Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311

www.elsevier.com/locate/nutres

Nutritive value of non-mulberry and mulberry silkworm

pupae and consumption pattern in Assam, India
N. Mishra, N. C. Hazarika, K. Narain, J. Mahanta*
Regional Medical Research Centre, N.E. Region (ICMR), P.B. No. 105, Dibrugarh-786001, Assam, India

Received 25 January 2003; received in revised form 10 June 2003; accepted 13 June 2003

Abstract
Traditionally consumed unconventional food items in Assam, India, namely the pupae of non-
mulberry silkworms ‘Eri’ (Attacus ricinii), ‘Muga’ (Antherae assama) and mulberry silkworm
(Bombyx mori) were analyzed for their proximate compositions and consumption pattern. Overall
consumption was highest for Attacus ricinii pupae (Eri 87.7%) followed by Antherae assama (Muga
57.4%) and Bombyx mori (mulberry silkworm 24.6%) irrespective of age group and gender. Amongst
the three major communities predominant in the villages, the highest consumption was in the Ahom
community (Eri 91% and Muga 63%). The proximate compositions (%) for non-mulberry and
mulberry silkworm pupae were in the range of: total protein (12 to 16%), total fat (11 to 20%),
carbohydrate (1.2 to 1.8%), moisture (65 to 70%) and ash (0.8 to 1.4%). The energy contents of the
silkworm pupae were in the range of 706 to 988 kJ. Proximate composition suggested that these
unconventional food items (pupae) could be a good source of protein and fat. In conclusion these
unconventional food items with high cultural acceptability and nutritive value may be utilized in
formulating potential alternate recipe for malnourished population as well as nutritious delicacy for
others. © 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Unconventional food-items; Non-mulberry pupae; Mulberry pupae; Consumption pattern;

Proximate composition; Malnourished

* Corresponding author: Tel.: ⫹(0373) 2381-494; fax: ⫹(0373) 2381-748.

E-mail address: icmrrcdi@hub.nic.in (J. Mahanta).

0271-5317/03/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(03)00132-5
1304 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311

1. Introduction

The tribal populations of India inhabit widely varying ecological and geo-climatic con-
ditions in different concentration and with different socio-economic background [1]. The
food culture or food ways may have existed among a given ethnic group for centuries, and
such a heritage accounts for great conservation in accepting change. These patterns reflect the
social organization of the people, including their economy, religion, beliefs about the
nutritional properties of food, and attitudes toward the various members of the family. To
provide food security there is need to explore every possible source of nutrients [2].
Attempts to make nutritious food supplements affordable to a target population using
staple commodities of a region have been made in the past to ensure adequate nutritional and
functional quality [3–9]. Traditionally consumed unconventional food items may supplement
the dietary requirements of a population, thus preventing the development of a wide range
of diseases associated with malnutrition.
The silk producing moths are placed under the phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta and order
Lepidoptera. Lepidoptera are the most familiar and easily recognizable of all insects [10].
Amongst the various species of silkworm the mulberry silkworms (Bombyx mori) and the
non-mulberry silkworms namely Attacus ricinii locally known as ‘Eri’, Antherae assama
locally known as ‘Muga’ and Antherae paphia, ‘Tassar’ are of common use in sericulture
[11]. The mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori belongs to family Bombycidae while the
non-mulberry silkworm ‘Eri’ (Attacus ricinii) and ‘Muga’ (Antherae assama) belongs to
family Saturniidae.
The state of Assam, occupies an important position in sericulture map of India. Sericulture
practice in this region is mostly confined to the Brahmaputra valley and its surrounding areas.
The congenial atmosphere helps in the cultivation of the host plants and availability of the
silk insects. The ‘Muga’ (Antherae assama) culture originated in Assam [12], as this moth
is not cultured in other parts of the world and it has now become a good source of silk for
cottage industry. In Assam, ‘Muga’ culture is practiced in the districts of upper Assam and
certain parts of lower Assam. The bulk production of ‘muga’ cocoons occurs in upper Assam
districts viz. ‘Lakimpur’, ‘Dibrugarh’ and ‘Sibsagar’ [13]. The muga worms are reared
outdoor and produces golden yellow silk locally known as ‘Muga’ silk. The caterpillar of this
worm feeds on Machilus plant (Machilus bombycina). ‘Eri’ (Attacus ricinii), the other
non-mulberry silkworm is used to produce silk in East Asia [14]. Eri silkworms (Philosoia
ricinii, Attacus ricinii or P. cynthia) are common silk producing insects of northeastern
region and its occurrence in other parts of India is also reported. The silk produced is locally
known as ‘Endi’ silk. The cocoons of this worm have loose texture. The threads are not
glossy but are much durable. The ‘Eri’ worms feed on the leaves of variety of plants, but
‘Castor plant’ (Ricinus communis) is the most important host plant. The leaves of locally
available plants, ‘kesseroo’ (Heteropanax fragrans), ‘Gomari’ (Gmelina arborea), ‘Gulan-
cha’ (Tinospora cordifolia)’ etc. are also used. Bombyx mori, the mulberry silkworm is a
well-known silkworm, which originated from China, and has been introduced into many
parts of the world for commercial purposes [11].
Many communities of Assam traditionally consume the pupae of mulberry and non-
 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311 1305

mulberry silkworms. Amongst them, pupae are known to be rich source of fat, but there is
no available information on the nutritive value of pupae. The present study was designed to
evaluate and document the nutritive value and consumption pattern of pupal stages of
mulberry (Bombyx mori) and non-mulberry silkworms (Attacus ricinii, ‘Eri’ and Antherae
assama ‘Muga’) traditionally accepted and consumed in Assam, India.

2. Methods and materials

2.1. Nutritional surveys

The study villages of Assam were selected at random. Effort was made to cover at least
90% of the household. The interviews were conducted in the native tongue of the respondents
(Assamese). All data were translated and recorded in the English language. The acceptability
and consumption pattern were evaluated by a pre-tested questionnaire through nutritional
surveys. The respondents were in the age range 10-50 years and above. These criteria
ensured that the respondents were able to respond to their likes and dislikes about the food
items. Data from 1022 questionnaire that were administered were compiled and analyzed.
The questionnaire comprised of questions to obtain demographic data; rearing practices and
processing methodologies; evaluation of food items (pupae of mulberry and non-mulberry
silkworms) with respect to nutritional factors for preferences (multiple choices), frequency
of intake, seasonal consumption and any harmful effects associated with consumption.

2.2. Estimation of dietary principles

Cocoons of non-mulberry silkworms (‘Eri’, Attacus ricinii, and ‘Muga’, Antheraea as-
sama) and mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori) were used for the analysis of proximate
compositions. All samples were purchased from the villages in Assam during winter season
and were in their pupal stages of life cycle. All the chemicals used were of analytical grade
and purchased from E. Merck (Germany) or BDH Chemicals (India). The cocoons were
stored at 10°C for 8-10 days.
The cocoons were processed before analyzing for food value. They were boiled for 30
minutes at 100°C. The pupae were taken out from cocoons, blotted on filter paper and
dissected to remove intestine and waste material present. The proximate compositions were
then determined according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists methods [15].
The moisture content was determined by drying at 130°C for 1 h (method 14.004); the crude
protein content by the Kjeldhal method (% protein 61%N ⫻ 6.25) (method 14.063); the
crude fat content using dried ether by soxhlet extraction; the crude fibre content by dilute acid
and alkali hydrolysis (method 7.054); the ash content by using the muffle furnace at 600°C
to constant weight (method 14.006). The carbohydrate content was determined by difference.
The energy content (in kiloJoules) was determined by multiplying percentage of crude fat,
crude protein, and carbohydrate by factors of 37.7, 16.7 and 16.7 respectively.
1306 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311

2.3. Statistical analysis

The statistical calculations reported included proximate composition (g/100g); mean ⫾

standard error. Modified ‘t’ test was used to compare mean proximate values in silkworm
pupae and the ‘Z’ test to find out the significant difference in proportion for nutritional survey
data.

3. Results

A total of 1022 respondents participated in the study for cultural acceptability of uncon-
ventional food items. The respondents were in the age range 10-50 years and above; the
majority of the respondents were in the age groups 21-30 years (29.8%), followed by 11-20
years (22.1%) and 31-40 years (18.6%). Of the respondent population 57.1% were females
and 42.9% males; 84% had some form of formal education. 30.5% of the respondent
population were employed while 43.6% were unemployed or were students (25.2%). The
silkworm rearing practice was followed by 51.1% of the respondent population and majority
of the respondents were non- vegetarian in food habit (99.2%) (Table 1).
Amongst the respondent population 60.0% belonged to ‘Ahom’ community, 10.7% to
‘Sonowal Kachari’, 21.9% ‘Muttock’ and 6.8% to ‘other communities’. The ‘other commu-
nities’ includes Koibortta, Moran, Kush, Kalita and Bodo, but the sample size was small. The
source of these unconventional food items included family rearing or neighborhood. Only
3.9% of the respondent population reported occasional stomach upsets and allergic reactions
associated with excess consumption of pupae.
During the nutritional surveys for assessment of consumption pattern and processing
methodologies it was found that almost all the respondent consume the pupae after removing
the intestinal waste material by making a slit over it. The overall consumption of pupae was
highest for Attacus ricinii pupae (Eri 87.7%) followed by Antherae assama (Muga 57.4%)
and Bombyx mori (mulberry silkworm 24.6%) irrespective of age group and gender. How-
ever, there were age related differences in the consumption pattern of Eri pupae. The
consumption pattern of Eri pupae was significantly (p ⫽ 0.0006) different in the age-group
31-40 years amongst males (97.7%) from those belonging to 21-30 years (89.3%).
Amongst the three major communities predominant in the villages of Assam, the con-
sumption pattern of non-mulberry silkworm pupae was highest in the Ahom community (Eri
90.6%, Muga 63.5%) while the consumption of mulberry silkworm pupae was highest
(28.9%) in the Sonowal Kachari community (Table 2). In Ahom’s, significant difference (p
⬍ 0.0001) between Eri, Muga and mulberry pupae consumption in both the sexes were
observed.
Amongst the various factors that determined the acceptability of pupae by the respondents
were: traditional acceptance (82.4%), delicious taste (70.3%), variety to the diet (55.0%) and
easy availability (43.9%). The seasonal availability in the neighborhood and to add variety
to the routine-diet were some other factors for the preference of these unconventional food
items (Table 3).
Analysis of proximate compositions of pupae revealed that these unconventional food
 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311 1307

Table 1
Selected demographic characteristics of 1022 respondents responding to cultural acceptability questionnaire
on unconventional foods
Characteristics Total Sample Males Females
(n ⫽ 1022) (n ⫽ 438) (n ⫽ 584)
(%) (%) (%)
Age
0-10 yrs 0.2 0.2 0.2
11-20 yrs 22.1 19.6 24.0
21-30 yrs 29.8 27.8 31.2
31-40 yrs 18.6 19.6 17.8
41-50 yrs 11.8 13.5 10.6
Above 50 yrs 17.5 19.3 16.3
Highest education level attained
Post Graduation 0.4 0.5 0.3
Graduation 7.0 11.6 3.4
Secondary school 59.8 65.3 55.7
Primary school 16.8 14.4 18.7
Illiterate 16.0 8.2 21.9
Employment
Housewife/Unemployed 43.6 6.2 71.7
Businessman/Self-employed 5.8 12.3 0.9
Agriculture/Farmer 13.9 30.1 1.7
Service/Salaried worker 10.8 20.8 3.2
Retired 0.7 1.4 0.2
Student 25.2 29.2 22.3
Silkworm rearing
Yes 51.1 51.8 50.5
No 45.8 48.2 49.5
Food Habit
Vegetarian 0.8 0.5 1.0
Non-vegetarian 99.2 99.5 99.0

items are rich sources of nutrients. The mean weight (g; mean ⫾ SE) of pupae were: Eri: 2.59
⫾ 0.21; Muga: 4.84 ⫾ 0.13 and mulberry pupae: 2.05 ⫾ 0.09 (Table 4). The pupae of

Table 2
Genderwise consumption pattern of pupae in three major communities of Assam
Community Gender Eri Muga Mulberry
(%) (%) (%)
Ahom Male (n ⫽ 265) 91.3* 64.2 22.6
Female (n ⫽ 355) 90.1* 63.1 24.5
Sonowal Kachari Male (n ⫽ 45) 80.0a 57.8 28.9
Female (n ⫽ 64) 75.0a 45.3 25.0
Muttock Male (n ⫽ 104) 90.4a 57.7 30.8
Female (n ⫽ 120) 81.7a 45.8 22.5
Other communities Male (n ⫽ 25) 88.0a 44.0 28.0
Female (n ⫽ 44) 79.5a 27.3 18.2
* p ⬍ 0.0001 as compared to Muga and mulberry consuming group.
a
p ⬍ 0.05 as compared to Muga and mulberry consuming group.
1308 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311

Table 3
Factors that determine the acceptability of pupae by the respondents
Factors Percentage of respondents*
Tradition passed on 82.4
Taste 70.3
To add variety to the diet 55.0
Availability 43.9
Recommendation of a health worker 1.2
Cost 6.0
Nutrient content 0.6
* Respondents were allowed to give multiple reasons.

non-mulberry silkworms had moisture content of 70.14% for ‘Eri’ and 66.25% for ‘Muga’
following processing as compared to 65.13% for mulberry pupae (Table 5). The crude
protein content in non-mulberry pupae were 15.97% for Eri and 14.40% for Muga while
mulberry pupae had a crude protein content of 11.99%. The crude fat content in the pupae
samples was high and ranged between 11.09 to 20.10%. Higher calorific values (kJ) were
recorded due to high fat contents in mulberry and non-mulberry pupae (Eri: 705.70 ⫾ 2.312;
Muga: 902.82 ⫾ 11.98 and mulberry: 988.16 ⫾ 2.674 kJ). The fibre content of non-mulberry
pupae was 0.22% for Eri; 0.14% for Muga and 0.19% for mulberry pupae. The carbohydrate
content of non-mulberry and mulberry pupae was low (Eri: 1.21; Muga: 1.32 and mulberry:
1.80%) with moderate ash contents (Eri: 1.36; Muga: 0.91 and mulberry: 0.79%).

4. Discussion

The present study provides useful data on nutritive value and consumption pattern of
pupal stages of mulberry (Bombyx mori) and non-mulberry silkworms (Attacus ricinii, ‘Eri’
and Antherae assama ‘Muga’) traditionally accepted and consumed in Assam, India. Many
communities of Assam traditionally consume the pupae of mulberry and non-mulberry
silkworms, but there is no available information on the nutritive value of pupae. There is the
need to have some of these unconventional food items to be evaluated for acceptability and
consumption as only human sensory data can provide the best models to perceive and react
in real life.
Overall consumption of pupae was highest for Attacus ricinii pupae followed by Antherae

Table 4
Physical characteristic features of Eri, Muga and Mulberry pupae
Characteristics Eri Muga Mulberry
Weight (gms) 2.59 ⫾ 0.21 4.84 ⫾ 0.13 2.05 ⫾ 0.09
Color Amber brown Cherry brown Golden brown
Cuticle Hard & smooth Hard & smooth Soft & smooth
Values are expressed as Mean ⫾ SE, n ⫽ 10.
‘Eri’: Attacus ricinii, ‘Muga’: Antherae assama and ‘mulberry pupae’: Bombyx mori.
 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311 1309

Table 5
Proximate composition of unconventional food items (pupae) following processing per 100 g
Nutrients Eri Muga Mulberry
Moisture (%) 70.14 ⫾ 0.098 66.25 ⫾ 0.434* 65.13 ⫾ 0.134*
Crude protein (g) 15.97 ⫾ 0.081 14.40 ⫾ 0.206* 11.99 ⫾ 0.072*a
Crude fat (g) 11.09 ⫾ 0.076 16.98 ⫾ 0.241* 20.10 ⫾ 0.0004*a
Crude fibre (g) 0.22 ⫾ 0.0004 0.14 ⫾ 0.0004* 0.19 ⫾ 0.0004*a
Ash (g) 1.36 ⫾ 0.004 0.91 ⫾ 0.004* 0.79 ⫾ 0.058*a
Carbohydrate (g) 1.21 ⫾ 0.004 1.32 ⫾ 0.004* 1.80 ⫾ 0.067*a
Energy (kJ) 705.70 ⫾ 2.312 902.82 ⫾ 11.98* 988.16 ⫾ 2.674*a
Values are expressed as Mean ⫾ SE, n ⫽ 5.
‘Eri’: Attacus ricinii, ‘Muga’: Antherae assama and ‘mulberry pupae’: Bombyx mori.
* p ⬍ 0.05 compared to non-mulberry ‘Eri’ pupae.
a
p ⬍ 0.05 compared to non-mulberry ‘Muga’ pupae.

assama and Bombyx mori irrespective of age group and gender. From the three major
communities predominant in the villages of upper Assam, the consumption pattern of
non-mulberry silkworm pupae was highest in the Ahom community (Eri 90.6%, Muga
63.5%) while the consumption of mulberry silkworm pupae was highest (28.9%) in the
Sonowal Kachari community. The probable reason for higher consumption of Eri pupae over
the other two pupae could be the availability of various host plants and the involvement of
large number of families, which results in high yield of Eri worm following hatching. The
statistics shows that the total number of families engaged in Sericulture practice in Assam in
1996 were 128186 for ‘Eri’, 29409 for ‘Muga’ and 38822 for Mulberry silkworms in 32.9%
of the total villages. However in the study district, 29.1% villages were engaged in sericulture
practices with a total of 7263 families for ‘Eri’, 2492 for ‘Muga’ and 2559 for ‘Mulberry’
silkworms [13].
Amongst the various factors that determined the acceptability of pupae by the respondents,
traditional acceptance and delicious taste were among the main reasons given for preference
of pupae. The seasonal availability in the neighborhood and to add variety to the routine-diet
were some other factors for the preference of these unconventional food items. Evaluation of
acceptability along with nutritive value of uncommon food items would allow for their
introduction into a larger target population [16 –19].
Unconventional food items analyzed show high nutrient contents. The pupae of non-
mulberry silkworm could be a good source of protein and fat. The high fat contents of the
pupae would allow them to contribute significantly as a source of oil in the diet. The pupae
consumption is predominantly through deep-frying (86%) which results in further increase
in fat content. Similarly other unconventional food items have been analyzed in the past for
evaluating nutritive value. In a study, Muller & Tobin [20] found the protein content of crabs
to be of high quality similar to that of meat and fish. Recently Adeyeye [9] recommended the
protein from cheliped muscles of common African fresh water crabs with low fibre contents
as weaning food for children, because the protein may be easily digested. The protein from
non-mulberry and mulberry pupae with low fibre content could be utilized as supplementary
food for children. In view of providing locally available substitute food items with high
cultural acceptability and nutritive value, these unconventional food items may be utilized as
1310 N. Mishra et al. / Nutrition Research 23 (2003) 1303–1311

potential alternate recipe for malnourished population. Gonzalez et al., [21] showed that the
Echinus esculentus, a species of sea urchin, which was not introduced in the market earlier
and Paracentrotus lividus, a sea urchin species, which was already commercialized, had a
protein content of 9.17% and 15.49% of the wet weights. These sea urchin samples had a
moisture percentage of 81.13% for P. lividus and 80.42% for E. esculentus. The ash content
of the pupae was in the range of 0.8 to 1.4%. The ash content of any sample is a measure
of the likely mineral content of such a sample. Higher ash contents were recorded in the
exoskeleton of shrimps found in Lagos lagoon [22] and exoskeleton of African fresh water
crabs [9] due to the presence of higher levels of calcium metal in the exoskeleton. Since the
consumption of pupae is through boiling at 100°C, the presence of anti-nutritional factors
may be ruled out. Amongst the two species of non-mulberry pupae, Muga has higher calorific
value.
The silkworm pupae could be utilized as a source of extra protein and fat generation in a
community. The total annual yield of cocoons (in numbers) in Assam was 1.8 ⫻ 108 for Eri,
4.2 ⫻ 108 for Muga and 1.3 ⫻ 108 mulberry cocoons {[13], as worked out from weight of
cocoons}, out of which the total annual yield of cocoons in the study district was 2.76% for
Eri, 15.04% for Muga and 8.07% for mulberry cocoons. This yield of cocoons generated a
total of 4.98 ⫻ 104 kilograms of total protein for a population of 1042457 with additional
5.87 ⫻ 104 kilograms of crude fat.
Diversity in the availability and use of foods must therefore continue to be a key
component of any programme aimed at maintaining, or improving the nutritional health of
the population. On the basis of their nutrient profiles and cultural acceptability efforts could
be made to utilize these unconventional food items as potential alternate recipe for malnour-
ished population and nutritious delicacy for others.

Acknowledgments

Authors thankfully acknowledge the assistance provided by Mr D Hazarika and Ms P

Pegu of this center in carrying out Nutritional surveys.
Contributors: NM acted as team leader in the field for Nutritional surveys and carried out
the Nutritional analysis. NCH was responsible for monitoring and management of the study.
KN carried out the statistical analysis. NM, KN and NCH wrote the manuscript. JM planned
and supervised the study and corrected the manuscript.
Financial support: ICMR intramural fund

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