Articles

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-020-0396-x

Wafer-scale production of patterned transition

metal ditelluride layers for two-dimensional
metal–semiconductor contacts at the
Schottky–Mott limit
Seunguk Song1, Yeoseon Sim1,2, Se-Yang Kim1, Jung Hwa Kim1,2, Inseon Oh   1, Woongki Na3,
Do Hee Lee1, Jaewon Wang1, Shili Yan4, Yinan Liu5, Jinsung Kwak   1, Jian-Hao Chen   4,5,
Hyeonsik Cheong   3, Jung-Woo Yoo   1, Zonghoon Lee   1,2 and Soon-Yong Kwon   1 ✉

A key challenge in the development of two-dimensional (2D) devices is the fabrication of metal–semiconductor junctions with
minimal contact resistance and depinned energy levels. An ideal solution for practical applications is to make contacts between
2D van der Waals semiconductors and 2D van der Waals metals. Here we report the wafer-scale production of patterned layers
of metallic transition metal ditellurides on different substrates. Our tungsten ditelluride and molybdenum ditelluride layers,
which are grown using a tellurization process applied to a precursor transition metal layer, have an electronic performance
comparable to that of mechanically exfoliated flakes and can be combined with the 2D semiconductor molybdenum disulfide.
The resulting metal–semiconductor junctions are free from significant disorder effects and Fermi-level pinning, and are used to
create monolayer molybdenum disulfide field-effect transistors. The Schottky barrier heights of the devices also largely follow
the trend of the Schottky–Mott limit.

E
lectrical contacts are crucial to the operation and perfor-
mance of semiconductor devices, as every device has a
metal–semiconductor junction (MSJ)1–4. MSJs are character-
ized by an energy level known as the Schottky barrier (SB), which
has a Schottky barrier height (SBH) that can be theoretically pre-
dicted by the Schottky–Mott rule based on the relative alignment of
energy levels1. Improved electronic devices could be developed by
qualitatively tuning the SBHs of the MSJs3,5. However, in reality, the
Schottky–Mott rule generally provides incorrect predictions for the
SBH due to the Fermi level at the MSJ being pinned. This is due to the
types of chemical interactions that occur at the contact of the metal
and semiconductor, such as an atomic discontinuity at the metal–
semiconductor interface, microscopic defects or clusters of metal–
semiconductor phases and other effects that form surface states that
are pinned closely in energy to the Fermi level6. The recent devel-
opment of two-dimensional (2D) nanoscale devices has created
interfaces between 2D van  der Waals (vdW) semiconductors and
3D (or bulk) metals, which inevitably result in an atomically sharp
discontinuity, chemical disorder and Fermi-level pinning (FLP) at
the interface7–9. This produces large contact resistances. Intrinsically,
the nature of 2D semiconductors (with atomic-scale thicknesses and
pristine vdW surfaces) makes it difficult to reduce the contact resis-
tance and fabricate ideal MSJs with conventional 3D metals9,10.
One approach to address this challenge is to form ‘seamless’ edge
contacts between a 2D vdW metal and a 2D vdW semiconductor
using phase engineering or lateral epitaxial growth7,11. However, the
approach is still at an early stage and often does not prepare spatially
uniform materials, which results in a poor electrical performance
of the resulting MSJs. However, recent studies have demonstrated
impressive advances towards fabricating high-quality top contacts
on 2D semiconductors10,12,13, which are the most practical contact
structures manufactured using standard lithographic techniques.
For example, vdW contacts formed by transferring graphene12 and
metallic transition metal chalcogenides13 onto few-layered 2D semi-
conductors demonstrate good contact properties. However, for the
approach to be practical and scalable, limitations in terms of fabri-
cating position-controlled 2D metal contacts on a large scale need
to be addressed.
Heterostructures that consist of 2D vdW metals are typically
prepared via mechanical exfoliation or chemical vapour deposi-
tion (CVD) of small flakes with random shapes5,14–16. Although
the CVD growth of graphene on metal surfaces (such as Cu or
Cu/Ni alloy) is well-developed for large areas and enables good
electrical properties, the transfer process (which includes the use of
wet chemistry and/or polymers and the introduction of mechani-
cal damage or excessive stress) is a limiting step for contact per-
formance. Furthermore, the metallization of graphene, which is
required for electrical characterization, typically results in variation
of the carrier injection efficiency depending on the deposited metal.
For example, Ti/graphene-contacted MoS2 field-effect transistors
(FETs) exhibited a contact resistance of around 2,000 kΩ μm com-
pared to the Ag/graphene contact resistance of around 115 kΩ μm
(ref. 12), which highlights the importance of material selection for
the contact pad and metallization process.

1
School of Materials Science and Engineering and Center for Future Semiconductor Technology (FUST), Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology
(UNIST), Ulsan, Korea. 2Center for Multidimensional Carbon Materials, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Ulsan, Korea. 3Department of Physics, Sogang
University, Seoul, Korea. 4Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China. 5International Center for Quantum Materials, School of
Physics, Peking University, Beijing, P. R. China. ✉e-mail: sykwon@unist.ac.kr

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Articles Nature Electronics

a b
Patterned
(W,Mo)/substrate (W,Mo)Te2
(W,Mo)/substrate Ar

NixTey /substrate Photo-

lithography

c d e
A42 A18 A1
5
A1
2
SiO2/Si

(002)
9
A1

Intensity (a.u.)
Intensity (a.u.)

(006)
(004)

(008)
100 150 200 250 10 20 30 40 50 60
2 cm
Raman shift (cm–1) 2θ (°)

f g h i
This study 1h
64 4.26 nm 4.4 104
Exfoliated31 12 h
W-Te
Te-W MBE grown32
Intensity (a.u.)

Intensity (a.u.)
168 h
Rs (Ω sq–1)
W-Te 24
Ra (nm)

Te-W 2.1
H (nm)

3
10
11
Te-O W-O 1.0
6
4 0.7
102 WF = 4.40 eV
45 40 35 30 1 2 3 8 20 0 10 20 30 40 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
Binding energy (eV) H of pre-W (nm) H (nm) hν – Eb – EF (eV)

Fig. 1 | Position-controllable growth of WTe2 atomic layers directly on a SiO2/Si substrate. a,b, Experimental scheme to prepare patterned WTe2 films
on a substrate. a, Schematic of Te-gas confined reactor, consists of NixTey on a transition metal precursor film in the furnace. b, Drawings showing the
procedure for the synthesis of a WTe2 thin film in a position-controllable way, which includes a photolithography process before tellurization. c, Optical
image of as-grown large-scale WTe2 patterns on a 4-inch-scale SiO2/Si substrate (left) and representative OM images of the thin film captured at marked
points on the left image (right), which represents a uniform contrast of WTe2 (light green) to the substrate. Scale bar, 100 μm. d, Raman spectra of WTe2
thin film captured randomly at the 4-inch-scale patterns having the characteristic five vibrational modes of the material. e, XRD pattern of the as-grown
thin film showing peaks for the (002l) planes of WTe2. f, XPS profile (W 4f/Te 4d scan) of a WTe2 film without any traces of impurities or oxides. g, H and
Ra of an as-grown WTe2 thin film modulated by the thickness of a W precursor film (H of pre-W), characterized by AFM. Inset: AFM image of the thinnest
WTe2 film we obtained, 4.26-nm thick. Scale bar, 2 μm. h, Sheet resistance (Rs) as a function of film thickness (H) measured by a four-probe method. Rs
values of mechanically exfoliated31 and MBE-grown32 high-quality WTe2 flakes are also displayed for comparison. i, Ultraviolet photoelectron spectra of
WTe2 thin films dependent on air exposure times t using a He I source (ultraviolet emission at hν = 21.2 eV) near the onset of the secondary emission cutoff
edge. The spectra are displayed in the form of hν – Eb – EF to designate WFs of the film as the x intercept of the fitted linear line, where Eb is the binding
energy and EF is the Fermi energy (see Supplementary Fig. 6 for more details) a.u., arbitrary units.

In terms of potential vdW metals, transition metal ditellurides,
such as tungsten ditelluride (WTe2) and molybdenum ditellu-
ride (MoTe2), in a distorted 1T structure (1T′ phase) demonstrate
many attractive features as potential n-type contacts for 2D semi-
conductors, which include a pristine vdW surface17, high conduc-
tivity and current-carrying capacity18, and a low work function
(WF) (<4.4 eV) (ref. 3). In addition, the higher atomic mass of
Te compared with that of other chalcogen atoms leads to a toler-
ance to high-energy bombardment: an electron energy of around
270 keV is required to create a chalcogen vacancy for MoTe2,
whereas around 90 keV is needed to create a vacancy for MoS2 by
ballistic electron impacts19. This means that transition metal ditel-
luride can maintain its own electronic structure without defect-
induced states during additional metallization (for example, Ag
deposition on MoTe2 (ref. 20)). However, the wafer-scale produc-
tion of high-quality stoichiometric transition metal ditellurides
remains challenging, mainly due to the low environmental stability
and chemical activity of Te and to difficulties in Te incorporation
during growth21,22.
In this article, we report the wafer-scale production of patterned
metallic WTe2 and MoTe2 layers on various substrates. The grown
materials have a high electrical performance and spatial homogene-
ity. We also show that monolayer MoS2 FETs can be created that
contain 2D (W,Mo)Te2/MoS2 vdW MSJs with near-ideal interfaces.
To synthesize the materials, we used a Te source of eutectic alloy
directly on top of a transition metal precursor to constantly supply
Te, and thus avoid Te deficiency during the process. Consequently,
the obtained wafer-scale (W,Mo)Te2 thin films exhibit a high stoi-
chiometric nature with a uniform thickness down to around
4.26 nm and electrical performance comparable to that of mechani-
cally exfoliated single crystals. FETs were prepared through the
simple transfer of a semiconducting channel material (MoS2) on the
position-controlled grown WTe2 or MoTe2 contact. The monolayer
MoS2 FETs operated by the WTe2 electrode demonstrate n-type
behaviour with a higher on-current, higher electron mobility and
lower SBH compared to those of FETs contacted to conventional
3D metals (such as Ti or Au). The WTe2 and MoTe2 contacts have
a relatively low WF, which causes a low SBH without a noticeable

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Nature Electronics
a 0.4 b c
L = 150 µm
L = 100 µm
0.2
L = 40 µm
Ids (mA)
R (kΩ)
0 1.6
–0.2
–0.4
–0.2 0 0.2
Vds (V)
Fig. 2 | Electro- and magnetotransporting behaviours of WTe2 films. a,b, Electrical characterization of a ~6.2-nm-thick TLM device. a, Ids–Vds curves
of device of various L. Inset: OM image of the corresponding device. Scale bar, 250 μm. b, L-dependent resistance (R) of the WTe2 TLM device. Rc was
extracted by linear fitting and noted in the plot. c, MR versus applied magnetic field (B) of the Hall bar device with a 4.26-nm-thick WTe2 channel.
Inset: OM image of measured device. Scale bar, 250 μm.
deviation from the ideal Schottky–Mott model. We also fabricated
electrical devices that consisted of position-controlled, ultrathin
WTe2 channels with different shapes, which could be used to manu-
facture atomically thin circuitry.
Fabrication of patterned (W,Mo)Te2 thin films
A schematic of the process used for the production of patterned
transition metal ditellurides is shown in Fig. 1a,b. We demonstrate
the capabilities of the method using SiO2/Si, graphene and quartz
substrates (Supplementary Fig. 1). First, a transition metal layer was
deposited on the substrates using a d.c. magnetron sputter and then
patterned by photolithography and reactive ion etching. This pat-
terned transition metal/substrate was placed directly over a NixTey/
SiO2/Si wafer (Supplementary Fig. 2) for source contact geometry,
and this assembly was heated to temperatures (T) as high as ~500 °C
for short times t with a flow of inert Ar gas. The NixTey eutectic alloy
was chosen because it has a high solubility for Te and the Te vapour
could be constantly supplied from NixTey at a T higher than its eutec-
tic point (~449 °C; Supplementary Fig. 2b), both of which facilitate
the direct growth of high-quality stoichiometric WTe2 atomic lay-
ers. This source contact mode allows the effective confinement of
vapours to maintain a Te-rich environment, which cannot easily be
achieved using other growth modes (for example, metal–organic
CVD23, tellurization using an isothermal close space24 and postan-
nealing of predeposited precursors of transition metal ditellurides25)
owing to the low environmental stability and activity of Te, and the
difficulties in Te incorporation during growth26,27. These limita-
tions mean the above-mentioned approaches23–25 require a very long
growth time (>24 hours), H2 gas as a reducing agent in addition to
the carrier gas and a carefully designed furnace or crucible system;
moreover, the loss of the Te resource is high. In addition, even the
resultant structure has extra Te on the film. Therefore, it is necessary
to design simple and efficient methods to grow high-quality transi-
tion metal ditellurides on a large scale with electrical performances
comparable to those of mechanically exfoliated flakes. For example,
when Te powder was used instead of the Te-rich confined space,
WTe2 could not be obtained (Supplementary Fig. 2c,d), which is
contradictory behaviour with respect to the suggested strategy.
Figure 1c presents the patterned WTe2 films grown directly on
a 4 inch (101.6 mm) SiO2/Si wafer in this study. It also shows their
wafer-scale homogeneity and intrinsic optical properties. An opti-
cal microscopy (OM) image displays a homogeneous contrast for
the entire patterned WTe2-grown region with various aspect ratios.
All the measured Raman spectra have the same peak positions as
in the exfoliated few-layer WTe2 samples28, regardless of the loca-
tions of the measurements (Fig. 1d). An X-ray diffraction (XRD)
characterization shows a successfully synthesized WTe2 film with a
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Articles
8 Ids = 1 µA
2.4
Ids = 10 µA
6
2.0
MR (%)
4
2
1.2 L = 1 mm
0
0.8 2RC = 904 Ω
–2
0 50 100 150 –9 –6 –3 0 3 6 9
L (µm) B (T)
c-plane-oriented texture specified by the (002l) peaks (Fig. 1e and
Supplementary Fig. 3) as well as by the absence of any peaks related
to an incomplete reaction (Supplementary Fig. 3b). Using a com-
bination of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques,
which include selective area diffraction pattern and annular dark-
field TEM, we found that the grain sizes in the WTe2 layers were
several tens of nanometres, comparable to those of predeposited W
grains, and the synthesized atomic layers were polycrystalline, with
five ring shapes for the WTe2 planes of {010}, {110}, {120}, {030}
and {200} (Supplementary Fig. 4). The precise chemical composi-
tion and high quality of our WTe2 films (that is, with no significant
oxygen-related impurities29) were further verified by X-ray photo-
electron spectroscopy (XPS) (Fig. 1f and Supplementary Fig. 5a–c)
and TEM energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (Supplementary
Fig. 4c–f).
We examined the surface roughness (Ra) and thickness (H) of the
as-synthesized WTe2 film as a function of the predeposited W film
thickness before the tellurization process (H of predeposited W),
characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM) (Fig. 1g).
The synthesized WTe2 films had uniform thicknesses down to
H ≈ 4.26 ± 0.41 nm (five to six layers) while sustaining remark-
ably smooth surfaces with roughnesses (Ra = 0.64 ± 0.09 nm) as
small as the interlayer spacing of the layered WTe2 (~0.75 nm)
(refs. 17,30). The sheet resistances Rs of ~4,092 ± 468 Ω sq–1 and
~147.7 ± 25.8 Ω sq–1 were extracted from the four-point probe
measurements of the WTe2 layers (~1 × 1 cm2) with thicknesses of
~4.26 nm and ~39.8 nm, respectively (Fig. 1h). We note that these
Rs values are comparable to those of mechanically exfoliated sin-
gle-crystalline31 and molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE)-grown32 WTe2
layers, which further confirms the high quality of the crystals. The
increased Rs of the thinner WTe2 layer compared to that of the bulk
can be attributed to surface-carrier scattering31. Ultraviolet pho-
toelectron spectroscopy characterization showed that WTe2 has a
valance level with a low WF of ~4.40 eV (Fig. 1i and Supplementary
Fig. 5d), similar to the theoretical value3 and to that of an exfoliated
sample33. This assures its use as an n-type electrode for electrical
applications. Interestingly, we found that the WF of the air-exposed
WTe2 layers is relatively insensitive to material degradation, prob-
ably because of FLP at the semiconducting WOx/metallic WTe2
interface (Supplementary Fig. 6).
Electrical and magnetic properties of WTe2
Given the growth mechanism, we can achieve any shape of the film,
which can be utilized to design electric circuitries composed of
transition metal ditellurides. Patterns for the transfer line method
(TLM) (Fig. 2a,b) and Hall bar devices (Fig. 2c) were defined
and characterized. Figure 2a,b shows the drain source current
Articles
(Ids) versus voltage (Vds) characteristics of a ~6.2-nm-thick TLM
device with a width (W) of 10 μm under vacuum as a function of
the channel length (L). Regardless of L, linear Ids – Vds dependences
were obtained (which indicates a well-defined ohmic contact) and
the TLM-extracted resistivity ρ was calculated as ~0.559 mΩ cm. It
is worth noting that the linear relation between R and L (that is,
R = ρL/WH) indicates that the growth method employed is repro-
ducible for the long channel at least up to 150 μm. The calculated
ρ, contact resistance Rc = 452 Ω (at the interface of Ti and WTe2),
and even data obtained for wider films were similar to those of
the mechanically exfoliated flakes28,34 (Supplementary Fig. 7a,b).
Furthermore, the gate voltage (Vg) dependence was tiny, as in a
previous report35 (Supplementary Fig. 7c), which indicates the high
quality of our WTe2 films. The Rc of Ti/WTe2 (~0.5–1 kΩ μm) has a
low value compared to those reported for 3D metal/2D metal sys-
tems34 (even smaller than those of the general Rc for 3D metal/gra-
phene (~2–102 kΩ μm) (refs. 36–39); Supplementary Table 1), which
enabled an enhanced carrier injection through the interface, and the
material structure was used for the MSJ. Notably, the two-terminal
WTe2 device sustained a considerably high current density (J = F/ρ,
where F is the applied electric field) of ~11.61 MA cm–2 at a low F
(0.4 kV cm–1; Supplementary Fig. 7d), even larger than the current-
carrying capacities of the conventional interconnect metals (that is,
Cu and Al) (ref. 18), which demonstrates its potential for use as a
local electrode or interconnect.
We further investigated the magnetoresistance (MR) of the
WTe2 device (H ≈ 4.26 nm) to study the disorder effect (Fig. 2c
and Supplementary Fig. 8). The four-probe device exhibited a MR
(= (Rxx(B) – Rxx(0))/Rxx(0)) behaviour. The MR value reached ~5.3%
at B = 8 T (Supplementary Fig. 8a), higher than those of the previ-
ously reported synthesized polycrystalline WTe2 thin films29,30,40.
Generally, the disorder could substantially suppress the MR when
the layer is thinner as it breaks the balance of electron and hole
pockets30; accordingly, the observed larger MR indicates that the
quality of the crystal is superior, with a smaller disorder effect.
The sharp curves superimposed on the quadratic classical back-
ground in MR near-zero fields reflect the weak localization due
to quantum interference, which indicates the presence of strong
spin–orbit coupling as the layer contains a heavy element, W. The
device exhibited a signal of disorder (or band structure alteration),
indicated by the decreased MR under a high bias41, compared to
the MR behaviour of the bulk WTe2. The effect of the disorder on
the thin film is also observed in the R–T curve (Supplementary
Fig. 8c), where R increases when T decreases (positive tempera-
ture coefficient of resistivity  ∝ (dρ/dT) >  0), which is referred
to as an Anderson localization. These phenomena were attrib-
uted to the disorders frequently observed in atomically thin sys-
tems, particularly in materials with strong spin–orbit coupling42.
Nevertheless, the metallic behaviour still existed for the ~4.26-nm-
thick WTe2, indicated by the positive slope of the reduced activation
energy (W = –d(ln R)/d(ln T)) versus T curve at low temperatures
(Supplementary Fig. 8d).
Monolayer MoS2 FETs with (W,Mo)Te2 contacts
Considering the low WF (~4.40 eV in Fig. 1i) and vdW clean sur-
face of metallic 1T′-structured WTe2, it could be an efficient n-type
contact for 2D semiconductors. The quality (that is, contact resis-
tance and SBH) of the metal contacts is critical for the proper func-
tioning of the entire device. However, no extensive studies on this
hypothesis have been carried out, probably owing to the challenge
of material preparation. As our growth mode enables us to obtain
position-controlled ~4.26-nm-thick WTe2 patterns with a small
roughness (Ra = 0.64 nm) at a large scale, we were able to fabricate a
monolayer MoS2 FET with a WTe2/MoS2 MSJ simply by transferring
a CVD-grown monolayer MoS2 on the WTe2 patterns (Fig. 3a,b).
The Ti (or Au) layers were also defined by typical electron-beam
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evaporation for electrode comparison and for their use as contact
pads on WTe2 (Supplementary Fig. 9a,b). Note that the deposition
of Ti did not affect the WTe2 crystal’s atomic and electronic struc-
tures, and thereby avoided the formation of defect-induced states
(Supplementary Fig. 10). We observed the highly isotropic charge
transport at the WTe2/MoS2 interface, which was attributed to the
polycrystalline nature of our WTe2 patterns (Supplementary Fig. 4)
because it is independent of the relative in-plane orientation between
the two lattices. The Raman spectra of the WTe2/MoS2 interface
exhibit all the expected peak positions for WTe2 and MoS2 (Fig. 3c
and Supplementary Fig. 9). The electron energy-loss spectroscopy
(EELS) mapping images (Supplementary Fig. 11) show the hetero-
structures without oxidation-related features at WTe2, although the
fabrication process was conducted under ambient conditions. Both
the passivated regions in WTe2 (Ti contact pad and MoS2 layer) and
the self-limited oxidation process43 further give rise to the air-stable
performance of the MSJ device (Supplementary Fig. 12).
Figure 3d,e shows the output and transfer curves of the fabri-
cated MoS2 FETs with asymmetric contacts, where the carriers are
injected from the WTe2 (red) and Ti (black) electrodes. All the
electrical measurements depicted in Fig. 3d–f were performed at
room temperature. The reverse-biased contact (source) consumes
most of the voltage drop and dominates the transistor behaviour
for n-type MoS2 MSJ FETs, which enables a systematic electrical
characterization, depending on the asymmetric interface. The on-
state current (Ion) of the WTe2 (source)-contacted MoS2 device was
~216 nA μm–1, more than five times higher than that of the Ti–MoS2
FET (~38 nA μm–1), the same behaviour as in the output character-
istics (Fig. 3d and Supplementary Fig. 13a–d). In addition, the two-
terminal field-effect mobility (μFET) can be calculated as9:
  
dIds L
μFET ¼ ð1Þ
dVg WCi Vds
where Vg is the applied back gate voltage and Ci is the capacitance
of the SiO2 dielectric layer (~11.5 nF cm−2). The deduced μFET for the
WTe2-contacted MoS2 FET was ~2.20 cm2 V−1 s−1, also almost twice
as high as that of the device with the Ti contacts. We also fabri-
cated and characterized FETs with asymmetry contacts that com-
prised Ti and metallic 1T′ MoTe2 (which was obtained via the same
growth scheme as used for WTe2, depicted in Supplementary Fig.
14). However, the performance improvement by the MoTe2 was tiny
compared to that for WTe2 (Supplementary Fig. 13e–h). For a larger
number (>10) of FET devices with symmetry contacts, we extracted
the Ion and μFET and proved the validity of the electrical perfor-
mance enhancement through the introduction of the WTe2 con-
tact, as summarized in Fig. 3f (see more details in Supplementary
Fig. 15 and Supplementary Table 2). The superior performance of
the WTe2-contacted FET devices (with their μFET values as high as
~7.33 cm2 V−1 s−1 and average μFET value close to ~1.73 cm2 V−1 s−1)
compared to those of the other FETs with different contacts could
probably be attributed to the smaller contact barrier at the 2D vdW
interface between WTe2 and MoS2.
To validate the better contact of the MoS2/WTe2 MSJ, we extracted
the Rc using the TLM devices (Supplementary Fig. 16). The Rc of
WTe2/MoS2 was substantially small (~57 kΩ μm, which included Rc
of the Ti/WTe2 interface) at Vg = 80 V, almost an order of magni-
tude lower than that of Ti/MoS2 (Supplementary Fig. 16a,b), which
enabled the higher performance of the MSJ. In Supplementary Fig.
16c,d and Supplementary Table 3, we summarize and compare the
Rc values for different contacts with MoS2 gathered from values
reported in the literature12,14,44–53. The Rc of our WTe2/MoS2 is one of
the lowest among the MSJ FETs composed of monolayer MoS2 with
2D12,14,44,45 and 3D vertical contacts12,45,50,51 (Supplementary Table 3
and Supplementary Fig. 16c). For a fair comparison of 2D metal
contacts for the monolayer MoS2 FET, we also plotted Rc values as
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Nature Electronics Articles
a b c
MoS2 5
A1
WTe2 WTe2
Ti 2
A1

Intensity (a.u.)
9
A1
8
A1
Ti A1g
A14
Ti MoS2 E2g

WTe2 MoS2
10 µm
100 150 200 350 400 450
Raman shift (cm–1)

d 0.5 e 10–6 300 f

Vg = 0 V Ti 101
Vg = 10 V 10–7 WTe2 250
0.4

µFET (cm2 V–1 s–1)

Vg = 20 V
10–8 200 100

Ids (nA µm–1)

Ids (µA µm–1)

Ids (A µm–1)
0.3 Vg = 30 V
–9
Vg = 40 V 10 150
Vg = 50 V 10–1
0.2 10–10
100
0.1 10–11 10–2
50
–12
10
0 0 10–3
10–13
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 –100 –50 0 50 100 Au Ti WTe2
Vds (V) Vg (V)

Fig. 3 | Atomically thin FETs composed of the MoS2 channel and WTe2 contact. a–e, Characterization of a monolayer MoS2 FET with asymmetric
contacts of Ti and WTe2. a, Schematic of the MoS2 FET device in contact with position-controlled grown 4.26-nm-thick WTe2 and Ti. b, OM image of
the fabricated device. c, Raman spectrum of the WTe2/MoS2 heterostructure marked as a red circle in b, which shows strong signals of each material.
d, Room-temperature Ids–Vds output curves of MoS2 FET characterized by different carrier injections from WTe2 (red) and Ti (black) electrodes. e, Room-
temperature Ids–Vg characteristics of the corresponding device in linear (open shapes, right axis) and logarithm (solid lines, left axis) scales at Vds = 1.0 V.
f, Comparison of the room-temperature μFET of monolayer MoS2 devices with those of symmetric metal contacts, such as WTe2 (red circles), Ti (black
squares) and Au (blue triangles).

a function of carrier density (n2D) (Supplementary Fig. 16d). Given
the relation between n2D and Rc, our WTe2 technique provides a
low Rc in an order comparable to that of the graphene contact, the
most widely used 2D metal contact. The superior carrier injection
through the Ti/WTe2/MoS2 system may be attributed to the higher
out-of-plane interaction of WTe2 (ref. 34) (Supplementary Note 1),
as indicated by the smaller Rc of our Ti/WTe2 (>1.03 kΩ μm) than
the general Rc for 3D metal/graphene36–39 (2–102 kΩ μm), as sum-
marized in Supplementary Table 1. Together with the relative merit
of WTe2 from the perspective of the material processing compared
with that of graphene (for example, the growth compatibility with a
low thermal budget effect (Supplementary Fig. 17) and the robust-
ness against interface issues (Supplementary Fig. 10)), the low Rc
promises its future applications as the contact and interconnects
for 2D transition metal chalcogenide-based electronics. Recently,
Wang et  al. demonstrated ultraclean vdW contacts on monolayer
MoS2 using 3D metal53. The Rc value of the 3D In/Au electrodes was
~3.0 kΩ μm, which is among the lowest observed for 3D metal elec-
trodes deposited onto 2D monolayer MoS2, indicative of defect-free
interfaces. However, this assumes that the further device integra-
tion stage does not involve any high-temperature process steps that
damage the 3D In/Au layers, which may not be the case given the
soft nature of In (with a low melting point of ~156 °C). We expect
that there is a crucial advantage and opportunity for WTe2, which
exhibits a high current-carrying capacity and a superior electrical
robustness against Joule heating (note that the melting point of
WTe2 is ~1,020 °C (ref. 26))18.
Controllable SBs between MoS2 and (W,Mo)Te2
We studied the carrier transport mechanism in the WTe2/MoS2 MSJ
FET. According to the general SB FET theory7, there are two mecha-
nisms by which charges can be injected across the MSJ: thermionic
emission over the SB and field emission (namely, tunnelling) across
the SB. In general, for 2D semiconductors, such as MoS2, we deal
mostly with thermionic emission at a Vg lower than that of the flat-
band voltage (VFB), with field emission starting to contribute with
increased Vg (>VFB). For a largely induced Vg, the MoS2 band sub-
stantially bends downwards and the SB width is reduced, which
allows the injection of electrons into the channel by field emission.
These processes are qualitatively explained by band diagrams in
Supplementary Fig. 18. To elucidate this mechanism, we electrically
characterized the MoS2 MSJ FET at low temperatures. The repre-
sentative transfer curves of the device are shown in Fig. 4a. We first
see that the monolayer MoS2 follows the phonon-limited μFET at
~T–γ (γ ≈ 0.46 for our WTe2/MoS2 MSJ, as shown in Supplementary
Fig. 19)54, and it is notably affected by the dense distribution of
trap states at the SiO2 interface (Supplementary Fig. 19c). Next, we
obtained the SBH (ΦB) at the WTe2/MoS2 interface from the slope
of a linear fit to ln(Ids/T2) as a function of 1/kBT (Fig. 4b), using the
following thermionic emission model11:
     
qΦB qVds
Ids ¼ AA* T 2 exp � exp �1 ð2Þ
kB T kB T
where A is the junction area and A* is the effective Richardson–
Boltzmann constant. The obtained ΦB as a function of Vg is shown
in Fig. 4c. For Vg < VFB, ΦB are the exact values of the effective SBH
because the dominant transport mechanism was the thermionic
process in the subthreshold regime. However, when Vg > VFB, the
thermionic assistant tunnelling current starts to contribute. As the
thermionic-assistant tunnelling through the bent band (SB width) is
also temperature dependent, the ΦB values extracted from Vg > VFB
can be interpreted as ‘thermionic emission’ barrier values, which
are not the actual SBHs at those Vg values55 (more details on the
behaviour of ΦB are described in Supplementary Note 2). Therefore,
the SBH of the WTe2/MoS2 interface was extracted at the VFB as
~98.9 ± 11.1 meV (averaged value for >15 devices; Supplementary
Fig. 20e). This is very close to the theoretical value (~100 meV)

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Articles Nature Electronics

a 12,000 b –21 c 300 300

T = 138 K Vg = 40 V WTe2
10,000 T = 178 K 250 250
MoTe2
–24

Ideal SBH (meV)

8,000 T = 218 K 200
200 Ti 200
SBH

ФB (meV)
T = 258 K
Ids (nA)

ln(Ids /T 2)
6,000 –27 150 150
4,000 100
100 100
2,000 –30
Vg = 0 V 50 50
0 VFB 0
–33 0 0
–80 –40 0 40 80 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 5 10 15

Ti
WTe2
MoTe2
Vg (V) 1/KBT Vg (V)

d 600 e 600
S=1
NbS2
500 500
Ti
400 Au Pd 400
SBH (meV)

SBH (meV)
Ti S=1
300 S = 0.067 300
Ag MoTe2
200 Ti MoTe2 200 MXene
Ti Cr Graphene
100 100 Mo2C
WTe2 WTe2 TaS2
0 0
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
WF (eV) WF (eV)

Fig. 4 | Low SB nature of (W,Mo)Te2 contacts for atomically thin FETs. a–c, Temperature-dependent electrical characterization of the WTe2-contacted
monolayer MoS2 FET to observe barrier properties at a MoS2/WTe2 interface. a, Temperature-dependent WTe2-contacted two-terminal Ids of the device as
a function of Vg at Vds = 1 V. b, Corresponding linear fit of the Arrhenius plot of ln(Ids/T2) versus 1/kBT for the device shown in a. c, (Left) Barrier height (ΦB)
at the MoS2/WTe2, MoS2/MoTe2 (green line) and MoS2/Ti (blue line) interfaces with Vg dependence. SBH at the VFB was extracted for each interface. Solid
lines are fits to show thermionic regime before reaching flat band condition (Vg < VFB). (Right) Calculated SBHs at the WTe2/MoS2, MoTe2/MoS2, and
Ti/MoS2 interfaces using the Schottky–Mott model to compare with experimentally obtained values on the left. d,e, Comparisons of the extracted SBH at
VFB between monolayer MoS2 and the electrodes of conventional metals (that is, Ti (refs. 2,9,12, square, circle and triangle, respectively), Cr (ref. 9), Ag
(ref. 12), Au (ref. 9) and Pd (ref. 9) (d) and vertically transferred vdW layered metals (for example, graphene12, TaS2 (ref. 13), MXene5, NbS2 (ref. 16) and Mo2C
(ref. 11) (e) with respect to the metals’ WF. The deduced SBHs of 98.9 ± 11.1, 209.8 ± 26.0 and 131.8 ± 29.6 meV for the WTe2-, MoTe2- and Ti-contacted
FETs, respectively, are also shown. The WTe2 contact had a relatively low WF, which caused a low SBH without a noticeable deviation from the ideal
Schottky–Mott model (that is, strength of FML, S = d(SBH)/d(WF) = 1, indicated as a red dashed line), whereas conventional and even some vdW metals
show differences. Note that S (= 0.067) of the bulk metal contacts was calculated by fitting to the SBH versus WF plot, shown as a grey dashed line in d.

calculated by the Schottky–Mott rule, indicative of close-to-perfect
interfaces (SBH = WF – χs for an n-type semiconductor, where χs
is the electron affinity of the n-type semiconductor (for example,
χs of the monolayer MoS2 is 4.3 eV (ref. 9). In addition, the SBH of
WTe2/MoS2 is slightly lower than that of the Ti-contacted MoS2 FET
(~131.8 ± 29.6 meV, shown in blue in Fig. 4c), which is surprising as
Ti has a WF of 4.3 eV, lower than that of WTe2.
Typically, a bulk metal contact on a vdW semiconductor can
create metal-induced gap states or disorders at the interface8,
which induce a deviation from the ideal WF alignment. For our
Ti-contacted MoS2 FET, the same effect possibly occurs and pins
the Fermi level in the gap, which leads to an SBH much larger than
the value calculated (~0 meV) using the Schottky–Mott theory.
Interestingly, we obtained a relatively lower SBH for Ti/MoS2 com-
pared to those of previous studies2,9,12 (Supplementary Figs. 13 and
14). We propose that the Ti is gently deposited on the monolayer
MoS2 owing to ultrahigh vacuum electron-beam evaporation (with
a deposition rate of <0.1 Å s–1), which results in a better interface56;
however, the creations of non-stoichiometric MoxSy and TixSy alloys
could not be avoided (Supplementary Fig. 21), which possibly
formed interface states and pinned the Fermi level. Compared to
WTe2, metallic 1T′-MoTe2 has a WF of ~4.50 eV (Supplementary
Fig. 11h–j), which gave rise to the larger SBH between the metal and
MoS2 (~209.8 ± 26.0 meV, shown in green in Fig. 4c), as expected
by the computed value using the ideal law (~200 meV). This result
indicates that employing (W,Mo)Te2 vertical contacts provides the
advantage of controlling the SBH in a predictable way, which is a
challenge to fulfil by means of the typical deposition process for
3D metal electrodes. Notably, as the vdW contact has no strong
orbital overlaps at the interface, the impact of the vdW gap can
lower the charge injection by producing an additional square tun-
nelling barrier57 (Supplementary Note 2). Nevertheless, the effective
thermionic barrier (ΦB) for the WTe2/MoS2 MSJ was still smaller
than that for Ti/MoS2 in the tunnelling-dominant transport regime
(Vg > VFB). Furthermore, their slopes were comparable (Fig. 4c),
which implies that the decrease in tunnelling probability through
the vdW gap is minor compared with the field emission through the
SB at Ti/MoS2. A smaller charge tunnelling (thicker SB) of Ti/MoS2
is also suggested by the strong dependence of conductivity on low
temperatures of MoS2 at a high Vg (Supplementary Fig. 22).
Figure 4d summarizes the relation between the SBH (at the VFB)
of the MSJs and the WF of conventional 3D metals in contact with
the monolayer MoS2, and includes the as-prepared Ti and (W,Mo)
Te2 in this study. Compared to other conventional 3D metals, WTe2
promises substantial advantages as an n-type electrode with respect
to the SBH (Fig. 4d). Note that this value (~98.9 meV) is, so far, the
lowest SBH observed for metal electrodes formed onto monolayer
MoS2, given that SBH is expected to depend strongly on the num-
ber of MoS2 layers (generally, in the range of 1–3 layers) because
the bandgap increases as the thickness decreases9 (that is, increasing
SBHs with decreasing MoS2 thickness12). It can also be seen from
Fig. 4d that the SBH depends weakly on the WFs of conventional 3D
metals (S = 0.067, dashed grey line), but that the SBHs for WTe2 and
MoTe2 are in the Schottky–Mott limit (S = 1, dashed red line), where
S = |d(SBH)/d(WF)| indicates the strength of the FLP and S = 1
corresponds to the ideal case (or Schottky–Mott limit) and S ≈ 0

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Nature Electronics
corresponds to that of a pinned Fermi level1. For the (W,Mo)
Te2/MoS2 and MSJ employed in this study, we expect that the
absence of a (W,Mo)Te2–MoS2 alloy with a different WF as well as
metal-induced gap states (or disorders) at the interface contribute
to the depinning of the Fermi level, and thereby enhance the effi-
cacy of engineering the ohmic contact by choice of the 2D vdW
MSJ system.
We further plotted the SBH values between the monolayer and
multilayer MoS2 and different vdW vertical electrodes against the
corresponding metal WF (Fig. 4e). We found that the SBHs of gra-
phene12, Mo2C (ref. 11) and NbS2 (ref. 16) largely follow the trend of
the Schottky–Mott limit (S = 1, red), and the values can vary within
a wide range, which allows the tuning of the SBH using different
vdW metals. Notably, both the SBH and WF values of the WTe2
contacts used in this study were the lowest among the vdW metal
candidates, which implies their relative merit as an n-type electri-
cal contact for ultrathin 2D electronics. This is possible owing to
the smooth vdW interface between MoS2 and WTe2 and the high
conductivity of the WTe2 atomic layers compared to those of sin-
gle crystalline flakes. The SBHs of the vdW metals of MXene5 and
TaS2 (ref. 13) showed a deviation from the ideal law, which indicates
the importance of careful material preparation even for the vdW
MSJs. Studies on the effect of WTe2 roughness on the performance
of the device (Supplementary Fig. 23) further validate the vital role
of a clean vdW interface for the fabrication of high-performance
FETs, which implies the importance of the interface properties
in ultrathin 2D electronics. Furthermore, the gentle formation of
WTe2 metal contacts on the 2D semiconductor without causing any
damage (Supplementary Fig. 21) helps to avoid substantial disorder
effects and FLP on the interface, and finally to provide a superior
path for electron transport.
Conclusions
We report here the wafer-scale production of patterned transition
metal ditelluride layers on different surfaces and the fabrication of
monolayer MoS2 FETs that contain 2D WTe2/MoS2 vdW MSJs. Our
technique provides a simple and efficient method to grow high-
quality, stoichiometric transition metal ditellurides with an elec-
trical performance comparable to that of mechanically exfoliated
flakes. The fabricated 2D vdW interfaces are free from substantial
disorder effects and FLP, and their SBHs largely follow the Schottky–
Mott limit. For example, the measured SBH of around 98.9 meV for
the WTe2/MoS2 interface is, so far, the lowest value experimentally
observed for metal electrodes formed on monolayer MoS2 and is
close to the theoretical value (around 100 meV) calculated by the
Schottky–Mott rule. Compared to MSJs with conventional 3D met-
als, the lower SBH and Fermi level depinning of 2D transition metal
ditellurides results in a much improved electrical injection across
the junction. The decoupling of the 2D vdW metal contact from the
2D semiconductor surface could allow vdW FETs with both polari-
ties to be created.
Position-controlled, conformal vdW metal contacts with dif-
ferent shapes affords new possibilities for the fabrication of nano-
electronic devices. For example, flexible and transparent arrays of
logic inverters composed of all 2D vdW-based materials, including
(W,Mo)Te2 contacts/interconnects, could potentially be designed
(Supplementary Fig. 24a,b). Here, the inverter could operate by
controlling the polarity of the 2D ambipolar semiconductor using
(W,Mo)Te2 contacts with different WFs (as tunable SBH was demon-
strated (Fig. 4)). Although the fabrication of the logic device remains
to be done, we have prepared a freestanding thin film with an array of
WTe2 using transparent, colourless polyimide58 to show that atomi-
cally thin flexible metal contacts are feasible with little resistance
change (ΔR/R0 ≈ 3%) under a uniaxial bending strain of around
17.5 % (Supplementary Fig. 24b,c). The low contact barrier at the
WTe2/MoS2 interface can also contribute to a hybrid optospintronic
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Articles
spin valve that consists of a MSJ; together with the very long spin
lifetime59 and the high current density18 through WTe2, the SBH of
WTe2/MoS2, the lowest as yet among the 2D MSJs, may lead to easy
transport of optically induced spins with their slow relaxation.
Methods
Growth of a WTe2 thin film. The synthesis of a large-area WTe2 film was
conducted using a conventional hot-wall furnace system set-up within a Te-gas
confined system that consisted of the sandwiched substrate of W and NixTey
(Fig. 1a and Supplementary Fig. 2). To prepare the NixTey precursor before growth,
a Ni film (~65 nm) was deposited onto SiO2/Si using a d.c. magnetron sputter
system followed by powder-based tellurization at 500 °C for 10 min. As for the
W precursor, a W film (1–20 nm) was fabricated on the other SiO2/Si using d.c.
sputtering under optimized deposition conditions (less than ±5% uniformity
within the wafer). Next, the two precursors prepared (NixTey/substrate and
W/substrate) were sandwiched without any powder precursor, which was placed
at the centre of the furnace. By simply heating the reactants at T = 500 °C and
with an atmospheric pressure using Ar (500 sccm) as the carrier gas in an 8-inch
(25.4-mm) quartz tube during the designated growth time (usually t = 10–30 min,
depending on the experimental conditions), we were able to prepare a WTe2 film
by the tellurization of the W precursor. To grow position-controlled WTe2 patterns,
the W shapes on SiO2/Si were defined beforehand by photolithography (MIDAS
MDA-400S) and a metal reactive ion etcher (TTL Labstar).
Structural characterization. The sample morphology was investigated based on
scanning electron microscopy (Hitachi S-4800) images recorded at an accelerating
voltage of 7 kV. Micro-Raman measurements were conducted with an Ar ion
laser (514.5 nm) focused by a ×40 objective lens (with a numerical aperture of
0.65). The scattered light was collected by the same objective lens, dispersed with
a Jobin-Yvon Horiba iHR550 spectrometer (2,400 grooves mm–1), and detected
with a liquid-nitrogen-cooled back-illuminated charge-coupled-device array
detector. Volume holographic filters (Ondax and Optigrate) were used to reject the
Rayleigh-scattered light. The laser power was maintained at 100 μW to avoid local
heating of the samples. The spectral resolution was below 1 cm−1. For polarized
Raman measurements, the 514.5 nm line of an Ar laser was used. A half-wave plate
was used to rotate the polarization direction of the linearly polarized incident laser
beam to the desired direction. The analyser angle was set such that the photons
with polarization parallel to the incident polarization were able to pass through
(parallel configuration). Another achromatic half-wave plate was placed in front
of the spectrometer to maintain the polarization direction of the signal that enters
the spectrometer constant with respect to the groove direction of the grating. XRD
patterns were recorded using a Bruker AXS D8 system with a Cu Kα source. AFM
images were captured on a Bruker Dimension AFM operating in tapping mode.
High-resolution TEM images and selective area diffraction pattern patterns were
recorded using a JEM-2100F system equipped with a probe-aberration corrector at
an acceleration voltage of 200 kV. XPS and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy
measurements were carried out by an ESCALAB 250XI system (ThermoFisher,
K-alpha) equipped with a microfocused monochromatic Al X-ray source under
ultrahigh vacuum. The calibration for the XPS was conducted to align the binding
energy of 284.5 eV for the C 1s line.
Realization of the WTe2/MoS2 heterostructure. To fabricate the WTe2/MoS2
heterostructure, MoS2 was synthesized beforehand by powder-based CVD with
NaCl as a growth promoter20. Prior to growth, 25 mg of NaCl was dissolved in
10 ml of distilled water. The NaCl solution was pipetted on the corners of the target
SiO2/Si substrate in the form of a drop and baked to remove the water completely.
This target substrate was located with the sputtered 5-nm-thick MoO3 film face-
to-face at the centre of the quartz furnace, and 15 mg of S powder in alumina boats
was placed in the upstream of the CVD system. After purging with a 1,000 sccm
Ar flow, CVD growth was performed at atmospheric pressure with a continuous
flow of 100 sccm Ar gas. The temperature of the furnace was gradually raised
to 750 °C; the S powder started to melt at ~715 °C (heated to 230 °C using
an equipped heating jacket). The system remained for 10 min at this growth
temperature of 750 °C, followed by slow cooling to room temperature without
opening the furnace cover.
By a wet transfer of the CVD-MoS2 onto as-grown WTe2 patterns, we could
fabricate MoS2/WTe2 heterostructures. For this transfer, we coated MoS2 with 0.1 M
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and etched SiO2 with CMOS-grade buffered
oxide etcher (J.T. Baker). After the PMMA/MoS2 layers were scooped from the
etching solution, they were rinsed several times by distilled water, followed by
transfer onto the target WTe2. The PMMA/MoS2/WTe2 sample was heated on a hot
plate at 95 °C under a N2 atmosphere for an hour to ensure contact between the
layers by evaporating water molecules. After this, the PMMA layer was removed by
acetone (CMOS grade, J.T. Baker). Throughout the transfer, no heat treatment at
temperatures higher than 95 °C was carried out to avoid the thermal budget effect
at the MoS2/WTe2 interface. A TEM–electron energy-loss spectroscopy study of
the heterostructure confirmed the negligible oxidation of WTe2 during the device
fabrication process (Supplementary Fig. 11).
Articles
Electrical device fabrication and measurements. For the electric characterization
of WTe2 patterns and MoS2/WTe2 heterostructure, Ti electrodes (10 nm) and
an Au contact pad (80 nm) were connected using electron-beam lithography
(NBL, NB3) (or photolithography) and an electron-beam evaporator (Temescal
FC-2000). To lower the possibility of damaging the materials and degrading the
interface during the high-energy deposition process, the deposition rate was
minimized down to 0.1 Å s–1 under an ultrahigh vacuum (~10−9 torr). During the
device preparation, PMMA encapsulation was carried out whenever the sample
was exposed to air to minimize degradation. Heat treatment was avoided for the
device fabrication steps. Electrical characterization was performed in a cryogenic
probe station (Lakeshore CRX-4K) equipped with a Keithley 4200-SCS detector
at 138–300 K and at a high vacuum to 10−6. For the resistance sampling mode, an
electrical voltage of 1 V was applied every 10 s. The low-temperature electro- and
magnetotransport characterization of the WTe2 four-probe device was conducted
in a Quantum Design-PPMS with a Keithley 2636A current source meter and a
2182A nanovoltmeter at T = 3–300 K. The MR was measured at a constant current
(I = 1 or 10 μA) dependent on the applied magnetic field (−9 T < B < 9 T) at
T = 3 K. For the FETs, the Vg was applied through the 300-nm-thick SiO2
on Si layer of the substrate.
Data availability
The data that support the plots within this paper and other findings of this study
are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Received: 6 June 2019; Accepted: 4 March 2020;
Published: xx xx xxxx
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Nano-Material Technology Development Program
(Grant no. 2017M3A7B8065377) through the National Research Foundation (NRF)
of Korea funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning. This work has
benefited from the use of the facilities at UNIST Central Research Facilities.
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Articles
Author contributions
S.S. performed most of the experiments with assistance from Y.S., S.-Y. Kim, D.H.L.,
J.W., S.Y., Y.L., J.K., J.-H.C.; J.H.K. and Z.L. performed the high-resolution TEM imaging
of the samples; I.O. and J.-W.Y. performed the low-temperature magnetoresistance
measurements; W.N. and H.C. performed the Raman measurements; S.S. and S.-Y. Kwon
wrote the manuscript; all the authors revised and commented on the manuscript;
S.-Y. Kwon planned and supervised the project.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Supplementary information is available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41928-020-0396-x.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to S.-Y.K.
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