Professional Documents
Culture Documents
co
Void ratio
Vv
• e=
Vs
Vv = Volume of voids
V = Total volume of soil
Degree of Saturation
V
• S = w 100
Vv
Vw = Volume of water
Vv = Volume of voids
0 ≤ S≤ 100
for perfectly dry soil : S = O
for Fully saturated soil : S = 100%
Air Content
Va
• ac = = 1 − s Va = Volume of air
Vv
Sr + ac = 1
% Air Void
Volume of air V
%na = 100 = a 100
• Total volume V
Unit Weight
• Bulk unit weight
W Ws + Ww
= =
V Vs + Vw + Va
1
www.gradeup.co
' = sat − w
sat = unit wt. of saturated soil
= unit wt. of water
• Unit wt. of solids:
Ws
s =
Vs
Specific Gravity
True/Absolute Special Gravity, G
• Specific gravity of soil solids (G) is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of solids to the
weight of an equivalent volume of water at 4℃.
Ws
G= = s
Vs . w w
Relative Compaction
• Indicate: Degree of denseness of cohesive + cohesionless soil
D
Rc =
D max
Relative Density
• Indicate: Degree of denseness of natural cohesionless soil
Some Important Relationships
• Relation between d ,
d =
1+ w
V W
(ii) Vs = (iii) Ws =
1+ e 1+ w
2
www.gradeup.co
• Calibration of Hydrometer
3
www.gradeup.co
Consist. Description IC IL
Liquid Liquid <0 >1
Plastic Very soft 0-0.25 0.75-1.00
soft 0.25-0.5 0.50-0.75
medium 0.50-0.75 0.25-0.50
stiff 0.75-1.00 0.0-0.25
stiff
Semi- Very stiff
solid OR Hard >1 <0
Solid Hard OR
very hard >1 <0
4
www.gradeup.co
• When IT < 1, the soil is friable (easily crushed) at the plastic limit.
Compaction of Soil
5
www.gradeup.co
G w
• d = for, rd max' S = 1, ha = 0 correspond to 100% saturation or zero air void line.
wG
1+
S
(a − na )G w
d =
• 1 + wG
• Ratio of total energy given in heavy compaction test to that given in light compaction test
4.9 g (5 25) 450
= = 4.5
2.6 g (3 25) 310
Compaction Equipments
Road
construction
Smooth
2. wheeled Crushed
rollers rocks,
Base, sub-
gravels
base and
sands
embankment
Pneumatic Sand, compaction
tyred rollers gravels silts, for highways,
3. clayey soils air fields etc.
Earth dams.
Core of earth
dams.
Embankment
for oil storage
Clayey soils
tanks etc.
6
www.gradeup.co
Compaction Tests
Boussinesq's Theory
Vertical stress at point 'P'. ( Z )
7
www.gradeup.co
5/2
3Q 1
• Z = where, Q = Point load in newton
2 z 2 r 2
1+
z 2
Q
Z = kB .
• z2
5/2
3 1
kB = =
2 r 2
1+ 2
z
3
kB |max = = 0.4775
2
• ' Z ' below the point load at depth z,
Q
z = 0.4775.
Z2
Westergaard's Theory
3/2
Q 1
z = 2
z 2r 2
1+ 2
• z
Q
z = kW .
• Z2
kw |max = 0.3183
•
Boussinesq's Result
Q
z |max = 0.0888
• r2
Q2
z |max = 0.1332
• 22
Westergaard's Results
• Vertical Stresss due to Live Loads
2
2q ' 1
z =
z X2
1+ 2
z
8
www.gradeup.co
q
Z = [ + sin ]
•
Trapezoidal Method
q ( B L)
• z at depth ' z ' =
( B + 2 z )( L + 2 z )
q ( B L)
z =
• ( B + 2 z )( L + 2 z )
q ( B L)
z =
• ( B + 4 z )( L + 4 z )
Shear Strength
9
www.gradeup.co
max imum
• c = + where, max. = Angle between resultant stress and normal stress on
4 2
critical plane.
= Friction angle of soil = ∅
c = +
4 2
↓
for clay ∅ = 0
c =
4
= tan = C + tan
• (iii) , for C-∅ soil.
10
www.gradeup.co
• 1 = 3 + d
P
• ( d ) failure = ( 1 + 3 ) failure
A
• = S = C + n tan
11
www.gradeup.co
• For clays as sand/coarse grained soil/can't sland in equipment with no lateral pressure.
• Used to rapidly assess clay consistency in field.
• To get sensitivity values of clay.
Height of 20 mm 10 to 20 cm
vane (H)
Dia of vane 12 mm 5 to 10 cm
(D)
Shear Strength
T
S = =
H D
D2 +
2 6
When top and bottom of vanes both take part in shearing.
T
• S = =
H D
D2 +
2 12
12
www.gradeup.co
U = U c + U d
U = B[ 3 + A( 1 − 3 )]
Deep Foundation
Dynamic Approach
• Engineering News Records Formula
WH
Qup =
S +C
Q WH
Qap = up =
6 (S + C )
Qup = Ultimate load on pile
Qap = Allowable load on pile
W = Weight of hammer in kg.
H = Height of fall of hammer in cm.
S = Final set (Average penetration of pile per blow of hammer for last five blows in cm)
C = Constant
= 2.5 cm → for drop hammer
= 0.25 cm → for steam hammer (single acting or double acting)
13
www.gradeup.co
Qup
Qap =
Fs
Fs = Factor of safety = 3
h = Efficiency of hammer
b = Efficiency of blow.
h = 0.75to0.85 for single acting steam hammer
h = 0.75to0.80 for double acting steam hammer
h = 1 for drop hammer.
Energy of hammer after impact
b =
Energy of hammer just before impact
W + e2 P
b = when w > e.p
W +P
2
W + e2 P W − e2 P
b = − .. when w < e.p
W +P W +P
w = Weight of hammer in kg.
p = Weight of pile + pile cap
e = Coefficient of restitutions
= 0.25 for wooden pile and cast iron hammer
= 0.4 for concrete pile and cast iron hammer
= 0.55 for steel piles and cast iron hammer
S = Final set or penetrations per blow
C = Total elastic compression of pile, pile cap and soil
H = Height of fall of hammer.
Under-Reamed Pile
An 'under-reamed' pile is one with an enlarged base or a bulb;
14
www.gradeup.co
o b A = B2 qs = C A =4 B.L
s
• For Square Group
• Qug = .Qup
Qug
• Qug = where, Qug = Allowable load on pile group.
FOS
Sg
• Sr =
Si
• When Piles are Embended on a Uniform Clay
Cc H 0 +
S g = H = log10 0 and
1 + e0 0
Q
0 =
( B + z )2
• In case of Sand
2
Sg 4 B + 2.7
Sr = = where, B = Size of pile group in meter.
Si B + 3.6
15
www.gradeup.co
d (H + d )
Pp . = Pa
• 3 3 … without factor of safety.
Pp d (H + d )
• = Pa …. with factor of safety.
Fos 3 3
1 1
Pp = k p d 2 Pp = k p ( H + d ) 2
• 2 2
Bearing Capacity
16
www.gradeup.co
• The load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock which enables it to bear and transmit
loads from a structure.
Gross Pressure Intensity
• It is the total pressure at the base of the footing due to the weight of the super structure,
self weight of the footing and weight of the earth fill.
qu = D f tan 4 45 + 2
• 2 or q = D 1 + sin
f
1 − sin
u
• Bells Theory (C - ∅)
W .I r + CR
qult = qult = 5.5C
b.I 0
Prandtl Method: (C - ∅)
1
qu = CN c + D f N q + BN → For strip footing
2
For C-soil N c = 5.14, Nq = 1, N = 0
Terzaghi Method (C - ∅)
• For strip footing
1
qu = CN c + D f N q + BN
2
• For square footing
qu = 1.3CNc + Df Nq + 0.4 BN
• For rectangular footing
B
qu 1 0.3 CNC
L
1 0.2B
D f Nq 1 BN
2 L
17
www.gradeup.co
qnu = CN c
Df
• If = 0i.e. of the surface.
B
Then NC = 5 For strip footing
NC = 6.0 For square and circular footing.
where Df = Depth of foundation.
Df
• If 0 2.5
B
D
N C = 5 1 + 0.2 f , for strip footing
B
D
NC = 6 1 + 0.2 f , For square and circular footing.
B
B D
N C = 5 1 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 f for rectangular footing
L B
Df
• if 2.5 NC =7.5
B
for strip footing
NC =9.0 for circular, square and rectangular footing.
18
www.gradeup.co
Sf Bf
=
Sp Bp
n +1
Sf B
= f
S p B p
Housels Approach
QP = mAp + nPp
Q f = mAf + nPf
QP = Allowable load on plate m and n are constant
P = Perimeter Ap = Area of plate
Af = Area of foundation
Pecks Equation
qa net = 0.44 NS = Cw kN / m 2
Dw
Cw = 0.5 1 +
D + B
f
Teng's Equations
2
B + 0.3
qns = 1.4( N − 3) SCwCD kN / m
2
2B
D
CW = 0.5 1 + w
B
D
CD = 1 + f 2
B
Cw =Water table correction factor
Dw = Depth of water table below foundation level
B = Width of foundation
Cd =Depth correction factor
S = Permissible settlement in 'mm'.
19
www.gradeup.co
2
B + 0.3
qns = 1.38( N − 3) SCw
2B
qns =Net safe bearing pressure in kN/m2
B = Width in meter.
S = Settlement in 'mm'.
Meyer-hoffs Equation
• qns = 0.49 NSCwCd where, qns = Net safe bearing capacity in kN/m2.
B < 1.2 m
D 1 D
Cd = 1 + f 2 Cw = 1 + w
B 2 B
2
B + 0.3
qns = 0.32 N .S .Cd .Cw
2B
B ≥ 1.2 m (where qns is in kN/m2.
20
www.gradeup.co
• K a .K P = 1
• Pa P0 PP
Pa = Active earth pressure.
P0 = Earth pressure at rest.
PP = Passive earth pressure.
1 1 H
Pa = K a ' H 2 + w H 2
• 2 2 acts at 3 from base
where = Submerged unit weight of soil.
21
www.gradeup.co
1 H1
Pa1 = H 2 + from base = H1
K a H12 --- acts of
2 3
H
Pa2 = Ka 1H1H 2 --- acts of 2 from base = H 2
2
1 H
Pa3 = K a ' H 22 --- acts at 2 from base = H 3
2 3
1 H2
Pa4 = w H 22 --- acts of from base = H 4
2 3
1 1
• K a = tan 2 45 − = = where N = Influence Factor.
2 2 N
tan 45 +
2
• Active Earth Pressure of Any Depth z
Pa = ka z − 2c ka
• Active Earth Pressure of Surface. i.e., at z = 0 Pa = −2c ka
• At z = zc → Pa = O
2c
Zc = tan 45 +
2
•
4c
H c = tan 45 +
2
• When Tension Cracks are not Developed
1
Pa = ka H 2 − 2CH ka
2
• When Tension Cracks are Developed
1
Pa =(ka H − 2C ka )( H − Z c )
2
1 2C 2
Pa = ka H 2 − 2CH ka +
2
1 H − Zc
or Pa = ( ka ( H − Z c ) 2 acts at
2 3
22
www.gradeup.co
2
sin( + )
ka = sin
sin( + ).sin( + )
sin( + ) +
sin( + )
2
sin( − )
kp = sin
sin( + ) sin( + )
sin( + ) +
sin( + )
Special points:
23
www.gradeup.co
24
www.gradeup.co
tan S C + n tan
Fs where, Fs = Factor of safety against sliding = =
tan
• For safety of Slopes
↓
Fs 1
• Seepage taking place and water table is parallel to the slope in Cohesionless soil
25
www.gradeup.co
Cr 2
• F= where, F = Factor of safety
we
Cr 2 1
F=
• we
26