GEOTECHNICAL 1

Index and Classification Properties of Soils

W
Unit weight :  V
Gs γw
Dry unit weight : d =
1+ e
DRY H1
Moist unit weight :  = dry  1 + 
(Gs + e) γ w
Saturated unit weight: sat =
1+ e
Zero air void unit weight: MOIST H2
Gsγ w
zav = G.W.T.
1+ e
Moisture content (water content)
Ww
 SATURATED
H3
Ws
ωG s
Degree of saturation : s =
e
e
Porosity : n =
1+ e Phases of Soil
Air void ratio = n (1 – s)

where : W = total weight G.W.T. = ground water table

V = volume
Gs = specific gravity
e = void ratio
w = unit weight of water
= 9.81 kN/m3 ( 1gram/cm3 )
 GEOTECHNICAL 2

Relative density ( Density index ) Soil Characteristic Liquidity Index

brittle solid <0
emax - e plastic <1
Dr = or
emax - emin liquid >1
1/  d min -1/  d
Dr =
1/  d min -1/  d max Shrinkage Ratio : S.R.

e = in-situ void ratio m2

S.R. =
emax = void ratio in loosest condition V2 ρw
emin = void ratio in densest condition Specific Gravity: Gs
d = dry unit weight in the field
d(max) = dry unit weight in densest condition 1
d(min) = dry unit weight in loosest condition Gs = 1 SL
-
SR 100
Shrinkage limit : S.L.
(m1 - m2 ) (V1 - V2 )
S.L. = - ρw in %
m2 m2
m1 = initial mass in saturated state SOIL CLASSIFICATION
m2 = final mass in dry state
V1 = initial volume in saturated state U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA Method)
V2 = final volume in dry state Gravel Sand Silt Clay
> 2 mm 2 to 0.05mm 0.05 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm
Plasticity Index : P.I.
P.I. = L.L. - P.L. AASHTO Method
L.L. = liquid limit Gravel Sand Silt Clay
P.L. = plastic limit 76.2 to 2mm 2 to 0.075mm 0.075 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm

Liquidity Index : L.I. Unified Soil Classification System

ω - P.L. Gravel Sand Fines (Silt & Clay)
L.I. =
P.I.
76.2 to 4.75 mm 4.75 to 0.075 mm < 0.075 mm
 = in-situ moisture content
P.L. = plastic limit
P.I. = plasticity index

Consistency Index : C.I.

L.L. - ω
C.I. =
L.L. - P.I.
 GEOTECHNICAL 3
Particle Size Distribution SOIL COMPACTION

Effective Size, D10 Compaction – is the densification of soils by

- is the diameter in the particle size the application of mechanical energy. It may
distirbution curve corresponding to 10% also involve a modification of the water
finer. content as well as gradation of the soil.

Uniformity coefficient, Cu Some methods for determining density of

D60
Cu = D soil in the field:
10

1. Sand Cone Method

Coefficient of gradation or curvature, Cc 2. Balloon Method
(D30 ) 2
Cc = 3. Oil Method
D60 • D10
D30 = particle diameter corresponding to 30% finer To determine the dry unit weight of
D60 = particle diameter corresponding to 60% finer compaction in the field:
dry unit weight excavated from the hole
d =
Sorting Coefficient, So volume of the hole
D75
So = Ws -Wc
D25
Volume of hole, V = 
D75 = particle diameter corresponding to 75% finer d ( sand )

D25 = particle diameter corresponding to 25% finer Ws = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone
Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only
AASHTO Classification System
Relative Compaction, R
Group Index, G.I.  d ( field )
R=
= (F – 35)[ 0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)  d (max -lab)
d(field) = compacted field dry unit weight
Partial Group Index d(max-lab) = maximum dry unit weight
= 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
determined in the laboratory by Proctor
Test
F = % passing sieve # 200
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

Group index must be whole and positive, if the

computed value is negative use zero. If the group
classification is A-2-6 & A-2-7 attached Partial
Group Index only.
 GEOTECHNICAL 4
PERMEABILITY, SEEPAGE of WATER
in SOIL Absolute Permeability, K
kη
K= γ
w
Coefficient of Permeability, k k = coefficient of permeability
( Laboratory Test)
QL
 = viscosity of water
Constant Head Test : k = A h t w = unit weight of water
Q = volume of water collected
A = area of cross section of soil specimen Transmissibilty of Soil Stratum, T
t = duration of water collection T=Kb
h K = average coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient =
L b = thickness of aquifer

aL h1 Equivalent Coefficient of Permeability in

Falling Head Test: k = A t ln h
2 Layered Soil:
a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe
A = cross-sectional area of soil specimen
t = duration of water collection k1 H1
h1 = initial head when t1 = 0
h2 = final head when t2 = t
L = length of soil specimen k2 H2
h1 h2
i = hydraulic gradient =
L

Rate of water flow in soil, Q Equivalent Horizontal Coeffient, KH(eq)

1
KH (eq) = (k1H1 + k2H2 + … + knHn)
Q=kiA H

k = coefficient of permeability Equivalent Vertical Coefficient, KV(eq)

i = hydraulic gradient H
A = cross-sectinal area of soil sample KV(eq) = H1 + H2 + ... + Hn
k k2 kn

Discharge velocity, V
V=ki

Seepage velocity, Vs
V
Vs =
n
k1
n = porosity
k1
GEOTECHNICAL 5
Vertical Stresses in Soil Compressibility of Soil

A
Settlement – the total vertical deformation at
h1 the surface resulting from the load. When a soil
Dry, d deposit is loaded (by a structure or a man-made
B G.W.T. fill) deformation will occur. The movement may be
downward with an increase in load or upward
h2 Saturated, sat (called swelling) with a decrease in load.
C

1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + sat h2

2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = w h2 S
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
c’ = cuc
A

h1
Dry, d
B G.W.T.
h Components of Settlement:
h2 Saturated, 
sat
S = S1 + S2 + S3
C

1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + sat h2
2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = w h
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
c’ = cuc
S = total settlement
S1 = immediate or distortion settlement
S2 = primary consolidation settlement
S3 = secondary consolidation settlement

A
Primary Consolidation Settlement, S2
h1 Normally Consolidated Clays
Dry, d
CcH P + ΔP
B S2 = log o
1 + e0 Po
Moist,  Cc = compression index
h2 zone of capillary rise
Degree of saturation, S eo = in-situ void ratio
C G.W.T. Po = effective overburden pressure at the
middle of the clay layer
1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + h2 P = average increase of stress on clay layer
B = d h1
H = thickness of clay layer
2. Pore water pressure at C : uB = -S w h2
uc = 0
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress – Pore pressure
c’ = cuc
B’ = BuB)
GEOTECHNICAL 6
Over – Consolidated Clays Compression Index, Cc
1. when Po + P < Pc Cc = 0.009 (LL -10) remolded clays
C sH P + ΔP e1 - e 2
S2 = log o
1 + e0 Po Cc = P
log 2
Cs = swell index P1
= ranges from 1/5 to 1/10 of Cc Coefficient of Compressibility, av
Pc = preconsolidation pressure e1 - e 2
av =
P2 - P1
2. when Po + P > Pc Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv
C sH P CH P + ΔP av
S2 = log c + c log o
1 + e0 Po 1 + e 0 Pc mv =
1 + e ave

Secondary Consolidation Settlement, S3 Time Rate of Consolidation, t

t2
S3 = C’a H log open open
t1
Ca Hdr
C’a = 1 + e H Hdr
p

Δe
Ca = log t 2 open
t1 closed
Ca = secondary compression index Cv t
Tv =
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation H2 dr
= eo - e Cv = coefficient of consolidation
Po + ΔP Tv = time factor
e = Cc log
Po Hdr = drainage distance of water
t1 = time for completion of primary consolidation
t2 = time after completion of primary Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc
consolidation
Pc
OCR =
Immediate Settlement, S1 Po
OCR = overconsolidation ratio
(1 - μ 2 ) Pc = preconsolidation pressure
S1 = Cs q B
Es Po = soil overburden pressure
Cs = shape and foundation rigidity factor
q = pressure due to load
B = width of foundation or diameter of circular
foundation
 = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
GEOTECHNICAL 7

Bearing Capacity of Foundations Case 2: the water table is located at the bottom
of the foundation
Terzaghi’s Bearing-Capacity

Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qult

A. General Shear Failure (Dense sand and Stiffclay)
1. Square Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.4  B N
G.W.T.
B
2. Circular Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.3  B N
sat - w
c = cohesion
q = effective pressure at the bottom of the Case 3: the water table is located so that d < B
footing
B = width of footing or diameter of footing
Nc Nq Nbearing capacity factors

Bearing Capacity Factors

1. see Tables
2. If no table available B
Nc = (Nq – 1) cot  d<B
G.W.T.
Nq = etan tan2 (45 + )
2
N= (Nq + 1) tan 1.4 1
  γ dry (d) + γ (B - d) 
B
Modification of  value in the 3rd term of the
ultimate bearing capacity equation:
 sat - w
‘

Case 4: the water table is located so that d > B

Case 1: the water table is located above the
bottom of the foundation

G.W.T.

B
d>B
B
G.W.T.


sat - w  dry
GEOTECHNICAL
Normal Force
8
Shear Strength of Soil Shear Force
c
Unconfined Compression Test Method

Direct Shear Test Method 


 deviator stress
 
 
 c


 = angle of internal friction

c = cohesion
= 0 if normally consolidated clay
= normal stress
 = shearing stress

Tri-Axial Test Method 

Unconsolidated - Undrained Test Method

 


cu


 c 

 deviator stress


 deviator stress

cu = undrained shear strength

3 = chamber confining pressure, cell pressure

= minor principal stress
1 = major principal stress
 = deviator stress GEOTECHNICAL 9

Lateral Earth Pressure Pressure diagram due to water:

v s = unit weight of soil

z
 h = k v

v = vertical pressure at depth z

h = lateral pressure at depth z
k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure Pressure diagram due to surcharge:

Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining Wall with

Horizontal Backfill

At rest earth pressure coefficient, ko

(normally consolidated soil)
ko = 1 – sin  angle of internal friction

Rankine active earth pressure, ka

1 - sin 
ka =  + sin 

Rankine passive earth pressure, kp

1 + sin  Pressure diagram due to cohesion of soil:
kp =  - sin 

Pressure diagram due to effective unit weight of

soil:

GEOTECHNICAL 10
Braced Sheetings Piles on Clay
Qall
Cuts in Sand  method

End bearing capacity

Qb = C Nc Atip
H assumed
hinge

Pa= 0.65  ka H
 Frictional capcity
Qf =  CPL
Qf
C = cohesion of soil
Nc = bearing capacity factor
Atip = area of plie at the tip
  = adhesion factor
Cuts in Clay when >4 Qb
C P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile
0.25 H
assumed Qb + Qf
hinge Design Load : Qall =
H F.S.

 method Qall

End bearing capacity

Pa= H – 4C Qb = C Nc Atip

Cuts in Clay when <4 Frictional capcity
C
Qf = PL (Qv + 2C )

0.25 H
area of Pv diagram Qf
assumed Qv = L
L
hinge
H

0.25 H Qb Pv diagram

Pa= 0.3 H
Qb + Qf
ka = Rankine active pressure coefficient Design Load : Qall =
F.S.
C = cohesion of clay
 = unit weight of soil
H = depth of cut Qall

Ds

GEOTECHNICAL 1.5 m 11
Piles on Sand Qall Drilled Piles on Clay
L1 L
Qf

Ds

Dc L2

Db
Qb
 Qf

Qb Pv diagram

End bearing capacity

Qb = Pv Nq Atip End bearing capacity
Qb = qp Atip
Frictional capcity
Qf = P ( area of Pv diagram ) K  L1 + L2
qp = 6C [ 1 + 0.2 ] but not greater than
Db
Qb + Qf CNc
Design Load : Qall =
F.S. Db = bell diameter
Ds = shaft diameter
Pv = vertical soil pressure at the tip
Nq = bearing capacity factor Frictional capcity
K = coef of lateral bet pile and sand earth Qf =   C P L
pressure factor
 = tan   = adhesion factor
 = angle of friction bet pile and sand = 0 for the top 1.5 m and diameter Ds above the
bottom of the drilled shaft or above the top of
Critical Depth, Dc the bell.
i. Dc = 20 x diameter of pile for dense sand P = perimeter of pile
ii. Dc = 10 x diameter of pile for loose sand L = effective length of pile that resist friction

Note : The pressure below the critical depth, D c Qb + Qf

Design Load : Qall =
is assumed to be uniform. F.S.

GEOTECHNICAL 12
Drilled Piles on Sand Group of Piles
Qall
Efficiency of Group of Piles, Eg

D
 L Qf

Converse – Labarre Equation:

θ [ (n - 1) m + (m - 1) n]
Eg = 1 - 90 m n
Qb Bowles :
End bearing capacity 2 ( m + n - 2) S + 4D
Qb = qp Atip Eg = πD m n
m = number of rows of piles
a. Nvalue < 50 n = number of piles in a row
qp = 57.5 Nvalue < 2900 kPa D
b. Nvalue > 50 tan  =
S
Pa D = diameter of pile
qp = 0.59[ Nvalue ( )]0.8
Pvb S = spacing of piles center to center
Pa = 100 kPa
Pvb = effective vertical pressure at base elevation Settlement of Piles

Frictional capcity : Qf =   Pv P L Se = Se1 + Se2 + Se3

a. Nvalue  15
 = 1.5 – n (z)0.5 (drilled on sand) Elastic Settlement of Pile, Se1
 = 2 – 0.15 (z)0.5 (drilled on gravel) (Qwp + ξ Qws ) L
b. Nvalue  15 Se1 =
Ap Ep
N
 = value [ 1.5 – n (z)0.5 ] Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working
15
load condition
Pv = effective vertical overburden pressure at
Qws = load carried by frictional resistance under
depth z.
working load condition
z = height from ground surface to mid-height of a
Ap = cross sectional area of pile
given layer
L = length of pile
n = 0.245
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile

GEOTECHNICAL 13
Settlement of Pile caused by the Load at the Pile Settlement of Group of Piles
Tip , Se2

qwp D
Se2 = (1 - s2 ) Iwp
Es
 Qwp
qwp =
Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
s = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Iwp = influence factor

Settlement of Pile caused by the Load

transmitted along of the pile shaft , Se3

Qws D
Se3 = (1 - s2 ) Iws
PLEs
L
Iws = 2 + 0.35
D

P = perimeter of pile CcH P + ΔP

S= Σ log o
L = length of pile 1 + eo Po
Iws = influence factor
D = diameter of pile Cc = compression index
H = thickness of clay layer
eo = initial void ratio
P = average increase in pressure on clay
Po = effective overburden pressure at the mid-
height of the clay layer