natural speckle pattern of the
The DIC granite
obtains material.
the speckle Theofreference
pattern subset
the specimen beforewas
and 27 × deformation
after 27 pixels by
in the DIC computation, andcameras,
high-speed the subset step was
calculates 4 pixels.
the surface displacement field by matching pixel subsets,
and uses the displacement field information to obtain the strain field of the surface [37].
The two high-speed cameras used in the experimental program were designed to facilitate
3. Experimental Results
the analysis of 3D-DIC. For 3D-DIC analysis, the DIC software named Match ID was used.
The delay timeInand
this charge weights
paper, the of thecalculated
DIC software eight bench models (DT1-DT8)
the deformation of the benchare listedbased
surface in on
the natural
Table 1. All specimens had speckle
the samepattern of the granite
decoupling material.
ratio The Full-field
of 1.82. reference subset 27 ×
was of
strains 27 pixels
three
in the DIC computation, and the subset step was 4 pixels.
typical specimens were calculated by the 3D-DIC technique. The dynamic breakage pro-
cess and post-blast3.pattern withResults
Experimental fragments backfilled of specimens were analyzed and
summarized. The extended Swebrec
The delay function
time and charge was used
weights to obtain
of the the fitted
eight bench modelscurves of frag-
(DT1-DT8) are listed
ment size distribution. Finally, the fragmentation of all specimens was analyzed quanti- of
in Table 1. All specimens had the same decoupling ratio of 1.82. Full-field strains
threesize
tatively by the particle typical
at specimens
different were calculated by
accumulated the 3D-DIC
mass passing.technique. The dynamic breakage
process and post-blast pattern with fragments backfilled of specimens were analyzed
and summarized. The extended Swebrec function was used to obtain the fitted curves
3.1. Full-Field Strainofoffragment
Typical size
Specimens
distribution. Finally, the fragmentation of all specimens was analyzed
quantitatively by
Full-field strains of three bench the particle
models,size including
at different accumulated
DT2, DT4, mass
and passing.
DT7 specimens,
were calculated by 3.1.
theFull-Field
3D-DICStrain
technique.
of TypicalThe von Mises strain was used to quantitate the
Specimens
dynamic deformation of the AOI.
Full-field strains of three bench models, including DT2, DT4, and DT7 specimens,
For DT2, the delay time between
were calculated by the 3D-DICthe boreholes
technique.was 27.36
The von µs,strain
Mises the high-speed image the
was used to quantitate
resolution was 512dynamic
× 416 pixels, and of
deformation thetheframe
AOI. rate was 30,000 fps, i.e., 33.3 µs between
frames. Figure 7 shows the von Mises strainbetween
For DT2, the delay time contoursthe boreholes
of the DT2 wasspecimen.
27.36 µs, the
Ashigh-speed
shown in image
resolution was 512 × 416 pixels, and the frame rate was 30,000 fps, i.e., 33.3 µs between
Figure 7, strain concentrations were first observed at 67 µs. The plots from 133 to 333 µs
frames. Figure 7 shows the von Mises strain contours of the DT2 specimen. As shown in
show that there were two
Figure significant
7, strain horizontal
concentrations were strain concentrations
first observed at 67 µs. Theatplots
the strain
from 133field.
to 333 µs
As the time increased, the there
show that strain concentration
were two significant zones became
horizontal wider to predict
strain concentrations the for-
at the strain field. As
the time
mation of macroscopic increased, the strain concentration zones became wider to predict the formation of
cracks.
macroscopic cracks.

Figure
Figure 7. Surface strain Surface
7. of
field DT2.strain field of DT2.
The image resolution of 512 × 392 pixels and the frame rate of 35,000 fps were set
The image resolution of 512 × 392 pixels
for DT4, corresponding and
to a time the frame
resolution rateµsofbetween
of 28.6 35,000frames.
fps were set 8for
Figure shows
DT4, corresponding thetosurface
a time resolution
strain of DT4
field of the 28.6specimen
µs between from frames.
the 3D-DIC Figure 8 shows
analysis. thefrom
The plots
surface strain field 0oftothe
171DT4
µs show that the strain
specimen from concentrations first appeared
the 3D-DIC analysis. Theonplots
the left
fromside0oftothe AOI. It
171
can be seen from the von Mises strain contours that as the time increased, the significant
µs show that the strain concentrations first appeared on the left side of the AOI. It can be
strain concentration was located in the left central position of the strain field. At 257 µs,
seen from the von the Mises strainstrain
significant contours that as extended
concentration the timeand increased,
branchedthe significant
in two directions.strain
Two strain
concentration was located in the
concentration leftpropagated
zones central position
upwardof at the strain
286 µs, whilefield. At 257
two strain µs, the sig-zones
concentration
nificant strain concentration extended and branched in two directions. Two strain concen-
 8 of 19
tration zones propagated upward at 286 µs, while two strain concentration zones propa-
gated downward. Until 257 µs, a horizontal strain concentration appeared in the middle
Appl. Sci.of the
2023, 13, strain
85 field. 8 of 19
tration zones propagated upward at 286 µs, while two strain concentration zones propa-
gated downward. Until 257 µs, a horizontal strain concentration appeared in the middle
of the strain field. propagated downward. Until 257 µs, a horizontal strain concentration appeared in the
middle of the strain field.

Figure 8. Surface strain field of DT4.

The same camera setting of DT4 was selected for DT7. The von Mises strain contours
Figure 8. Surface strain field of DT4.
Figure
of DT78.are
Surface
shownstrain
in field of DT4.
Figure 9. It can be seen that the strain concentrations of DT7 were
similar to those of DT4 The untilsame171camera
µs and setting
mainlyof DT4 was selected
occurred on thefor left
DT7.sideThe of
vontheMises strain
strain contours
field.
FromThe
143same
to 286camera
µs,ofthesetting
DT7 ofstrain
are shown
vertical DT4 was
in Figure selected forzone
9. It can be
concentration DT7.
seen The
that thevon
extended strainMises
and strain contours
concentrations
branched of DT7 were
in mul-
of DT7 are shown similar
in Figureto those
9. Itof DT4
can be until
seen171 µs
that and
the mainly
strain occurred on
concentrations the left
of side
DT7 ofwere
the strain
tiple directions. Atfield.
314 From
µs, a143 horizontal strain
to 286 µs, the concentration
vertical zone zone
strain concentration formed at the
extended andedge of in
branched
similar to those of
the AOI. By comparingDT4 until 171
Figures µs and
7–9,AtDT7 mainly
did occurred on
not havestrain the left
a horizontal side of
strain the strain
concentrationfield.
multiple directions. 314 µs, a horizontal concentration zone formed at the edge
From 143 to 286 µs, the vertical strain concentration zone extended
zone at the middle position of the AOI. The strain field of the DT7 specimen wasconcentration
of the AOI. By comparing Figures 7–9, DT7 did not have a and branched
horizontal strain indomi-
mul-
tiple
nateddirections.
by verticalAt 314atconcentration
zone
strain µs,
theamiddle
horizontal
positionstrain concentration
of the AOI.
zones. zone
The strain field of theformed at thewas
DT7 specimen edge of
dominated
by vertical strain concentration zones.
the AOI. By comparing Figures 7–9, DT7 did not have a horizontal strain concentration
zone at the middle position of the AOI. The strain field of the DT7 specimen was domi-
nated by vertical strain concentration zones.

Figure
Figure 9. Surface strain 9. Surface
field of DT7.strain field of DT7.
The von Mises strain evolution process on the specimen surface can be obtained from
The von Misesthe strain
3D-DICevolution
analysis.process on the specimen
The development surface
of the strain can be zone
concentration obtained fromin the
presented
Figure 9. Surface
the 3D-DIC strain
analysis. field
The of
contours DT7.is a good way
development
above of the strain
to fill concentration
the observation zone
gap before presented
macroscopic in the
cracks emerge.
contours above is a good way to fill the observation gap before macroscopic crackszone
These contours indicate that the location and development of the strain concentration
The These
emerge. von Mises strainindicate
changed
contours evolution
as the delayprocess on the and
time increases.
that the location specimen surface can
development be obtained
of the from
strain concen-
the 3D-DIC
tration zone analysis.
changed The
3.2. as
development
the delay
Progressive
of the strain concentration zone presented in the
timeProcess
Breakage increases.
contours above is a good way to fill the observation gap before macroscopic cracks
In the description of the dynamic breakage process of rock, the characteristics of crack
emerge. These contours
3.2. Progressive Breakage indicate
Process
initiation, that the
propagation, andlocation
formationand development
are essential [34]. Theof the strain
dynamic concen-
breakage processes
tration zone changed asAOI
of the the after
delay thetime
momentincreases.
of detonation are summarized in Figures 10–13. Unfortunately,
In the description of the dynamic breakage process of rock, the characteristics of crack
initiation, propagation, and formation are essential [34]. The dynamic breakage processes
3.2. Progressive Breakage Process
of the AOI after the moment of detonation are summarized in Figures 10–13. Unfortu-
In the
nately, the description
experimentofofthe DT6dynamic
missedbreakage processimages
its high-speed of rock,due
the to
characteristics of crack
failure of triggering
13, 85 9 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 9 of 19

the cameras. In the images of breakage processes, some arrows are set to indicate the lo-
cation of the cracks. It should be noted that the rupture of the AOI was completed before
915 µs. The photographs after 915 µs are mainly the motion of fragments and were quickly
the experiment of DT6 missed its high-speed images due to failure of triggering the cameras.
obscured due to the escaped explosive gas, so these are not presented. A compass is set at
13, 85 In the images of breakage processes, some arrows are set to indicate the9 location of 19 of the
the top-left of thecracks.
0 µs plot to describe
It should be noted the direction
that of the
the rupture crack
of the AOIextension.
was completedThe borehole
before 915 µs. The
is indicated by dashed
photographslines after
in frame
915 µs0 are
µs,mainly
the explosive
the motion charge is indicated
of fragments and wereby the red obscured
quickly
solid line, and stemming
due to theisescaped
indicated by thegas,
explosive orange rectangle.
so these are not presented. A compass is set at the top-left
the cameras.
Figure 10Inshows
the images
of the the
0 µs AOI of breakage
plot breakage
to describe processes,
process some
of DT1.
the direction ofA arrows
themain are set to crack
crackhorizontal
extension. indicate the lo-
appeared
The borehole is indicated
cation of the cracks.
in the middle of by It
thedashedshould
AOI atlines be
286 in noted
µs.frame
At 543that
0 µs, the
µs, rupture
thethe
explosive of the AOI was
charge is indicated
main horizontal completed before
by the redtosolid
crack expanded the line, and
915 µs. The
southeast with stemming
photographs
two branching is indicated
after 915
cracks, by
µs are the orange
mainly
horizontal therectangle.
and motion of fragments
vertical, at the crackand tip.were
At the quickly
same
obscured
time, due to the
a horizontal Figure
escaped
crack 10explosive
appeared shows thegas,
at the AOI breakage
so
top edge these process
are
of the of DT1.
not presented.
AOI, and A main horizontal
A compass
a vertical crack is crack
set atappeared
appeared
thethe
top-left in the middle of the AOI at 286 µs. At 543 µs, the main horizontal crackborehole to the
expanded
on right of theof0 the
edge µs plot
AOI.to describe
Then, the direction
a vertical of theatcrack
crack located extension.
the left of the AOI The penetrated
southeast with two branching cracks, horizontal and vertical, at the crack tip. At the same
is indicated
the by dashed
main horizontal lines
andinthe frame 0 µs, the explosive charge is
theindicated by the red
time,crack
a horizontal top appeared
crack horizontal crack.
at the top At
edge915
of µs,
the AOI, right
and avertical
vertical crack
crack appeared
solid line, and stemming
appearing at 543 on µsthe
opened is indicated
up and
right edge
by the
intersected
of the
orange
AOI. Then,with
rectangle.
the horizontal
a vertical crack locatedbranching
at the leftcrack
of the of
AOI thepenetrated
mainFigure 10 shows
horizontal crack. the AOI breakage process of DT1. A main horizontal crack
the main horizontal crack and the top horizontal crack. At 915 µs, the right vertical crackappeared
in the middle of appearing
the AOI atat286 543 µs. At 543up
µs opened µs,andtheintersected
main horizontal
with thecrack expanded
horizontal to the
branching crack of the
southeast with two mainbranching
horizontalcracks,
crack. horizontal and vertical, at the crack tip. At the same
time, a horizontal crack appeared
In the breakage at process
the top ofedgeDT2ofand
theDT3,
AOI,shown
and a invertical
Figurecrack appeared
11, horizontal cracks first
on the right edge of the AOI. Then, a vertical crack located at the left of the AOI penetrated AOI, but
appeared in the middle of the AOI. Then, many vertical cracks appeared in the
the main horizontal thesecrack
vertical
andcracks didhorizontal
the top not affect the expansion
crack. At 915ofµs,
horizontal
the right cracks.
verticalAs crack
time increased,
the horizontal cracks crossed through the AOI with numerous vertical cracks on both
appearing at 543 µs opened up and intersected with the horizontal branching crack of the
sides. This indicated that horizontal cracks appeared faster than vertical cracks in the
main horizontal two crack.
experiments and dominated the fragmentation of the bench models.

Figure 10. The dynamic breakage process of DT1.

In the breakage process of DT2 and DT3, shown in Figure 11, horizontal cracks first
appeared in the middle of the AOI. Then, many vertical cracks appeared in the AOI, but
these vertical cracks did not affect the expansion of horizontal cracks. As time increased,
the horizontal cracks crossed through the AOI with numerous vertical cracks on both
sides. This indicated that horizontal cracks appeared faster than vertical cracks in the two
experiments
Figure 10. Theand dominated
dynamic
Figure 10. The the
breakage fragmentation
process
dynamic of the
of DT1.process
breakage bench models.
of DT1.

In the breakage process of DT2 and DT3, shown in Figure 11, horizontal cracks first
appeared in the middle of the AOI. Then, many vertical cracks appeared in the AOI, but
these vertical cracks did not affect the expansion of horizontal cracks. As time increased,
the horizontal cracks crossed through the AOI with numerous vertical cracks on both
sides. This indicated that horizontal cracks appeared faster than vertical cracks in the two
experiments and dominated the fragmentation of the bench models.

11. The dynamic

Figurebreakage
Figure 11. The dynamic breakage
processes of theprocesses
AOI: (a)of theAOI
the AOI:of(a) the AOI
DT2; of DT2;
(b) the AOI(b)
of the
DT3.AOI of DT3.
 cracks. The horizontal and vertical cracks intersected at 286 µs. Then, the vertical cracks
continued to expand, powered by explosive columns, and prevented the expansion of the
horizontal cracks at 543 µs. Simultaneously, new cracks appeared on the right of the AOI.
Finally, a crack network formed at the bench slope, and the specimen was fragmented.
The
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, results
85 indicate that as the delay time increased, no horizontal cracks passing through 10 of 19
the AOI as with DT2 and DT3 appeared in the middle region.

Figure 12. The dynamic breakage processes of the AOI: (a) the AOI of DT4; (b) the AOI of DT5; (c)
the AOI of DT7.

Horizontal cracks appeared on the left of the AOI of DT8, shown as the 286 µs in
Figure 13. Simultaneously, vertical cracks appeared on the right of the AOI, which is the
minimum burden of the second blast hole. At 543 µs, the horizontal crack on the left de-
veloped gradually in the northeast direction. At the same time, the vertical crack on the
right of the AOI branched at its crack tips, and one of the branching cracks intersected
with a new horizontal crack on the bottom of the AOI. At 915 µs, the opening width of the
Figureincreased
cracks 12. The dynamic breakage
Figure
with the processes
The dynamic
12.bench of the processes
slope breakage
bulging. AOI: (a) the AOI
of the of (a)
AOI: DT4;
the (b)
AOIthe
of AOI
DT4; of
(b)DT5; (c) of DT5;
the AOI
the AOI of DT7. (c) the AOI of DT7.

Horizontal cracks appeared on the left of the AOI of DT8, shown as the 286 µs in
Figure 13. Simultaneously, vertical cracks appeared on the right of the AOI, which is the
minimum burden of the second blast hole. At 543 µs, the horizontal crack on the left de-
veloped gradually in the northeast direction. At the same time, the vertical crack on the
right of the AOI branched at its crack tips, and one of the branching cracks intersected
with a new horizontal crack on the bottom of the AOI. At 915 µs, the opening width of the
cracks increased with the bench slope bulging.
Figure 13. The dynamic breakage
Figure processbreakage
13. The dynamic of DT8.process of DT8.
Figure 12 shows the breakage process of the bench slope in DT4, DT5, and DT7. These
three experiments had similar breakage patterns. Specifically, vertical cracks first appeared
at the minimum burden of the first borehole and extended faster than horizontal cracks.
The horizontal and vertical cracks intersected at 286 µs. Then, the vertical cracks continued
to expand, powered by explosive columns, and prevented the expansion of the horizontal
cracks at 543 µs. Simultaneously, new cracks appeared on the right of the AOI. Finally,
a crack network formed at the bench slope, and the specimen was fragmented. The results
indicate that as the delay time increased, no horizontal cracks passing through the AOI as
Figure 13. The dynamic breakage
with DT2 process
and DT3 of DT8.
appeared in the middle region.
Horizontal cracks appeared on the left of the AOI of DT8, shown as the 286 µs in
Figure 13. Simultaneously, vertical cracks appeared on the right of the AOI, which is the
minimum burden of the second blast hole. At 543 µs, the horizontal crack on the left
developed gradually in the northeast direction. At the same time, the vertical crack on
the right of the AOI branched at its crack tips, and one of the branching cracks intersected
 Appl.
Appl. Sci. Sci. 13,
2023, 8513, 85
2023, 11 of 19
11 19

with a new
As the horizontal
delay crack on the
time increased, thebottom of the AOI.
independent At 915
action time thethe
µs, of opening
stresswidth
waveoffrom
the
cracks increased with the bench slope bulging.
borehole-A (shown in Figure 1) was increased before detonating borehole-B. The crack
gradually Asappeared
the delaypreferentially
time increased, the minimum
as the independent actionoftime
burden of the stress
borehole-A. wave from
In addition, the
borehole-A (shown in Figure 1) was increased before detonating borehole-B. The crack
direction of the main crack extension on the slope changed from horizontal to vertical.
gradually appeared preferentially as the minimum burden of borehole-A. In addition, the
When a longer delay time was used, the breakage patterns of the bench slope are con-
direction of the main crack extension on the slope changed from horizontal to vertical.
sistent
Whenwith the studies
a longer of Chi
delay time wasetused,
al. [37,48]. In their
the breakage single-hole
patterns of the blasting
bench slope experimental
are consistentre-
sults, thethe
with opening
studiesvelocity
of Chi etofal.
vertical
[37,48].cracks was
In their faster than
single-hole the horizontal
blasting experimental cracks. The
results,
results agree with the observation in this paper that as the delay time increases,
the opening velocity of vertical cracks was faster than the horizontal cracks. The results the slope
breakage process
agree with increasingly
the observation in tends to bethat
this paper single-hole
as the delayblasting, leadingthe
time increases, to slope
an increase
breakagein
the process
openingincreasingly
velocity of tends
vertical cracks.
to be The progressive
single-hole breakage
blasting, leading to anprocesses
increase inpresented the
the opening
effect of delay
velocity of time on the
vertical fragmentation
cracks. of bench
The progressive specimens.
breakage As thepresented
processes delay time theincreased,
effect of
delay timepattern
the breakage on the of
fragmentation
the bench slope of bench specimens.
transformed fromAs the delaycracks
horizontal time increased,
dominatedthe to
breakage
vertical crackspattern of the bench slope transformed from horizontal cracks dominated to
dominated.
vertical cracks dominated.
3.3. Post-Blast Pattern with Fragments Backfilled
3.3. Post-Blast Pattern with Fragments Backfilled
The post-blast pattern of the bench specimens is shown in Figure 14.
The post-blast pattern of the bench specimens is shown in Figure 14.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 14. Post-blast
Figure bench
14. Post-blast specimens:
bench (a) (a)
specimens: post-blast bench
post-blast specimen
bench specimen of of
DT2; (b)(b)
DT2; post-blast
post-blastbench
bench
specimen of DT3;
specimen (c) post-blast
of DT3; bench
(c) post-blast specimen
bench specimen ofofDT5;
DT5;(d)
(d)post-blast
post-blastbench
bench specimen
specimen of of DT6.
DT6.

To further
To further evaluate
evaluate thethe influence
influence ofof delaytime
delay timeon
onthe
theblasting
blastingexcavation
excavation quality,
quality, all
all
fragments produced in experiments were collected, and the coarse ones were
fragments produced in experiments were collected, and the coarse ones were spliced andspliced and
backfilled into the post-blast bench specimens. The eight blast experiments’ post-blast
backfilled into the post-blast bench specimens. The eight blast experiments’ post-blast
models with fragments backfilled are summarized in Figure 15.
models with fragments backfilled are summarized in Figure 15.
Figure 15 illustrates the crack network of the post-blast bench slope. All specimens
had horizontal-penetrating cracks on bench slopes except DT6. In the DT1-DT3 exper-
iments, the vertical cracks were distributed on both sides of the horizontal-penetrating
crack, and most of them were independent of each other without a co-fracture plane. This
post-blast pattern indicates that the horizontal cracks on the bench slope initiated in prefer-
ence to the vertical cracks and dominated the fragmentation. As the delay time increased,
a vertical-penetrating crack appeared on the slopes of DT4 and DT5, respectively. Until
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 12 of 19

the DT6 and DT7 experiments, the number of vertical-penetrating cracks gradually in-
creased. Even the DT6 experiment lost its horizontal-penetrating crack within a co-fracture
plane, which indicates that the horizontal-crack-dominated fragmentation transformed
to a vertical-crack-dominated fragmentation. In the experiment of DT7, the number of
fragments formed on the slope reached the maximum among all experiments. However,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 12 of 19
only one horizontal-penetrating crack appeared on the bench slope of the DT8 experiment
with the longest delay time.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 15. Post-blast
Figure patterns
15. Post-blast with with
patterns fragments backfilled:
fragments (a) post-blast
backfilled: patternpattern
(a) post-blast of DT1;of(b)DT1;
post-(b) post-blast
blast patternofofDT2;
pattern DT2;(c)
(c)post-blast
post-blast pattern
pattern of
ofDT3;
DT3;(d)
(d)post-blast
post-blastpattern of of
pattern DT4; (e)(e)
DT4; post-blast pat-pattern of
post-blast
tern of DT5; (f) post-blast pattern of DT6; (g) post-blast pattern of DT7; (h) post-blast pattern of
DT5; (f) post-blast pattern of DT6; (g) post-blast pattern of DT7; (h) post-blast pattern of DT8.
DT8.

Figure 15 illustrates the crack network of the post-blast bench slope. All specimens
had horizontal-penetrating cracks on bench slopes except DT6. In the DT1-DT3 experi-
ments, the vertical cracks were distributed on both sides of the horizontal-penetrating
crack, and most of them were independent of each other without a co-fracture plane. This
post-blast pattern indicates that the horizontal cracks on the bench slope initiated in pref-
erence to the vertical cracks and dominated the fragmentation. As the delay time in-
 formed to a vertical-crack-dominated fragmentation. In the experiment of DT7, th
ber of fragments formed on the slope reached the maximum among all experiment
ever, only one horizontal-penetrating crack appeared on the bench slope of the D
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85
periment with the longest delay time. 13 of 19

3.4. Fragment Size Distribution

3.4. Fragment
A seriesSize
ofDistribution
standard sieves with 17 sizes from 0.08 mm to 100 mm were used to
the post-blast fragments.
A series of standard sieves The fragments
with 17 sizes from with
0.08 mmsizes larger
to 100 than
mm were 100to mm
used screenwere w
the post-blast fragments. The fragments with sizes larger than 100 mm were
individually. The weights of fragments are listed in Table A1. The summarized weighted
individually. The weights of fragments are listed in Table A1 Appendix A. The summarized
results are shown by scatterplots in Figure 16.
sieving results are shown by scatterplots in Figure 16.

16.Accumulated
Figure 16.
Figure Accumulatedmassmass
passing vs. particle
passing vs. size.
particle size.
The extended Swebrec function P(x) was used to fit the sieving data. Its expression
is [45]:The extended Swebrec function P(x) was used to fit the sieving data. Its expre
[45]:
1
P( x ) = (1)
1xmax − 1
/ xmax − 1 c
h  i
P (ax· )[ln=( xmax /x)/ln( xmax /x50 )] + (1 − a) ·
b
1+ x x50 ,
c
b  xmax   xmax  
ln ( xmax with
1 + a ⋅ function
The extended Swebrec x ) ln ( xparameters
five max x50 ) 
 +can(1 −fitamost
) ⋅  fragment
− 1 size
 dis- − 1 
tributions with extreme accuracy [44], where xmax is the maximum size,  xx50 is the mean
x50 
size, and a (0 ≤ a ≤ 1) is the partition coefficient. b and c are the undulation exponents.
The least-squares method was used to fit thewith
curve. Theparameters 2 ) was used as the
function (1/Pcan
The extended Swebrec function five fit most fragment s
weighting function
tributions [49]. The fitted
with extreme parameters
accuracy [44], ofwhere
each specimen are listed
xmax is the in Table size,
maximum 2. x50 is th
size, and
Table 2. a (0 ≤ aof≤fitted
Parameters 1) iscurves
the partition coefficient.
using the extended Swebrecbfunction.
and c are the undulation exponen
least-squares method was used to fit the curve. The function (1/P2) was used
Delay Time xmax x50
Specimen No.
weighting function (µs)[49]. The (mm)
fitted parameters aof each bspecimen R2
c are listed in Table
(mm)
DT1 13.69 152.3 122.1 0.2227 1.438 0.907 0.9784
Table 2.
DT2Parameters of fitted curves
27.36 161.5using the extended
127.6 0.9568 Swebrec
1.249 function.
1.528 0.9629
DT3 54.72 189.4 140.1 0.9996 1.599 2.425 0.9514
DT4 Delay Time
60 xmax
142.3 x50
123.3 0.3709 1.357 0.9428 0.9631
Specimen No. a b c
DT5 (µs) 90 (mm)237.7 179.9
(mm) 0.9998 1.889 1.968 0.9637
DT6
DT1 13.69120 133.6
152.3 100.1
122.1 0.99950.22271.365 2.443
1.438 0.9654
0.907 0.
DT7 180 126.2 95.7 0.9989 1.266 2.145 0.9728
DT2 27.36 161.5 127.6 0.9568 1.249 1.528 0.
DT8 339.6 111.0 57.1 0.9987 1.929 2.601 0.9441
DT3 54.72 189.4 140.1 0.9996 1.599 2.425 0.
DT4 60 142.3 123.3 0.3709 1.357
The fitted curves and sieving data are shown in Figure 17. The accumulated mass 0.9428 0.
passing DT5 90
is usually classified 237.7fine (<2%),
as very 179.9 0.9998
fine (2–20%), 1.889 and coarse
central (20–80%), 1.968 0.
(>80%) [50]. At the same accumulated mass passing, smaller particle sizes mean 2.443
DT6 120 133.6 100.1 0.9995 1.365 finer 0.
DT7
fragments. 180
Four percentages 126.2
were selected95.7as the given0.9989
accumulated 1.266 2.145
mass passing, 0.
DT8 1%, 50%, 339.6
i.e., 0.1%, and 100%. The 111.0 57.1of all experiments
fragment sizes 0.9987 at the1.929 2.601
four percentages 0.
of mass passing are listed in Table 3.
 The fitted curves and sieving data are shown in Figure 17. The accumulated mass
passing is usually classified as very fine (<2%), fine (2–20%), central (20–80%), and coarse
(>80%) [50]. At the same accumulated mass passing, smaller particle sizes mean finer frag-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 ments. Four percentages were selected as the given accumulated mass passing, i.e.,140.1%,
of 19
1%, 50%, and 100%. The fragment sizes of all experiments at the four percentages of mass
passing are listed in Table 3.

(a) (b)
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Fitted
Fittedcurves
curvesby
byusing
usingthe
theextended Swebrec
extended function:
Swebrec (a) (a)
function: fitted curves
fitted of DT1-DT4;
curves (b)
of DT1-DT4;
fitted curves of DT5-DT8.
(b) fitted curves of DT5-DT8.

Table 3. Results from fitted curves of particle sizes at 0.1%, 1%, 50%, and 100% mass passing.
Table 3. Results from fitted curves of particle sizes at 0.1%, 1%, 50%, and 100% mass passing.
Delay Time x0.1 x1 x50 x100
Specimen No. Delay Time x0.1 x1 x50 x100
Specimen No. (µs) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(µs) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
DT1 13.69 0.24 3.37 122.1 152.3
DT1 13.69 0.24 3.37 122.1 152.3
DT2
DT2 27.36
27.36 0.87
0.87 4.65
4.65 127.6
127.6 161.5
161.5
DT3
DT3 54.72
54.72 1.27
1.27 4.44
4.44 140.1
140.1 189.4
189.4
DT4
DT4 6060 0.39
0.39 5.67
5.67 123.3
123.3 142.3
142.3
DT5 90 0.37 10.10 179.9 237.7
DT5 90 0.37 10.10 179.9 237.7
DT6 120 1.06 3.13 100.1 133.6
DT6
DT7 120
180 1.06
0.67 3.13
2.25 100.1
95.7 133.6
126.2
DT7
DT8 180
339.6 0.67
0.65 2.25
1.80 95.7
57.1 126.2
111.0
DT8 339.6 0.65 1.80 57.1 111.0
In Figure 17a, the fitted curves of DT1-DT3 experiments moved down with the delay
time Inincreasing in the
Figure 17a, the10–100%
fitted curvesmassofpassing.
DT1-DT3 The movementmoved
experiments indicatesdown thatwith
the fragment
the delay
size
timeincreased
increasing with the 10–100%
in the delay time (in the
mass rangeThe
passing. of 13.69–54.72
movementµs) at the same
indicates accumulated
that the fragment
mass passing. with
size increased When thethe
delaydelay
time time wasrange
(in the increased to 60 µs µs)
of 13.69–54.72 in the DT4
at the sameexperiment,
accumulated the
fitted curve did not continue to move down. Table 3 shows that
mass passing. When the delay time was increased to 60 µs in the DT4 experiment, the the particle size of DT4
was
fittedsmaller thannot
curve did that of DT3 to
continue in move
the 50–100% mass 3passing.
down. Table shows that It suggests that size
the particle the further
of DT4
delay time increase
was smaller than that didofnotDT3 make
in thethe50–100%
fragments masscoarser.
passing. Taking 100% mass
It suggests passing
that the as
further
an example,
delay the particle
time increase did notsizemake
of DT3thewas 189.4 mm,
fragments but Taking
coarser. that of DT4100%was mass 142.3 mm.asThe
passing an
100%
example,passing size of DT3
the particle size of was
DT3 1.3was
times greater
189.4 mm, than thatofofDT4
but that DT4. Meanwhile,
was 142.3 mm.the Thex100 of
100%
DT4 was also smaller than those of DT1 and DT2.
passing size of DT3 was 1.3 times greater than that of DT4. Meanwhile, the x100 of DT4 was
Figure 17b
also smaller thanshows
those theof DT1fitted
and curves
DT2. of DT5-DT8 experiments. The fitted curve and
particle size of DT5 showed that fragments
Figure 17b shows the fitted curves of presented
DT5-DT8 extremely
experiments.at both ends
The of the
fitted accumu-
curve and
lated mass passing. In the 100% mass passing, the fragment size of
particle size of DT5 showed that fragments presented extremely at both ends of the accu- DT5 reached 237.7 mm.
However,
mulated mass in the 0.1% mass
passing. In thepassing,
100% mass the fragment sizefragment
passing, the of DT5 was size only
of DT50.37 mm, which
reached 237.7
was significantly smaller than those of other experiments except
mm. However, in the 0.1% mass passing, the fragment size of DT5 was only 0.37 mm, DT1. DT5 produced more
coarse
which fragments and more
was significantly fine materials.
smaller than thoseObviously, DT5 obtained
of other experiments the worst
except DT1. fragment
DT5 pro-
size distribution. The fitted curves of DT6-DT8 presented
duced more coarse fragments and more fine materials. Obviously, DT5 obtained a gradual upward trend
the in the
worst
logarithmic space at the range of 10–100% mass passing. Within the range, DT8 had the
fragment size distribution. The fitted curves of DT6-DT8 presented a gradual upward
smallest particle size in the same accumulated mass passing.
Table 3 shows that DT1 had the smallest x0.1 with a particle size of 0.24 mm among the
eight experiments, and DT8 had the smallest x1 , x50 , and x100 with particle sizes of 1.8 mm,
57.1 mm, and 111 mm, respectively. x50 is commonly used in engineering to evaluate the
blasting quality [51]. The histogram of x50 and delay time is shown in Figure 18.
 the eight experiments, and DT8 had the smallest x1, x50, and x100 with particle sizes of 1.8
Table 3 shows that DT1 had the smallest x0.1 with a particle size of 0.24
mm, 57.1 mm, and 111 mm, respectively. x50 is commonly used in engineering to evaluate
the eight experiments, and DT8 had the smallest x1, x50, and x100 with particle
the blasting quality [51]. The histogram of x50 and delay time is shown in Figure 18.
mm, 57.1 mm, and 111 mm, respectively. x50 is commonly used in engineering
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 the blasting quality [51]. The histogram of x50 and delay time is shown
15 of 19 in Figu

Figure 18. Particle size at 50% mass passing vs. delay time.

In these bench blasting experiments, the minimum value of x50 appeared in DT8. The
post-blast picture Figure
shows 18.that the
Particle sizeDT8 specimen,
at 50% mass passingwith thetime.
vs. delay longest delay time, had the
Figure
smallest excavation. 18. Particle
Thus, DT8 had size
theatworst
50% mass passing
blasting vs. delay
quality. Amongtime.the other seven
In these bench blasting experiments, the minimum value of x50 appeared in DT8.
blasting experiments, DT7 had the smallest mean fragment size of 98.7 mm. Zhang [1]
The In
post-blast
these picture
benchshows that the
blasting DT8 specimen,the
experiments, withminimum
the longest delay
value time,
of xhad the
50 appeared
pointed out that good fragmentation requires as many small fragments as possible,
smallest excavation. Thus, DT8 had the worst blasting quality. Among the other seven
and
post-blast
fewer boulders and blasting picture
fine particles
experiments, areshows
alsohad
DT7 that the DT8
important.
the smallest The
mean specimen,
fragment
fragmentsize with
size the
distribution
of 98.7 mm. longest
of [1]
Zhang delay ti
DT7 is consistentsmallest
with
pointedthe excavation.
outoption.
that good Thus, DT8
In fragmentation
summary, the had
DT7the
requires model
as worst
many with blasting
small 180 quality.
µs delay
fragments timeAmong
as possible, and the
fewer boulders
obtained the bestblasting
blasting and finequality.
excavation
experiments, particles
DT7 are hadalsothe
important.
smallestThe fragment size distribution
mean fragment sizeofofDT7 98.7 mm
is consistent with the option. In summary, the DT7 model with 180 µs delay time obtained
pointed out that
the best blasting good fragmentation
excavation quality. requires as many small fragments as p
4. Discussions fewer boulders and fine particles are also important. The fragment size dis
4. Discussion
To briefly explain
DT7 isthe mechanism
consistent of delay
with time on In
the option. blasting fragmentation,
summary, the DT7the stresswith 180 µ
model
wave was analyzed To briefly explain
in a two-dimensional the mechanism
horizontal of delay time on
plane.quality. blasting fragmentation,
The propagation of the P-wave the stress
obtained the best blasting excavation
wave was analyzed in a two-dimensional horizontal plane. The propagation of the P-wave
generated from borehole-A is shown in Figure 19. The solid line represents the front of
generated from borehole-A is shown in Figure 19. The solid line represents the front of the
the P-wave and theP-wave
dashed andline
the represents the tail ofthe
the
tailP-wave.
4. Discussions
dashed line represents of the P-wave.

To briefly explain the mechanism of delay time on blasting fragmentatio

wave was analyzed in a two-dimensional horizontal plane. The propagation o
generated from borehole-A is shown in Figure 19. The solid line represents
the P-wave and the dashed line represents the tail of the P-wave.

(a) (b)

Figure 19. P-wave propagation at two

Figure 19. P-wave intersections
propagation at twoofintersections
a bench blasting
of a bench model with
blasting three
model kinds
with three of
kinds of
delays: (a) the bottom intersection
delays: of theintersection
(a) the bottom bench slope;of the(b) the slope;
bench top intersection of chargeofcolumn.
(b) the top intersection charge column.

(a) (b)

Figure 19. P-wave propagation at two intersections of a bench blasting model with t
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 16 of 19

Stress waves propagate in the specimen after the detonation of borehole-A. The
P-wave in both intersections has not reached the free surface at 13.69 µs. If the borehole-B
is detonated at this time, the P-wave of borehole-A and borehole-B will superpose between
the two holes. Similarly, if the delay time between boreholes is 27.36 µs, the P-wave from
borehole-A will propagate to the center of borehole-B. It can be seen from Figure 18b that
the P-wave from borehole-B will interact with the tensile wave formed by the P-wave from
borehole-A reflected at the free surface. When the delay time increases to 54.72 µs, the
superposition of the stress waves between the two holes is relatively weak compared to the
above two short delay times. The above three cases represent the stress wave propagation
in the DT1-DT3 experiments. The same method of stress wave analysis can be used in the
remaining experiments.
In the first three experiments, the particle size gradually coarsened with the weakened
stress wave superposition. This weakening did not consistently increase the particle size of
fragments. In the experiment of DT4 (60 µs), the fragment size was significantly reduced in
the coarse zone, and fragmentation was improved. When the delay time was increased to
90 µs, the maximum x100 was obtained. In the experiments of DT5-DT8, the stress wave
interaction disappeared, but the particle size decreased with the increase in delay time. DT1,
with P-wave superposition between the blast holes, did not achieve the smallest particle
size of x50 . The x50 of DT7 improved by 19% compared to that of DT1. Although there
was no superposition of stress waves, the DT7 specimen achieved the best fragment size
distribution. This suggests that as the delay time increased, there were factors other than
stress wave interaction that improved rock fragmentation. In particular, the improvement
in the coarse zone was significant when a longer delay time was used.
As the above description, stress wave superposition is not the only important factor in
affecting the fragment size distribution in multi-hole bench blasting. During rock blasting,
the crack velocity is slower than the P-wave velocity. Bergmann et al. [52] studied the
crack velocity of granite and measured the coefficient between crack velocity and P-wave
velocity as 0.33. When the delay time increases, the crack formed by the first blast hole
obtains enough time to extend and is influenced by the stress wave from the neighboring
blast hole during blasting. The full-field strains, progressive breakage processes, and
post-blast patterns with fragments backfilled showed that with the increase in delay time,
vertical cracks gradually dominated in rock fragmentation. For the column charge in the
borehole, the vertical crack extension of the bench slope seemed more favorable to rock
fragmentation. In particular, for the radial cracks extending from the blast hole to the free
surface, the increase in delay time made the extension distance gradually increase. This
crack extension provides new boundary conditions for the neighboring borehole. Thus, the
crack propagation needs to be considered in addition to stress distribution to determine
the optimal delay time in multi-hole bench blasting.

5. Conclusions
Eight blasting experiments of the double-hole bench specimens were carried out. The
experimental results can provide a reference for the practical bench blasting design.
The following conclusions are yielded:
1. The 3D-DIC technique is successfully applied to analyze the strain field before visible
cracks appear on the bench slope. The results indicate that the development direction
of the strain concentration zone changes from horizontal to vertical as the delay
time increases.
2. The fracture pattern on the bench slope shows that with the delay time increased, the
breakage pattern of the bench slope transforms from horizontal cracks dominated to
vertical cracks dominated.
3. The extended Swebrec function is used to fit the curve of fragment size distribution.
As the delay time increases, the difference in fragment size at the same percentage
of mass passing becomes progressively significant. While maintaining the excavated
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 85 17 of 19

rock mass, DT7 can be considered to have the optimal delay time of 180 µs by the
average fragment size, ×50, as an evaluation parameter.
4. Delay time affects the fragmentation of rock. Fragmentation improves when the delay
time is long without the stress wave interaction, especially in the coarse zone.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Y. and X.L.; methodology, H.-L.T. and Q.Y.; software,
Q.Y.; validation, J.Y.; formal analysis, H.-L.T.; investigation, H.-L.T.; resources, J.Y.; data curation,
H.-L.T. and X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.-L.T.; writing—review and editing, H.-L.T.
and X.L.; visualization, H.-L.T. and Q.Y.; supervision, J.Y. and Q.Y.; project administration, J.Y.;
funding acquisition, J.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
numbers 12002047 and 51774043.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Weight of all fragments (g).

Size
DT1 DT2 DT3 DT4 DT5 DT6 DT7 DT8
(mm)
0.08 3.5 0 0 1.1 3.1 0 1.0 0
0.15 11.4 0 1.3 6.9 17.4 0 4.0 1.3
0.315 40.0 3.5 2.5 33.6 31.6 5.6 13.8 2.3
0.63 64.9 52.6 56.6 47.2 45.1 67.3 152.2 43.5
1.25 76.1 85.6 62.7 47.7 43.5 127.1 148.0 63.9
2.5 118.6 148.1 116.2 78.5 63.1 208.4 281.6 80.6
5 227.3 268.7 196.1 153.4 108.6 300.6 483.8 164.3
10 345.6 540.0 300.8 197.7 104.7 505.5 592.5 243
16 184.9 137.7 212.1 118.1 47.8 377.4 218.5 127.5
20 333.8 699.9 390.8 443.9 187.9 852.4 868.0 428.4
25 306.2 481.3 315.1 288.3 141.7 578.9 355.8 225.3
31.5 650.5 212.9 279.1 476.1 0 488.9 907.6 303.9
40 1274.5 1202.2 875.5 1360.5 41.0 2244.2 2066.0 397.0
50 223.7 567.5 430.5 329.3 384.3 2227.7 1431.0 152.3
63 0 462.6 1300.1 369.8 1169.0 1467.0 800.1 0
80 2530.9 2600.1 1985.0 1681.5 0 2194.0 4503.2 1321.3
>100 1421.7 1577.9 2715.0 1524.5 1572.4 1682.3 1512.6 1847.1
>100 2172.1 1711.1 3134.4 1831.0 2631.6 1930.7 1730.1
>100 2563.3 2333.6 3968.3 2385.1 4375.9 2256.1 1957.0
>100 3233.6 2975.4 9162.2 2578.4 18,122.7 2596.2 2146.6
>100 3501.8 3625.3 2731.8 3214.1 2474.9
>100 4761.4 3831.7 2814.2 2710.4
>100 5681.1 3454.6
>100 3884.3

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