Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 123 (2022) 104407

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

incorporating Trenchless Technology Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

A study on raise blasting and blast-induced vibrations in highly stressed

rock masses
Xiaofeng Huo a, Xiuzhi Shi a, Xianyang Qiu a, Jian Zhou a, Yonggang Gou a, b, *, Zhi Yu a,
Shian Zhang a
a
School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
b
College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210024, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In deep underground mining, the damage evolution and vibration response mechanisms of rock caused by cut
Raise excavation blasting are different from those of shallow rock. It is essential to understand the mechanisms for underground
Cut blasting engineering safety. In this study, field raise blasting with vertically parallel and dense bunch longholes was
In-situ stress
designed and performed at the Shaxi underground mine in China. The raise contour and the blasting vibration
Damage evolution
were measured in the field, and regression analyses of the peak particle acceleration (PPA) were performed.
Vibration
Numerical simulation Then, a numerical model considering the effect of in situ stress was developed and calibrated to simulate raise
blasting excavation. The damage contours show that the in-situ stress can reduce the radial fractures outside the
raise, but has little influence on the crater. The vibration analyses indicate that the PPA and the average fre­
quency (AF) decrease with an increasing in-situ stress. The confinement effect of in-situ stress on vibration
characteristics is discussed, and blast loading relative pressure curves are presented for a demonstration. It is
determined that the relative pressure peak value decreases, and the rising time and duration time increase with
an increasing the in-situ stress; as a result, the blast-induced vibration is lower in amplitude and AF. In terms of
the frequency, the vibration from a higher in-situ stress is more harmful to structures. A short-delay blasting
model was conducted, and the results show that it can effectively reduce the structural vibration damage caused
by cut blasting.

1. Introduction
Raise excavation is important and frequently used engineering in
underground mines. With the help of advanced drilling equipment, blast
excavation technology has recently been used in deep raises (K. Liu
et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2020, 2019; K. W. Liu et al., 2018). According to
the difference in the release space and free surface, there are two
blasting excavation methods to form a raise: spherical cartridge blasting
mode (SCBM) and burn cuts blasting mode (BCBM) (Liu et al., 2020; Shi
et al., 2016). Compared with BCBM, SCBM has been widely used in deep
raises because it allows for moderate levels of borehole derivation and
requires fewer boreholes. Nevertheless, large charges are required in the
first delay crater blasting of each slice due to the large restriction and
single free surface (Liu et al., 2020, 2019). Then, large vibrations will
inevitably be induced and affect the stability and safety of the sur­
rounding engineering and protected structures.
Liu et al. (2020, 2019) used presplit blasts to reduce the cumulative
damage to the surrounding rock in one-step raise excavation. It provides
an effective solution to control the rock damage in the vicinity of the
raise, and it can effectively reduce the explosive stress wave from the cut
blasting. However, because all of the presplit boreholes are detonated
simultaneously in this mode, where the charge per delay is still large and
the free face is severely restricted, vibration disasters are difficult to
relieve. L. X. Xie et al. (2018) suggested that under the premise of a good
excavation effect, the charge weight of cut holes should be reduced to
the greatest extent possible, and shallow holes and damping ditches
should be used in cut blasting to effectively decrease the damage of the
blast-induced vibration on protected buildings. However, for raise
excavation with large-diameter deep holes, it is difficult to meet the
requirements of shallow holes and excavate damping ditches in under­
ground mines.
Huang et al. (2019), Qiu et al. (2018b) and Guan et al. (2019) noted

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: huoxiaofeng@csu.edu.cn (X. Huo), baopo@csu.edu.cn (X. Shi), qiuxianyang_csu@163.com (X. Qiu), j.zhou@csu.edu.cn (J. Zhou),
gouyonggang@hhu.edu.cn (Y. Gou), yuzhi_blasting@csu.edu.cn (Z. Yu), zhangshian@csu.edu.cn (S. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2022.104407
Received 3 June 2021; Received in revised form 8 December 2021; Accepted 28 January 2022
0886-7798/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

that short-delay blasting can reduce the vibration induced by cut
blasting under the precondition of forming a common blasting crater.
Yang et al. (2016b) claimed that increasing the number of free faces and
decreasing the burden can increase the blast-induced vibration fre­
quency and reduce the vibrational damage to structures. Lu et al. (2018)
indicated that the amplitude of blasting vibration can be reduced by
creating new free surfaces. However, the in-situ stress was not consid­
ered in these studies. With an increasing mining depth, the in-situ stress
plays an increasingly significant role in the blasting excavation (Xiao
et al., 2021). The mechanisms of damage evolution and vibration
response of highly stressed rock masses caused by cut blasting have not
been well investigated and are important for the safety and efficiency of
deep mining. Consequently, it is necessary to study the rock damage
evolution and vibration response of SCBM and reduce the vibration
induced by raise blasting in highly stressed rock masses.
The mechanisms of blast-induced damage in highly stressed rock
masses have been recently studied by many researchers (Hu et al., 2018;
Jayasinghe et al., 2019; Li et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2017, 2016; Yi et al.,
2018; Yilmaz and Unlu, 2013), and the results have shown that the in-
situ stress has little effect on the damage in the vicinity of boreholes,
but can govern the damage in the far field, and that the damage tends to
grow in the direction of maximum principal stress. In addition, Li et al.
(2021) studied the effect of in-situ stress on cracks and rock damage and
concluded that in-situ stress can affect both the crushed zone and the
fractured zone. Nevertheless, few studies have focused on the damage
evolution of cut blasting with spherical cartridges.
From the view of vibration response, many works have been con­
ducted on the seismicity induced by the release of in-situ stress (Kaiser

Fig. 1. Configuration of the experimental site: (a) test site and plan view; (b) field layout of raise boreholes; (c) blasting vibration monitor in the − 1# roadway.

2
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
and Tang, 1998; Lu et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2012; L. T. Xie et al., 2018;
Yan et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016a). Yang et al. (2016a) studied the
frequency of vibration caused by blasting excavation in highly stressed
rock masses and noted that the excavation size, rise time of the blast load
and dynamic unloading time play an important role in the vibration
frequency. L. T. Xie et al. (2018) focused on the study of seismic events
induced by the release of the rock strain energy and emphasized the
effect of these events on the surrounding rock mass. Li et al. (2017)
investigated blast vibration under different in-situ stresses and indicated
that the in-situ stress has little influence on the blasting vibration within
a certain range. However, there are few works regarding such mecha­
nisms for the vibration induced by blast loading in highly stressed rock
masses, and the effect of in-situ stress on blast loading transferred to the
rock mass is not considered in these studies.
In this study, based on SCBM, field raise blasting with vertically
parallel and dense bunch longholes was designed and performed at the
Shaxi underground mine in China. The contour of the excavated raise
and the blasting vibration were obtained in the field, and the vibration
attenuation law was analysed. According to the blasting design of the
field test, a three-dimensional numerical model was developed, and its
accuracy was validated by comparing the experimental results and nu­
merical results. The verified finite element model was used to investi­
gate the raise blasting excavation and the blasting vibration under
Fig. 2. Field configuration of 15-m raise in the first blasting: (a) hole layout; (b) charging pattern and timing sequence.
3
various in-situ stresses. Finally, vibration characteristic comparisons
between simultaneous blasting and short-delay blasting were made.
2. Experimental field studies on raise blasting with SCBM and its
vibration response
2.1. Parameters determination of SCBM and test arrange
In the SCBM field test, three raise blastings were conducted to form a
48-m raise at a stope numbered T-101 in the Shaxi copper underground
mine, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The size of the T-101 stope is 80 × 30 × 55 m
(length × width × height). The stope is located at the − 705 ~ − 650 m
level, and in situ stress measurements with the borehole wall stress relief
method are conducted to obtain the initial stress environment. The re­
sults show that the principal stress along the long axis of the stope is
27.4 MPa, and that the principal stress along the short axis of the stope is
17.7 MPa. The raise blasting area is arranged between the stripped
pillars of the upper drilling chamber, where the drilling workspace is
large enough for the raise boreholes. Fig. 1(b) shows the raise borehole
layout on site. To record the vibration, three-component accelerometers
(NUBOX-8016, Top Measurement and Control Technology, Chengdu,
China) were placed at 4 points at horizontal distances of 9 m, 37 m, 73 m
and 144 m. For the seismic instrument, the measurement range is from
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
0 to 1000 g at a frequency range of 0.5 ~ 4000 Hz, and the sampling rate
is set to 10 kHz. The nearest monitor point was fixed inside the stope,
and the others were fixed along the − 1# roadway, as shown in Fig. 1(c).
Boreholes with a diameter of d = 165 mm and a length of 48 m were
drilled from the upper chamber to the bottom chamber. For vertically
parallel and dense bunch longholes, the hole space is recommended as
the range of 3d to 9d (Peng et al., 2014; Shi et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2015),
and it is set to 1.1 m in this study. There are five boreholes in a bunch,
which are evenly arranged in Round-I with a diameter of 1.8 m. The
boreholes in Round-I are cutting boreholes, which create a release space
and a free surface for the six breaking boreholes in Round-II with a
diameter of 4.0 m. The eight boreholes in Round-III with a diameter of
6.4 m are contour boreholes. The borehole layout is shown in Fig. 2(a).
According to the blasting mechanism of the bunch-hole equivalent
spherical charge, the vertically parallel and dense bunch longholes (the
boreholes in Round-I) can be equivalent to a larger-diameter borehole,
and the diameter of the equivalent borehole can be calculated by (Peng
et al., 2014; Shi et al., 2008)
√̅̅̅̅
D = Nd (1)
where D is the diameter of the equivalent borehole (mm), N is the
number of Round-1 boreholes, and d is the diameter of the Round-I
borehole (mm).
According to the borehole layout, the parameters of N = 5 and
d = 165 mm can be determined. Then, D = 370 mm can be calculated
by Eq. (1). The length-diameter ratio of the spherical charge is generally
no greater than 6 (Liu et al., 2020). In this study, to improve the reli­
ability of cutting blasts and the height of the raise, five cartridges with a
total weight of 45 kg and a total length of 2.5 m were charged in each
slice. Then, an approximately equivalent spherical cartridge with a
diameter of 370 mm, a length of 2.5 m and a length-diameter ratio of 6.7
can be determined. According to the elastic deformation equation, the
slice height can be calculated (Liu et al., 2020), as shown
(2)
1 1
Le = Es Q3 or Lo = Δo Es Q3
where Le and Lo are the critical and optimal burying depths (m),
respectively, Es is the strain energy modulus, Δo = LLoe and Q is the weight
of the charge (kg).
By fitting the crater blasting test data derived from the Shaxi copper
mine, Le = 2.24 m, Lo = 0.83 m and Δo = 0.37 are obtained when Q = 2
kg. Then, Es = 1.78 can be calculated by Eq. (2). For the equivalent
spherical cartridge, there were 25 cartridges with a total weight of 225
kg. Then, the optimal burying depth Lo = 4.0 m can be obtained by Eq.
(2), which is the distance between the centre of the equivalent spherical
cartridge and the free surface. The height of each slice can be set to 5.25
m, and it finally takes a conservative value of 5 m. Combined with the
site conditions and restricted by the number of delays, only three slices
were designed in single raise blasting with a total height of 15 m, as
shown in Fig. 2(b). Therefore, another two blastings were required to
form a 48-m raise. The second raise blasting was the same as the first 15-
m blasting. After each raise blasting, some rock masses would collapse
from the blast-generated fresh roof under gravity, so only the 17-m
height rock mass was left in the third raise blasting. For the third raise
blasting, the stemming length near the orifice was set as 2.0 m in order to
reduce the number of blasted fragments throwing into the upper
chamber, and the other blast parameters were the same as the first two
blastings.
In the blasting process of SCBM, millisecond delays were used. For
the same slice, the five cutting boreholes (Round-I) were simultaneously
detonated first, followed by three breaking boreholes (Round-II), the
other three breaking boreholes (Round-II), four contour boreholes
(Round-III) and the other four contour boreholes (Round-III) with delay
intervals of no less than 50 ms, as shown in Fig. 2(b). It should be noted
that for Round-II and Round-III, not all the boreholes in the same round
4
were detonated simultaneously. This is beneficial for decreasing the
charge weight per delay, and then the blasting vibration can be effi­
ciently reduced.
For the delay time between two adjacent slices, it should be large
enough to ensure that the rock breaking process and rock fragment
throwing process of the former slice are completed absolutely. Then it
can provide a sufficient swelling space for the next slice. Compared with
the in-place rock volume, the volume of the broken rock fragments will
swell by a ratio of 150% ~ 180%. In this study, the swell factor is set as
160%. The fragment throwing process can be regarded as a process of
constant acceleration under gravity. Furthermore, the delay time be­
tween two adjacent slices can be determined using the following
formula:
1
v0 t + gt2 ⩾ 1.6h1 (3)
2
where v0 is the initial speed of the rock fragments and is generally
initialized to 25 m/s, t is the delay time between two adjacent slices (s), g
is the gravity acceleration (9.8 m/s2), and h1 is the slice height, which is
set as 5 m in this study. The delay time t ⩾ 0.302 s is obtained by Eq. (3).
To improve the reliability of raise blasting, a conservative delay time of
no less than 310 ms is set, as shown in Fig. 2(b).
2.2. Test results and analysis
The Teledyne Optech CMS (cavity monitoring system) was applied to
scan the raise contour, and the raise excavation results and the raise
dimensions modelled by DIMINE are shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that
a 48-m raise is formed by the three blasts. The raise diameter in the
middle is smaller than those at the top and bottom. This is because the
free surface and the release space are restricted, and the energy used in
breaking the burden rock is less in the middle slices. In addition, some
damaged rock, which has difficulty falling out and remains on the wall,
also reduces the raise diameter in the middle. The scanning raise
diameter in the first blasting is smaller than that in the third blasting.
This is because some damaged rock fell from the wall under the effect of
long-term gravity and the disturbance of the second and third blastings.
The acceleration-time curves derived from the third raise blasting are
plotted in Fig. 4 (only the points with horizontal distances of 9 m and
144 m are given in the figure). Because of the millisecond detonator
scatter, some signals from different delays slightly overlap. However, it
is still easy to distinguish the peak particle acceleration (PPA) between
adjacent waveforms. The signals are obviously divided into fifteen
segments: the first five segments result from blasting in the first slice,
and the second five segments and the third five segments result from
blasting in the second slice and third slice, respectively. In each slice, the
peak magnitude of the first segment is larger than that of the other four
segments due to fewer free surfaces. For example, in the first slice, at the
measurement point with a distance of 9 m, the PPA in the longitudinal
direction induced by Round-I is 1835 m/s2, while the PPAs induced by
Round-II and Round-III are only 663 m/s2 and 1197 m/s2, respectively.
In addition, at the measurement point with a distance of 9 m, the PPA in
the third slice is obviously larger than that in the first and second slices
due to a smaller scaled distance. For Round-I there is only a bottom free
surface, but there is a bottom free surface and a lateral free surface for
Round-II and Round-III. Therefore, different vibration attenuation laws
should be adopted (Lu et al., 2018). A regression analysis of PPA induced
by Round-I and a regression analysis of PPA induced by Round-II and
Round-III were performed. In the present study, the following PPA
predictor is used:
PPV = K × SDα (withSD = R × Q1/n ) (4)
where K and α are constants for the special rock mass; SD is the scaled
distance (m/kg1/3), R is the distance between the blasting source and the
measurement point (m), Q is the weight of the charge detonated
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
Fig. 3. The results of raise excavation: (a) crater at the bottom of the raise; (b)
scanned raise contour after the first blasting and the third blasting.
simultaneously (kg); and n is the attenuation coefficient, which is set to 3
in the Shaxi underground mine (Gou et al., 2020).
Fig. 5 shows the relation of PPA and SD for Round-I, Round-II and
Round-III blasting. A larger PPA as a function of SD is produced by
Round-I blasting compared to Round-II and Round-III blasting. Because
new lateral free surfaces are created by Round-I blasting, the boreholes
in Round-II and Round-III are subjected to less confinement effect.
Consequently, more explosive energy is transferred to the excavation
zone, and less energy is transferred into the remaining rock mass in the
form of vibration waves, which is consistent with the significant
decrease in K (reduced by 30.7%) in the attenuation formula. However,
the attenuation rates are similar between them because of the very small
difference in α.
3. Numerical model for raise excavation
Due to the limited site conditions, the potential influence of in-situ
stress and delay time on blasting vibration is not investigated above.
Therefore, a numerical model is developed with LS-DYNA in this section
to study it.
3.1. Numerical model
According to the blasting design of the field test, a 3D numerical
model with a size of 180 m × 60 m × 48 m (length × width × height) is
constructed to simulate raise blasting, as shown in Fig. 6(a). In the
5
model, the borehole layout and blasting parameters are consistent with
the site, and all three slices in raise blasting are considered (only the first
raise blasting is shown in Fig. 6(a)). Nevertheless, the delay intervals
should be redefined properly in the simulation. Because only the
explosive stress wave can be considered in the simulation, all delay in­
tervals are set to 2 ms (Huo et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020). According to
the site, the top surface and bottom surface of the model are free
boundaries, and the others are nonreflective boundaries, as shown in
Fig. 6(b). It should be noted that the nonreflective boundaries are set by
an equivalent method, in which a mesh model with a certain length
extended outside the loading surface is established. For the confining
pressure, P1 = 27.4 MPa and P2 = 17.7 MPa are applied in the X and Y
directions, respectively, as detailed in the site description. In this study,
the dynamic relaxation scheme is used to preload the static loads. The in-
situ stresses are applied to the four lateral free surfaces, as shown in
Fig. 6(b). After calculating the dynamic relaxation stage, the charge is
loaded in the model and detonated.
As shown in Fig. 6(c), the numerical model is meshed by hexahedral
elements. The vicinity of the boreholes is meshed with small elements in
order to ensure the reliability of the calculation results, and a gradual
mesh is used outside of the raise where the grid increases in size away
from the centre of the raise. It should be noted that the maximum
element length is no greater than 1/6 ~ 1/12 of the shortest wavelength
to ensure the accuracy of the calculation (Blair, 1985; Yang et al., 2019).
To determine the final adopted mesh size, numerical convergence tests
are performed. The maximum element size is decreased until the dif­
ference in the simulation results between two adjacent mesh sizes de­
creases to 5%. Finally, the maximum grid length is determined to be 6.0
m at the boundary, and the total element number of the meshed model is
1.32 million. For the element algorithm, the explosive and air parts were
meshed via Arbitrary-Lagrange-Euler (ALE) elements to solve the large
deformation (Zhu et al., 2021), while the rock part was meshed by
Lagrangian elements.
To accurately analyse the vibration response, eight monitoring
points are set along the X-axis, as shown in Fig. 6(c). By monitoring the
vibration of different observation points, the peak particle acceleration
(PPA) and the frequency of raise blasting can be comprehensively and
accurately evaluated.
3.2. Material model
The material model of MAT_HIGH_EXPLOSIVE_BURN in LS-DYNA
and the Jones-Wilkens-Lee (JWL) Equation-of-State (EOS) are used to
simulate the explosion of emulsion explosive (Livermore Software
Technology Corporation (LSTC), 2017). The JWL EOS can be expressed
as:
( ) ( )
ω ω ωE
P=A 1− e − R1 V + B 1 − e− R2 V + (5)
R1 V R2 V V
where P is the pressure, A = 276.2 GPa, B = 8.44 GPa, R1 = 5.2, R2 = 2.1
and ω = 0.5 are constants, V is the specific volume, and E is the internal
energy with a value of 3.87 GPa.
The material of MAT_NULL in LS-DYNA and linear polynomial EOS
are used to simulate the air, and the pressure of air P is given by:
′
′ ( )
P = C0 + C1 u + C2 u2 + C3 u3 + C4 + C5 u + C6 u2 e (6)
where e is the internal energy per volume with a value of 0.25 J/cm3, C0
= C1 = C2 =C3 =C4 = 0, C5 = C6 = 0.4 are constants, and u = (ρ/ρ0 ) − 1,
ρ and ρ0 = 1.293 kg/m3 are the current and reference densities,
respectively.
The material model of MAT_RHT in LS-DYNA is frequently used in
the description of the dynamic response of brittle materials (Riedel et al.,
1999). Many studies have used the RHT model to investigate the damage
characteristics of concrete or rock under blast loading (Cui et al., 2018;
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
Fig. 4. Acceleration-time histories recorded at different measurement points in the third raise blasting test: (a) the measurement point with horizontal distance of 9
m; (b) the measurement point with horizontal distance of 144 m.
Huo et al., 2021, 2020; Yang et al., 2018; Yi et al., 2017). The RHT
model has been described in detail in (Riedel et al., 1999).
In this study, the material parameters of emulsion explosive, air and
rock mass are the same as those in a previous study, and the calibrated
RHT model parameters are shown in Table 1 (Huo et al., 2020). The
stemming is modelled by MAT_SOIL_AND_FOAM in LS-DYNA, and its
model parameters are listed in Table 2.
3.3. Numerical verification
After static stress initialization, the distributions of the X-stress and
Y-stress before blasting are obtained. Fig. 7 shows the stress initializa­
tion results for P1 = 27.4 MPa and P2 = 17.7 MPa. It can be seen that
stress concentration occurs around the boreholes, and the stresses are
both compressive stresses in the X direction and Y direction. At the far
field, the X-stress is 27.1 MPa and the Y-stress is 17.6 MPa, which in­
dicates that accurate and stable initial stresses in the rock mass can be
preloaded by using the RHT model based on the explicit dynamic
6
relaxation scheme. Based on the above results, the second phase of the
blasting load analysis can be conducted.
Fig. 8(a) presents the damage contours of the first slice in the first
raise blasting. For Round-I, the damage zone forms first around each
cutting borehole after the cartridges are detonated. Meanwhile, the
damage zones are preferentially connected between the holes. At t = 2.0
ms, the craters of each borehole are connected and form a larger com­
mon crater, which can create a release space and a free surface for the
subsequent breaking boreholes. Subsequently, the breaking boreholes in
Round-II are detonated to enlarge the crater size. At t = 4.0 ms, the
crater diameter has been expanded to approximately 4 m. After the
boreholes in Round-III are detonated, the crater diameter is finally
enlarged to approximately 6.4 m. Only a small amount of low-level
damage occurs in the wall of the raise, which is due to the in-situ
stress restricting the development of radial cracks. In addition, at t =
4.0 ms, the radial fractures in the X direction are obviously longer than
those in the Y direction. However, inside the raise the crater damage
distribution is even and less influenced by the in-situ stress. The above
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

Fig. 4. (continued).

results show that the crater damage is dominated by the blast loading,
Round-I and that the radial cracks in the far field are mainly governed by in-situ
Round-II and Round-III stresses and tend to expand in the direction of maximum principal stress.
Fig. 8(b) shows the damage process of the first raise blasting. To
observe the excavation process of raise blasting, Section B-B is selected.
The results show that the crater formed by blasting in the previous slice
PPA (m/s2)

PPA=16654.064*SD-1.958
provides the release space and free surface for the next slice, and that the
R2=0.919
PPA=11532.978*SD-1.94 15-m raise is finally built by the interconnection of adjacent craters. It
R2=0.893 can be determined that the crater size of the first slice is larger than that
of the others. This is because the free surface of the first slice is much
larger than those of the second slice and third slice, which are limited by
the crater size of the previous slice. The simulated results indicate that a
15-m raise can be formed by SCBM.
Fig. 8(c) presents a comparison of the scanned raise contour and the
simulated raise blasting damage zone. It can be determined that the
SD (m/kg1/3) contours of the simulated damage zone with a value of 0.9 agree well
with the scanned profile. Compared with the experimental raise diam­
Fig. 5. PPA attenuation versus scaled distance in the rock mass for Round-I eter, the simulated results show a larger raise diameter in the second and
blasting, Round-II and Round-III blasting.
third slices, indicating that some damaged rock was left on the wall and

7
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

Table 1
RHT model parameters for rock mass in Lagrange elements.
Parameter Value Parameter Value

Density ρ0 2730 kg/ Compressive strain rate βc 0.032

m3
Shear modulus G 20 GPa Tensile strain rate βt 0.036
ONEMPA 1.0E+6 Pressure influence on plastic 0.001
flow in tension PTF
Eroding plastic strain 2.0 Compressive yield surface gc* 1.0
EPSF
polynomial EOS B0 1.22 Tensile yield surface gt* 1.7
polynomial EOS B1 1.22 Shear modulus reduction 0.5
factor ξ
polynomial EOS T1 40 GPa Damage parameter D1 0.04
Failure surface A 2.618 Damage parameter D2 1
Failure surface N 0.7985 Minimum damaged residual 1.0E-2
strain εpm
Compressive strength fc 0.169 GPa Residual surface parameter Af 0.873
Relative shear strength 0.234 Residual surface parameter nf 0.559
fs*
Relative tensile strength 0.0245 Gruneisen gamma GAMMA 0
ft*
Lode angle Q0 0.567 Hugoniot polynomial 40 GPa
coefficient A1
Lode angle B 0.0105 Hugoniot polynomial 48.9
coefficient A2 GPa
polynomial EOS T2 0 Hugoniot polynomial 10.3
coefficient A3 GPa
Ref. compressive strain 3.0E-5 Crush pressure Pel 113
rate ε̇c0 MPa
Ref. tensile strain rate ε̇t0 3.0E-6 Compaction pressure Pco 5.1
GPa
Break compressive strain 3.0E+22 Porosity exponent Np 3
rate ε̇c
Break tensile strain rate 3.0E+22 Initial porosity α0 1
ε̇t

Table 2
Parameters for stemming.
Density Poisson’s Shear Cohesive Friction Internal
ρ
′
ratio v modulus force c coefficient μ friction
ET angle φ

2600 0.19 16 GPa 0.018 MPa 0.7 35◦

kg/m3

Fig. 6. Numerical model and the vibration gauge points: (a) numerical model
for the first raise blasting; (b) boundary conditions; (c) finite element meshes
and the vibration gauge points.
had difficulty falling out in the blasting due to the restricted free surface.
However, at the bottom the crater diameter of the numerical results is
smaller than that of the test results. This is because some original cracks
inside the surface rock mass, which are caused by excavation blasting in
the bottom chamber, are not considered in the numerical model.
Therefore, due to the uncertainty and randomness of the site, the
developed numerical model in this study is accurate and suitable for the
numerical simulation of field raise blasting.
Fig. 9(a) and Fig. 9(b) show a comparison of the radial acceleration-
time curves derived from the site monitoring and the numerical simu­
lation at distances of 10 m and 145 m in the third blasting. It can be
determined that the PPA and frequencies of the simulated results are
consistent with the monitoring results, especially at a distance of 10 m.
Fig. 9(c) shows the PPA versus the scaled distance for Round-I blasting.
Compared with the attenuation formula of the test results, the values of
K and α decrease by 1.3% and 1.8% for the numerical results, respec­
tively. It can be seen the difference of attenuation coefficient between
them is small. Therefore, the developed numerical model in this study is
sufficiently accurate and suitable for the numerical simulation of the
blasting vibration at the site.
4. Rock damage and vibration induced by raising blasts under
different in-situ stresses and the vibration control effect of short-
delay blasting
According to Sect. 2.2, the blasting vibration induced by Round-I is
larger than those of Round-II and Round-III, which is consistent with the
conclusions of other studies (Jiang et al., 2018; Xia et al., 2019).
Meanwhile, the release space induced by cut blasting (Round-I) is the
key to raise excavation, and only if it is large enough can the sequence
breaking blast and raise excavation obtain a satisfactory effect. There­
fore, only the key blasting of cutting holes (Round-I) is considered in the
numerical analysis of this section.
4.1. The effect of in-situ stress on cut blasting
To evaluate the effect of in-situ stress on the vibration response, six

8
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
Fig. 7. Results of the stress initialization: (a) X-stress; (b) Y-stress.
cases with various in-situ stresses are designed, as shown in Table 3.
4.1.1. Blast-induced rock damage
Fig. 10 presents the cut blasting induced damage under various in-
situ stresses. All of the cases can form a carter with a 2.0-m diameter,
which can provide an adequate free surface and release space for the
boreholes in Round-II. The main difference between the six cases is the
radial cracked zone, where the lengths of radial cracks decrease with an
increasing in-situ stress. The above damage characteristics show that the
crater caused by the crushed zone is less influenced by the in-situ stress,
but the radial cracks caused by the circumferential tensile stress are
affected by the in-situ stress. It can be noted that a greater in-situ stress
will not reduce the cut blasting effect and is beneficial to reducing the
radial cracks outside the raise and protecting the integrity of the raise
wall.
4.1.2. Blast-induced vibration
Fig. 11(a) shows the cut blasting induced vibration PPA versus SD
under different in-situ stresses. A regression analysis of PPA was per­
formed, and the fitting attenuation formulas of the different in-situ
stresses are shown as follows:
1.949
0 MPa : PPA0 = 18924.665 × SD−
1.975
10 MPa : PPA10 = 17685.601 × SD−
9
2.027
20 MPa : PPA20 = 17869.458 × SD−
2.006
30 MPa : PPA30 = 15958.263 × SD−
2.013
40 MPa : PPA40 = 14337.692 × SD−
50 MPa : PPA50 = 13661.505 × SD− 2.018
(7)
The attenuation laws are similar between the six cases, which is re­
flected in the attenuation formulas by the small difference in α(a
maximum difference of 3.8%). However, the values of PPA between the
six cases are obviously different. Due to the confinement effect of the in-
situ stress, the cut boreholes under a higher level of in-situ stress are
subjected to more confinement effects. Consequently, less explosive
energy is transferred into the remaining rock mass in the form of vi­
bration waves, and PPA decreases, which is reflected by the obvious
decrease in K in the attenuation formulas (a maximum reduction of
27.8%).
To quantify the reduction in PPA, the amplitude reduction ratio
(ARR) is adopted in this study, which can be expressed as follows:
( )
PPA
ARR = 1 − × 100% (8)
PPA0
where PPA is the PPA value of a blast-induced vibration at a specific
distance under a specific in-situ stress and PPA0 is the PPA value of a
blast-induced vibration at the same distance under an in-situ stress of 0
MPa.
Fig. 11(b) shows the ARR of the blasting vibration under various in-
situ stresses. The ARR is scattered and irregular at different distances.
For instance, under an in-situ stress of 30 MPa, the ARR is between 7.2%
and 38.0%. However, there is a clear trend that the larger the in-situ
stress is, the larger ARR is at each distance. It can be noted that the in-
situ stress can change the explosive energy distribution and reduce the
energy in the form of vibration waves. For the PPA, a higher in-situ stress
is beneficial for the reduction of the blasting vibration.
It is well known that frequency plays an important role in vibration
damage to structures. If the vibration has a frequency range similar to
the natural frequency of the structure, the structure will generate vi­
bration with a greater amplitude. Consequently, it is important to
evaluate the frequency characteristics of blasting vibration. To describe
the attenuation of frequency, the dominant frequency (DF) and the
average frequency (AF) are employed (Gou et al., 2020). The AF is
defined as
∑
m ∑
m
AF = An fn / An (9)
n=1 n=1
where An is the amplitude corresponding to the frequency fn in the
amplitude-frequency spectrum.
According to the numerical results, for different in-situ stresses the
values of DF at different horizontal distances are obtained by the Fourier
transformation and shown in Fig. 12(a). On the whole, the DF decreases
with an increasing horizontal distance. However, it should be noted that
the variation in DF at distances within 23.4 m is large and not regular,
and some dominant frequencies decrease dramatically. This is because
in the amplitude-frequency spectrum there are multiple peaks with an
almost equal amplitude, and as the distance increases, the high-
frequency band decays more sharply than the low-frequency band. For
instance, the amplitude-frequency spectrum at a distance of 9.0 m under
an in-situ stress of 30 MPa is shown in Fig. 12(b). According to the
spectrum, the DF can be determined to be 547.9 Hz by the definition of
the dominant frequency. In the spectrum there is another peak with a
similar amplitude, and its frequency is 763.2 Hz, which means that there
is also a substantial amount of high-frequency vibration energy. There
was a large difference between the two frequencies, and as a result the
DF of 547.9 Hz cannot describe the vibration frequency effectively.
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

Fig. 8. Blast-induced damage evolution process in the first raise blasting: (a) damage process of the first slice; (b) damage process of the first raise blasting; (c) the
comparison between scanned and simulated raise contour.

However, for the spectra at far distances, the ratios of the high-frequency clear trend that the AF decreases with an increasing in-situ stress. To
vibration energy will decrease rapidly, and the distribution of the peaks quantify the reduction in AF, the average frequency reduction ratio
will be more concentrated. As a result, the variations in DF at distances (AFRR) is adopted in this study. AFRR is defined as follows:
outside 40.0 m are regular. ( )
AF
According to the above analyses, the frequency characteristics of AFRR = 1 − × 100% (10)
AF0
blasting vibration cannot be described well by DF. The relation between
the AF and the distance is shown in Fig. 12(c). The average frequencies
where AF is the average frequency of the blast-induced vibration at a
decrease regularly with an increasing distance. In addition, there is a
specific distance under a specific in-situ stress and AF0 is the average

10
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

the blasting source, the rock characteristics and the distance (Yang et al.,
Test results
Longitudinal acceleration (m/s2)

Numerical results 2016a). In this study, the rock characteristics are certain; thus, the vi­
bration frequency is affected by the blasting source parameters and the
distance. Fig. 12(d) shows the AFRR of the blasting vibration under
different in-situ stresses. There is a clear trend that the larger the in-situ
stress is, the larger the AFRR is at distances within 55.5 m. However, for
frequencies at distances outside 73.0 m, the variation in the AFRR is
small and irregular with the in-situ stress. This is probably because the
average frequency reduction ratios at distances outside 73.0 m are
mainly caused by the distance. In addition, the in-situ stress only
changes the blast loading parameters, such as the raising time and the
duration time of blast loading, and then reduces the vibration frequency
Time (ms) from the blasting source (Yang et al., 2016a, 2016b). As a result, the
effect of the in-situ stress on the vibration frequency is mainly in the
(a) range of 55.5 m. Because of the existence of in-situ stress, before blasting
the pressure in the rock mass is not zero, so relative pressure is used to
Test results describe the blasting loading. The relative pressure P* is therefore
Longitudinal acceleration (m/s2)

Numerical results
defined as follows:
P∗ = P − P 0 (11)

where P is the actual pressure at the monitoring point and P0 is the

original hydrostatic pressure induced by the in-situ stress.
Fig. 13 presents the relative blasting pressures at a distance of 9.0 m
under different in-situ stresses. With an increasing in-situ stress, the
relative pressure peak values decrease, and the raising time and duration
time increase, which is consistent with the above analysis. From Fig. 12
(d), it can also be determined that the AFRR decreases with an increasing
distance within 55.5 m, which shows that the frequency reduction effect
Time (ms)
caused by in-situ stress reduces with an increasing distance. The
(b) maximum value of the AFRR is 31.6% at a distance of 4.7 m under an in-
situ stress of 50 MPa, which will obviously increase the vibrational
damage to the protected rock mass.
Test results
Numerical results The effect of in-situ stress on blasting vibration is achieved by
changing the parameters of the blast loading. It can be easily understood
that the process of explosive energy transferring to the adjacent rock
PPA (m/s2)

PPA=16654.064*SD-1.958 mass is governed by the energy density difference between them. The
R2=0.919 greater the difference is, the more explosive energy is transferred to the
PPA=16444.618*SD-1.993 rock mass and the faster the transfer speed is, and vice versa. When the
R2=0.981 rock mass is in a higher in-situ stress, which has a higher strain energy
density, the transferred energy will be reduced, which is reflected by the
lower PPA and pressure peak, as shown in Fig. 11(a) and Fig. 13. In
addition, due to the smaller energy difference, the transfer burden will
be greater, and the energy transfer speed will be slowed down, which is
reflected in the blast loading parameters by the longer raising time and
SD (m/kg1/3) duration time, as shown in Fig. 13.
(c)
Fig. 9. Comparison of the radial accelerations between site monitoring and 4.2. The effect of short-delay blasting on the vibration
numerical simulation in the third raise blasting: (a) acceleration-time histories
at a distance of 10 m; (b) acceleration-time histories at a distance of 145 m; (c) Under the premise of keeping the charging parameters and raise
PPA versus scaled distance for Round-I blasting. blasting height per slice, to increase the vibration frequency of cut
blasting under a high in-situ stress, less confinement should be provided
in the blasting process. The great confinement of cut blasting is caused
Table 3 by the single free surface at the bottom and high in-situ stress. To reduce
Six analysis cases with different in-situ stresses.
the confinement of cutting boreholes, a short delay blast is considered in
Analysis case P1 (MPa) P2 (MPa) this study, which has recently been used in cut blasting to control vi­
I 0 0 bration under the promise of ensuring the excavation effect of raise
II 10 10 blasting (Huang et al., 2019; Qiu et al., 2018a, 2018b).
III 20 20 Case VII with an in-situ stress of 30 MPa and a delay interval of 2 ms
IV 30 30
was conducted with the numerical model. Fig. 14(a) shows the cut
V 40 40
VI 50 50 blasting induced vibration PPA versus SD for cases IV and VII. It can be
seen that the PPA of short-delay blasting is obviously smaller than that of
simultaneous blasting, which is consistent with the decrease in K (a
frequency of the blasting vibration at the same distance under an in-situ reduction of 23.7%) in the attenuation formulas. The results indicate
stress of 0 MPa. that short-delay blasting can effectively decrease the blast-induced
The frequency of the blasting vibration is related to the parameters of vibrational damage to the structures by reducing PPA. Fig. 14(b)

11
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

Fig. 10. Cut blasting induced damage under different in-situ stresses.

in the low-frequency band (less than 400 Hz), but larger in the frequency
0 MPa band of 800 Hz ~ 1700 Hz. This indicates that short-delay blasting can
10 MPa also decrease the structural vibration damage by reducing the ratio of
20 MPa low-frequency energy. Fig. 14(c) shows the AF at different distances.
30 MPa
Overall, the 2 ms short-delay blasting can increase the AF and then
40 MPa
PPA (m/s2)

50 MPa reduce the damage to structures at different distances. Under high in-
situ stress, short-delay blasting can be an effective vibration control
technique by increasing the mean frequency of the blast-induced
vibration.

5. Discussion

SCBM has been widely used in deep raises because it allows for
moderate levels of borehole derivation and requires fewer boreholes.
With an increasing mining depth, the in-situ stress plays an increasingly
SD (m/kg1/3) significant role in raise blasting excavation. However, most researchers
study the SCBM without considering the in-situ stress, and the damage
(a) characteristics and vibration response of highly stressed rock masses
caused by cut blasting are not well investigated, which are important for
60
4.7 m safe and efficient mining. Therefore, field and numerical experiments
9.0 m were conducted to analyse the damage evolution and vibration response
50 23.4 m of the SCBM in highly stressed rock masses.
37.0 m
In this study, effective raise blasting with vertically parallel and
55.5 m
40 dense bunch longholes was developed at the − 705 ~ − 650 m level in
73.0 m
ARR (%)

108.1 m the Shaxi copper underground mine. The developed technique can
30 144.0 m effectively form a 15-m raise per blast in highly stressed rock masses.
Through a numerical analysis, the in-situ stress has little effect on the
20 crater caused by the crushed zone, which indicates that the raise
development is governed by blast loading and can be completed with the
10 same drilling and charging parameters under different in-situ stresses.
However, the radial cracks in the far field are governed by the in-situ
0 stress, and a higher in-situ stress is beneficial to reducing the radial
0 10 20 30 40 50 cracks outside the raise and protecting the integrity of the raise wall.
In-situ stress (MPa) According to the numerical results under different in-situ stresses,
PPA and AF decrease with an increasing in-situ stress. The influence
(b) mechanism may be as follows. With an increasing in-situ stress, the
energy density difference between the explosive and the rock masses
Fig. 11. Cut blasting induced vibration under different in-situ stresses: (a) PPA
will decrease. The energy transferred from the explosive to the rock
versus scaled distance; (b) ARR of blast-induced vibration.
masses will be reduced; as a result, the blast loading and its induced
vibration in the rock mass are lower in amplitude. A smaller energy
shows the comparison of amplitude-frequency spectra at a distance of
difference will also increase the transfer burden and decrease the
9.0 m between cases IV and VII. It can be determined that the two cases
transfer speed; then, the blast loading in the rock mass is longer in the
are similar in DF, approximately 530 Hz, but different in frequency
rise time and duration time, and the AF is reduced. Therefore, the in-situ
composition. The energy of the short-delay blasting vibration is smaller

12
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

1.0
1200 0 MPa
10 MPa
1000 20 MPa 0.8
30 MPa
40 MPa
800 50 MPa 0.6
DF (Hz)

An/Amax
600
0.4
400

0.2
200

0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 1000 2000 3000
Horizontal distance (m) Frequency (Hz)

(a) (b)

1400 4.7 m 108.1 m

0 MPa 30 9.0 m 144.0 m
10 MPa 23.4 m
1200 20 MPa
25 37.0 m
30 MPa 55.5 m
1000 40 MPa 73.0 m
50 MPa 20
AFRR (%)
AF (Hz)

800
15
600
10
400
5
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 10 20 30 40 50
Horizontal distance (m) In-situ stress (MPa)

(c) (d)
Fig. 12. Frequency of the cut blasting induced vibration under different in-situ stresses: (a) DF; (b) Amplitude–frequency spectrum at a distance of 9.0 m under in-
situ stress of 30 MPa; (c) AF; (d) AFRR.

stress can increase the confinement effect of the cut blasting with the
10 spherical cartridge and then reduce the PPA and AF.
10MPa For vibration frequency, the blasting vibration from a higher in-situ
30MPa stress is more harmful to structures compared to that from lower in-situ
Relative pressure (MPa)

50MPa
5 stress for a certain amplitude. In the present study, short-delay blasting
is proposed to reduce the blasting confinement and the energy ratio of
low frequency in highly stressed masses. Compared to simultaneous
blasting, the PPA decreases by 23.7%, and the AF increases by up to
0 24.8%. The influence mechanism may be as follows. When the five
cutting boreholes initiate simultaneously, a higher energy density will
be created around the cutting boreholes and increase the confinement of
-5 the cut blasting. However, when the five cutting boreholes initiate in
short-delay intervals, the energy density of the rock mass around the
cutting zone will be greatly reduced. Then, the subsequent cutting
borehole can be detonated with a lower confinement. In addition, the
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 former detonated boreholes can release the in-situ stress and reduce the
energy density around the cutting zone, thus reducing the confinement
Time (ms) of the subsequent cutting boreholes. Therefore, in a highly stressed rock
mass, short-delay blasting can be an effective vibration control tech­
Fig. 13. Blast loading relative pressures at a distance of 9.0 m.
nique by increasing the mean frequency of blasting vibration.
Furthermore, this study only focused on blast-induced vibration and
did not consider dynamic unloading induced vibration, which plays an
important role in the excavation disturbance of deep rock (L. T. Xie

13
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407

1.0
Simultaneous
2 ms Simultaneous
2 ms
0.8
PPA (m/s2)
PPA=15958.263*SD-2.006
0.6

An/Amax
R2=0.984
PPA=12171.597*SD-2.018
R2=0.985 0.4

0.2

0.0
0 1000 2000 3000
SD (m/kg1/3) Frequency (Hz)

(a) (b)

1400
Simultaneous
1200 2 ms

1000
AF (Hz)

800

600

400

200

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Horizontal distance (m)

(c)
Fig. 14. Comparison of the vibration characteristics between the simultaneous blasting and the 2 ms short-delay blasting: (a) PPA versus scaled distance; (b)
Amplitude–frequency spectra at a distance of 9.0 m; (c) AF.

et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2016a). A comprehensive evaluation of the
blasting vibration and the dynamic unloading induced vibration in
highly stressed rock masses is worth further studying.
6. Conclusion
In this study, an effective raise blasting with vertically parallel and
dense bunch longholes was developed. To study the damage evolution
and vibration response mechanisms of rock caused by raise blasting in
deep underground mining, field and numerical experiments were con­
ducted. In the field test, CMS and three-component accelerometers were
used to obtain the raise contour and the vibration signal, respectively. A
numerical model using LS-DYNA software was applied to further study
the rock damage and vibration characteristics of the raise excavation
under different in-situ stresses. Based on the experimental and numeri­
cal results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The blasting technique with vertically parallel and dense bunch
longholes is an effective raise excavation method under different in-situ
stresses. Using the drilling and charging parameters in this study, the
crushed zone is less affected by the in-situ stress, but the radial cracks in
the far field will be reduced with an increase in the in-situ stress, which
is beneficial to improving the integrity of the raise wall.
(2) The amplitude of the blasting vibration induced by cutting
boreholes is greater than that induced by breaking boreholes. The field
test results show that the vibration attenuation rates are similar between
the cutting blast and breaking blast, but the PPA of cutting blasting is
higher due to the smaller number of free surfaces.
(3) PPA and AF decrease with an increasing in-situ stress. The
attenuation laws of blast-induced vibration are similar under different
in-situ stresses, but the ARR increases gradually with an increasing in-
situ stress. Compared to DF, AF can better describe the frequency
characteristics of blasting vibration, and the AFRR increases gradually
with an increasing in-situ stress, especially in the near field. With an
increasing in-situ stress, the relative pressure peak value decreases, and
the rising time and duration time increase, leading to lower PPA and AF.
A lower AF is harmful to the protection of surrounding engineering.
(4) Short-delay blasting can be an effective vibration control tech­
nique for raise blasting in highly stressed rock masses. Compared to
simultaneous blasting, the PPA decreases and the AF increases for 2 ms
short-delay blasting, which are both beneficial for reducing the damage
to structures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xiaofeng Huo: Investigation, Software, Writing – original draft.
Xiuzhi Shi: Project administration, Supervision. Xianyang Qiu: Soft­
ware, Writing – review & editing. Jian Zhou: Writing – review & edit­
ing. Yonggang Gou: Investigation, Supervision. Zhi Yu: Writing –
review & editing. Shian Zhang: Investigation.

14
X. Huo et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 123 (2022) 104407
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the National
Natural Science Foundation Project of China (grant number 51874350,
42177164 and 52004329) and the National Key Research and Devel­
opment Program of China (grant number 2017YFC0602902) for car­
rying out this research work.
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