LESSON I.

Understanding Photography
Lesson 1.1. History of Photography

Photography is the reproduction of a permanent record of an image by the combined action of light and
chemical processing.

It is the art or process of producing images of objects upon a surface sensitive to the chemical action of light.

It is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized
materials (film or paper) with the aid of a camera and accessories and the chemical process involved therein.

The Pinhole Camera

A simple camera can be built by making a pinhole in a box. Light passes through the hole and forms an
inverted, backwards image of the subject on the back of the box.

The Camera Obscura (A Latin word meaning “dark room”)

The Camera Obscura is a natural Phenomenon, and has a long history. In its simplest form it is a small hole
(aperture) through which light passes from an object outside into a darkroom. The image appears upside down on the
wall opposite the hole.

Lesson 1.2. Some of the Early Pioneers and their Contributions in the development of Photography.

1. Sir John F. W. Herschel - he was the first one to use the words 'photography' and 'photographic' during a
lecture for the Royal Society in London at the 14th of March 1839. (Note: Niépce used the term “heliographic” and
Talbot used the term “photogenic”)

2. Robert Boyle - A 17th century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist,

and inventor. In his experiments entitled, “Experiments and Considerations touching Colours' (1664), Boyle states that
light consists of matter and that warmth can be weighed. He also describes various chemical experiments with colours.

3. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce The first successful permanent photograph was produced by Niépce. The
earliest known surviving example of a Niépce photograph (or any other photograph) was created in June or July of
1827 (or 1826, according to some sources). Niépce called his process "heliography", meaning "sun writing".

4. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre - He regularly used a camera obscura as an aid to painting in perspective,
and this had led him to seek to freeze the image. In 1826 he learned of the work of Nicephore Niépce, and on 4 January
1829 signed up a partnership with him. The partnership was a short one, Niépce dying in 1833, but Daguerre
continued to experiment. He made an important discovery by accident. In 1835, so the story goes, he put an exposed
plate in his chemical cupboard, and some days later found, to his surprise, that the latent image had developed.
Daguerre eventually concluded that this was due to the presence of mercury vapour from a broken thermometer. This
important discovery that a latent image could be developed made it possible to reduce the exposure time from some
eight hours to thirty minutes. Though he now knew how to produce an image, it was not until 1837 that he was able to
fix them. This new process he called a Daguerreotype.

5. William Henry Fox Talbot - Talbot engaged in photographic experiments before Louis Daguerre exhibited
in 1839 his pictures taken by the sun. In 1841 he made known his discovery of the calotype or talbotype process.

6. Samuel Samuel F. B. Morse Photography arrived in the United States due to the enthusiasm of Samuel F.
B. Morse. Morse visited Daguerre in Paris in March 1839 and observed a demonstration of the daguerreotype process.
Morse returned to the United States to spread the news.

7. Jean Francois Antoine Claudet - Claudet performed his own experiments and by using bromide instead of
chloride he could shorten the exposure time. He also invented the dark room safelight and he was the first to use a

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sequence of photographs to create the illusion of movement. The first use of a painted background is also attributed to
Claudet.

8. Frederick Scott Archer - Collodion Process (also called “wet-plate collodion) - In 1851 a new era in
photography was introduced by Frederick Scott Archer, who introduced the Collodion process. This process was much
faster than conventional methods, reducing exposure times to two or three seconds, thus opening up new horizons in
photography.

9. Dr. Richard Leach Maddox - The next major step forward came in 1871, when Dr. Richard Maddox
discovered a way of using Gelatin (which had been discovered only a few years before) instead of glass as a basis for
the photographic plate. This led to the development of the dry plate process.

10. Charles Harper Bennett – Dry-Plate Collodian Process - In 1878, Charles Bennett introduced the first
marketable dry-plate collodian process. This process freed photographers from carrying a portable darkroom capable
of making chemistry for photographic plates.

11. George Eastman - Eastman was the founder of the Eastman Kodak Company. In 1888, Eastman invented
dry, transparent, and flexible, photographic film (or rolled photography film) and the Kodak cameras that could use the
new film.

12. Oskar Barnack – A German optical engineer, precision mechanic, industrial designer and the father of
35mm photography. In 1914, Oskar Barnack invented the 35mm camera. He used 35mm negative motion picture film
and doubled the frame size to 24x36mm. The Ur-Leica was the precursor to all 35mm cameras currently on the
market.

12. Hermann W. Vogel - In 1873, he developed a process called "optical sensitizing". His discovery eventually
led to film that was sensitive to all colors in the visible wavelengths (panchromatic). With film that was sensitive to
other visible wavelengths more vivid pictures were produced and pushed photography as an art form in the coming
decades.
13. Eadweard James Muybridge – An English photographer important for his pioneering work in photographic
studies of motion and in motion picture projection.

LESSON II. LIGHT

When Jesus spoke again to the people, he said, “I am the light of the world. Whoever follows will never
walk in darkness, but will have the light of life.” John 8:12 (NIV)

I have come into the world as a light, so that no one who believes in me
should stay in darkness. John 12:46 (NIV)

Light is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by the naked eye.

Light is the essence of photography. In this respect, a true-blooded photographer must learn the complexities
of understanding the sources of light. Much has been said about controlling the light (natural or artificial) as a
photographer’s tool in creating stunning photographs. Let’s take a closer look.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic (EM) waves are similar to ocean waves and that both are energy waves, they transmit
energy. EM waves are produced by the vibration of charged particles and have electrical and magnetic properties. But
unlike ocean waves that require water, EM waves travel through the vacuum of space at the constant speed of light.
The average speed of light is 186,000 miles per second.

EM waves have crest and trough like ocean waves. The distance between crest is called wavelength. While
some EM waves are very long and are measured in meters, many are tiny and are measured in billions of a meter

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called nanometers. The number of crest at a given point within one (1) second is described as the frequency of the
wave. One (1) wave or cycle per second is called a hertz. Long EM waves such as radio waves have the lowest
frequency and carried less energy. Adding energy increases the frequency of the wave and makes the wavelength
shorter. Gamma rays are the shortest but with highest energy waves in the spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into two (2): the invisible and visible spectrum.

The Invisible Spectrum

The light that cannot be detected by the naked eye is the invisible spectrum. The invisible lights are presented
below chronologically based on wavelength.

Radio waves have the longest wavelength but they have the lowest frequency. We use radio waves to send
radio and television signals all around the world.

Microwaves. The second invisible light with longest wavelength is microwave.. We use microwaves in satellite
communication, microwave cooking and for RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging) air traffic control.

Infrared waves. It is produced by any hot bodies such as humans and the sun. Infrared radiation is used to
cook food in conventional ovens. Infrared waves are also used in optical fibers for communication and even our TV’s
remote control uses this kind of waves. In addition, chemist and forensic scientists use infrared spectrometry to identify
the characteristics of many molecules.

Ultraviolet Radiation (sometimes called UV Light). The main source of UV radiation is the sun. It can’t be
detected by our eyes but can cause damage to them. So be sure you don’t look at UV light for too long without wearing
eye protector. UV light is used to pick up invisible writings like in bank notes. It is also used by scientists to detect
traces of blood and to analyze organic compound.

X-rays. Because x-rays have very short wavelength, they are able to penetrate many things. X-rays are used
to take photographs of bones of the human body. Likewise, x-rays have security applications such as scanners at
airports.

Gamma rays. It is used to kill cancer cells, sterilize equipment, and to increase the shelve life of food.

These rays of light although invisible are important in law enforcement photography because it permits result
to be obtained which are not possible with only visible light present.

The Visible Spectrum

The visible spectrum is a range of visible light that produces different sensation when they strike the human
eyes. Colors of different objects are usually mixture of light of various wavelengths and not a special color. The
wavelength of the visible light is from 400 to 700 nanometers (nm) which will produce white light. Violet has the
shortest wavelength (400 nm) while red has the longest wavelength (700 nm).

In 1666, Isaac Newton proved that the light we see as white is a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. When he
passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism, it produced the rainbow array of hues of the visible spectrum.

When light falls on any material, the light is either (a) reflected, (b) absorbed, or (c) transmitted.

a. Reflection of Light. The reflected light rays are the one that affect the eyes. The object is seen as white
when all of the various wavelength of the visible light were reflected. When there is no reflection of the object and all of
the various wavelengths were absorbed, it will produce black or darkness.

b. Transmission of Light. A material transmits light when it allows the light to pass through it. Transparent
materials allow all the light to pass through them so that you can easily see what is on the other side. Examples of
transparent materials are glass, water, and air. Translucent materials scatter the light that passes through them. You
can tell that something is on the other side, but you cannot see details clearly. Examples of translucent materials are
wax paper, frosted glass, and some kinds of plastic.

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 When rays of light strikes a transparent material, the rays of the light is said to be transmitted on the

c. Absorption of Light. On the other hand, if white light strikes a material, such material appears red under
white light because the red light of the material is reflected and all other wavelengths are absorbed. Such materials
show its selecting absorption characteristics.

Sources of Light

A. Natural Lighting

Lighting is a key element in making a photograph interesting. When setting up a shot, always consider the type
of lighting available; is it diffused by an overcast sky? Is it harsh creating deep shadow? How do the shadows fall on
the subject and how dark will they appear in the negative and/or print? Should the camera position be changed to use
the best lighting situation?

Kinds of Lighting Situations

a. Direct Lighting. It travels from a point source directly to the subject. Shadows created from this light are
harsh and deep.

b. Diffused Lighting. An example of diffused lighting is an overcast day, when the light appears evenly and
there are no distinct shadows.

c. Moderate Lighting. Produce images that have detail in the shadows and still maintain contrast for the
highlights.

d. Low Light. It creates technical issues that must be overcome. This situation require a fast film (ISO 400 or
higher) to capture the limited available light.

Sources of Natural light

1. Sunlight. The most important source of light on earth is the sun. The sun is a natural source of light. The
light from the sun travels through space at an incredible speed of 186,000 miles per second and reaches the earth in 8
minutes and 32 seconds. Based on intensity, sunlight is classified into:

a. Distinct Sun. This is the direct sunlight striking the subject. It is the brightest of all. It is highly directional.
Images taken with distinct sun is characterized by extreme highlights and deep shadows. It provides the highest
contrast in a picture.

b. Hazy Sun. When the sun is covered by thin clouds but still clearly visible, it is illuminating your subject with
what we call a hazy sunlight. It produces soft shadows and moderate highlight. Contrast is also moderate, while rays
are directional.

c. Cloudy. The sun is shining bright but covered with thick moving clouds. Other parts of the sky maybe
clear. Lighting is even throughout and not directional. It does not cast practical shadows on your subject. Contrast is
relatively fair.

d. Overcast Sky. Sun is bright but not visible. Light is soft and not directional. Skies may be covered with
stationary clouds. It provides no shadows and low contrast.

e. Heavy Overcast. This is practically the same as overcast sky but generally darker and light is dull. It
provides very poor contrast. Static cloud is so thick where one cannot tell the overhead position of the sun.

2. Moon and Stars. When the sun sets, day turns into night and it becomes dark. The night sky has the moon
and innumerable stars. However, despite their brightness the moon and the stars can hardly keep the darkness away.
The moon actually has no light of its own. It reflects the light of the sun. The stars on the other hand give off their own
light. But they are too far away from the earth. So very little of their light reaches us.

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 B. Artificial Sources of Light

Man has made artificial sources of light so that he can see and work in the dark. The first man-made light was
fire. Then he learnt the use of oil lamps, candles and gaslights. Now most artificial lighting is through electricity.

The advantage of artificial lighting is that it can be controlled by moving or diffusing its sources to produce the
desired lighting effects. The following are example of artificial sources of light:

1. Electronic Lighting. Many automatic cameras have a built-in electronic flash that automatically (when the
camera is set at auto mode) fires in low-light situations. However, these flash units have very limited use and more
powerful flash unit may be required when shooting inside.

Manual cameras rely on electronic flash units that are attached to the hot shoe or a sync cord receptor to
provide supplemental lighting.

2. Fill-flash – used when backlighting is present and shadows obscure the subject. It can be used with a flash
unit on or off camera. When using electronic flash, the user must bear in mind the inverse square law for him to
understand the effect of flash to his subject.

3. Strobe light. It is a quick burst of light like that on-camera flash unit at much greater intensity.

4. Floodlight. It is popularly used to illuminate buildings, garage, parks, airport runways, tarpaulin billboards,
etc. The quality of light from a floodlight is generally of high intensity. It is therefore contrasty and normally produced
deep shadows. Color temperature ranges from 3000 to 4000 degrees Kelvin, giving a yellowish tint with warm
rendition.

5. Street Lamp. It has the unique light angle direction that comes from overhead lamp post. Each lamp has a
limited pool of light coverage. The proximity of each lamp post to the other determines the brightness of the area being
illuminated. Color temperature is almost the same as floodlight.

Qualities of Light

The qualities of light are as follows:

1. Hard Light. It generates dark shadows while highlights are saturated and harsh. Generally, hard light is
good for shooting sceneries taking reference to the principles of lighting angles as discussed in lesson 2.3. Direct
sunlight, direct flash, spotlight, flood lights, and light bulbs are among the light sources that produces hard light.

2. Soft Light. It creates soft edges between shadows and highlights. It also softens textures, lines, and
contours. This property of soft lighting is desirable in doing glamour work, or portraits. It tends to hide wrinkles and
blemishes including lines in human faces.

3. Cloudy and overcast sky, an open shade, direct flash bounced off an umbrella or direct flash whose light
passed through a translucent fabric such as used in soft boxes, are among the most common sources of soft light. Soft
light sources produce a broad, even area of light that has soft shadows and subtle highlights.

4. Non-directional Light. It casts very faint shadows underneath of subjects (like cars) or none at all on other
subjects. This quality of light is not good for sceneries because images appear pale in color and lack of contrast. Non-
directional light can be created artificially by covering the surround of your subject with a translucent fabric. This quality
of light is ideal for macro works and close-up of kitchen utensils.

In outdoors, it is called heavy overcast. Light is dull from the sky that seems to envelope around. No obvious
direction of light is evident in the surroundings.

5. Ambient Light. Ambient light is the existing light in a room, in a coliseum or in a covered basketball court.
Lights can be directional or not, depending on the source. This type of light usually comes from lamps, ceiling
droplights, light coming from windows or tainted glass, etc. Large hotel ballrooms are usually lighted by many
chandeliers and droplights with each one creating its own pool of light. Generally, contrast is low in this quality of light.

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This is not ideal for photographing portrait because the mix color of light will muddle the subject’s faces. Using
electronic flash at shutter speeds low enough to register the ambient light at the background will produce enhance
effect.

The Colors of Light

Light from the sun and from ordinary electronic bulbs are called white light. White light is made of seven colors:
Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. This bond of colors is called the visible spectrum.

A prism is a specially cut piece of glass that can split white light into the colors of the visible spectrum. When
while light falls on a prism, each color gets bent a little differently. The violet end of the spectrum is bent more than the
red end. The result is a separation of the colors.

Red, green, and blue (RGB) are the main colors in light. These are called as primary colors. We can get white
light by mixing red, blue and green lights. All other colors can be made by mixing these colors in different amounts.

The colors you get when you mix two primary colors are called secondary colors. These are magenta, which is
got by a combination of red and blue lights; cyan, a combination of green and blue lights and yellow, a combination of
red and green lights.

LESSON III. CAMERA

According to American photographer and Environmentalist Ansel Adams, “You don’t make a photograph with just a
camera. You bring to do the act of photography all the pictures you have seen, the books you
have read, the music you have heard and the people you have loved.”

The Camera or Light Tight Box

Generally, the following are the basic parts of a camera regardless of its type.

1. The viewing system. It allows the user to aim the camera accurately. It shows the scene through the lens.
2. The camera body. It houses the various parts of the camera and protects the film from light except that
which enters through the lens when a picture is taken.
3. The Diaphragm. A circle of overlapping metal leaves, forms an adjustable holes, or aperture.
4. The shutter. It keeps light from the film until you are ready to take a picture. Pressing the shutter release
button opens and closes the shutter to let in a measured amount of light.
5. The lens. It focuses the light rays from a subject into a reversed, upside down image on the film at the
back of the camera.

Parts of manual SLR Camera

1. Camera body or light tight box. It protects the film from exposure to light except the light entering through
the lens.
2. Lens. A series of convex or concave-shaped glass elements that produce an undistorted image on the film
plane.
3. Shutter release button. A mechanism that, when pushed, causes the focal plane shutter to open and
expose the film.
4. Film advance lever. A part of the camera that advances the film onto the take-up spool thereby allowing
the film to advance to the next unexposed frame.
5. Shutter speed dial. It is used to set the desired shutter speed of the camera.
6. Film speed set ring. It is used to synchronize the sensitivity of the film that is loaded inside the camera.
7. Flash shoe or hot shoe. It is a device that holds the flash and sends a signal to the flash unit to fire when
the shutter button is pressed.

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 8. Rewind crank. A camera part that holds the film firmly in the film compartment while film advance lever
advances the film and rewinds it back into the cassette after all frames have been exposed.
9. Lens release button. It releases the lock that holds the lens in place, allowing lenses to be changed.
10. Depth of field preview button. A camera part that causes the aperture to stop down to the indicated f/stop,
which shows how much of the image is in focus from foreground to background.
11. Film compartment. A section that holds unexposed film cassette.
12. Viewfinder. A small window on camera that allows viewing and framing the scene.
13. Focal plane shutter. A mechanism that opens to expose the film when the shutter button is pushed and
closes after the exposure is made.
14. Sprockets. It guides the film onto the take-up spool.
15. Rewind release button. It releases the take-up spool, allowing the film to be rewound into the cassette.
16. Film holder/plate. It holds firmly the film in the correct plane during the exposure interval. It is located at the
back of the camera.
17. Shutter. It is considered as the “door” of the camera. It controls when, and for how long, the light falls on
the film. It also serves as the barrier of the light rays that enters through the lens of the camera. The two (2) kinds of
shutter are leaf shutter and focal plane shutter. Both are discussed in lesson 3.3 of this book.

Types of Cameras

The past and present types of cameras are hereby enumerated with their descriptions.

1. Pinhole Camera. It has a simple design and construction, usually home-made. It consists of a box having
a small aperture functioning as a lens at one end, the image being projected on the film at the other end. Beside is an
illustration of pinhole camera.

2. Large format camera. It refers to any imaging format of 4×5 inches (102×127 mm) or larger. The main
advantage of large format, film or digital, is higher resolution. A 4×5 inch image has about 16 times the area, and thus
16× the total resolution, of a 35 mm frame.

a. 4”X5” View camera. A type of camera first developed in the era of the daguerreotype (1840s-1850s). It
comprises a flexible bellows that forms a light-tight seal between two adjustable standards, one of which holds a lens,
and the other a viewfinder or a photographic film holder. Beside is an example of view camera.

3. Medium format camera. It refers to the increased size of the film negative. In the 35mm camera world,
your negative is traditionally 24x36 mm. For medium format, your negatives can be a variety of sizes and dimensions
but all shot on 120 (single-sided) or 220 (double-sided) medium format films. The following are example of medium
format camera:

a. Twin-Lens Reflex (TLR) Camera. A type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length; one
of the lenses is the photographic objective or "taking lens" (the lens that takes the picture), while the other is used for
the viewfinder system, which is usually viewed from above at waist level.

b. Folding camera.  A type of camera with bellows that can be folded so that the camera occupies less space
when not in use. Folding cameras derive their name from their feature that they are folded into a compact and rugged
package for storage.

Folding cameras dominated camera design from 1900 to 1945. The use of folding cameras declined
after World War II with the introduction of 35mm film format in the consumer market. 

4. Small format camera. It refers to cameras that produce a negative that is 35mm. This type of camera is
preferable when you need ease of movement and the ability to produce a larger number of images between loadings.
Typically around 36 frames can be taken before a reload is necessary. The accessories and lenses available or use
with the small format cameras usually lightweight and easy to carry.

The most popular small format camera for both amateur and professional use is the 35mm single lens reflex
(SLR).

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 a. Single-Lens Reflect Camera. Single – Lens Reflect (SLR) Camera. This type of camera was developed to
overcome the problems with TLRs & compact cameras. The design avoids parallax error completely by using single
lens both for viewing & focusing.

5. Box Camera. A camera which is mechanically simple, the most common form is a cardboard or plastic box
with a lens in one end and film at the other. The lenses are often single element designs meniscus fixed focus lens, or
in better quality box cameras a doublet lens with minimal (if any) possible adjustments to the  aperture or shutter
speeds.

The KODAK camera introduced in 1888 was the first "box" camera to become widely adopted by the public
and its design became the archetype for box camera designs introduced by many different manufacturers.

6. Rangefinder Camera. A camera fitted with a rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the
photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus. Most varieties of
rangefinder show two images of the same subject, one of which moves when a calibrated wheel is turned; when the
two images coincide and fuse into one, the distance can be read off the wheel. Below is an image showing the parts of
rangefinder camera.

Rangefinder cameras were common from the 1930s to the 1970s, but the more advanced models lost ground
to single-lens reflect cameras. Rangefinder cameras have been made in all sizes and all film formats over the years,
from 35mm through medium format (roll film) to large-format press cameras.

7. Polaroid Instant Camera.  It was developed by Edwin H. Land, co-founder of the Polaroid Corporation. It
was sold in the late 1948. It allows photographs to be taken and developed in 60 seconds or less.

8. Point and shoot camera (PSC) or Compact Cameras. A still camera designed primarily for simple
operation PSC use focus free lenses or autofocus for focusing, automatic systems for setting the exposure options,
and have flash units built in.

9. Advanced Point-and-Shoot (APS) Cameras. These cameras offer higher-end hardware, full manual
controls, and have better performance than average point-and-shoot. They're the perfect step-up cameras for
experienced casual photographers, as well as excellent for back up cameras for DSLR owners.

10. Digital Camera. A camera that takes video or still photographs by recording images on an electronic image

sensor. In digital photography, lens flashes the image on a sensor instead of a Film. This sensor (CCD) which is made
of semi-conductor material captures image as a long string of 1s & 0s that represent all tiny colored dots / pixels.

11. Water proof camera. A compact camera that is airtight, so they can function above or below water. Most
people purchase waterproof digital cameras to take on vacation for scuba diving, cliff jumping or even just to take
pictures in the pool. Beside is an Olympus water proof camera.

Camera Controls

The two major camera controls are the shutter and the aperture. They work together to provide a correct
exposure.

The shutter

The shutter is a mechanism that opens and closes to admit light into a camera for a measured length of time. It
controls when, and how long, the light will fall on the film. It serves as the barrier of the light that enters and affects the
film. It is considered as the door of the camera.

To expose the film correctly, so that your photograph is neither too light nor too dark, you need to control the
amount of light that reaches the film. Two controls do this: the shutter and the aperture.

The shutter speed are 1-stop increments and relates to the same way the aperture do; that is its number
represent 1 stop of light, and its results in either one (1) half or twice the amount of light striking the film. Observe the
illustration below.

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 Functions of the Shutter

1. Controller of Light. The shutter controls the amount of light by the length of time it remains open. Each
shutter setting is half (or double) that of the next one and is marked as the denominator (bottom part) of the
fraction of a second that the shutter remains open: 1 (one second), 2 (1/2 second), 4 (1/4 second), and so on
through 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 etc.

2. Controller of motion. A fast shutter speed can freeze a moving object, showing its position at any given
instant, whether it be bird in flight or a football player jumping for a pass.

A slow shutter speed can be used deliberately to increase the blurring and accentuate the feeling of motion.

Shutter Speed

The shutter speed controls the quantity of light striking the film and control motion. A camera’s shutter speed
dial, which is located near the film advance lever, shows the following numbers: B 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 125 250
500 1000 2000

The Aperture

Aperture is the size of the lens opening through which light passes through. The relative aperture is measured
as the focal length of the lens divided by the diameter of the aperture. It is expressed as f-numbers or f-stop.

Functions of the Aperture

1. Controller of Light

Changing the size of the aperture, through which the light enters the camera, can change the exposure, the
amount of light that reaches the film.

The aperture works like the pupil of the eye; it can be enlarged or contracted to admit more or light. In a
camera this is done with a DIAPHRAGM, a ring of thin, overlapping metal leaves located inside the lens. The leaves
are movable: they can be swung out of the way so that most of the light reaching the surface of the lens passes
through. They can be closed so that the aperture becomes very small and allows little light to pass.

The aperture controls the amount of light striking the film. Larger openings let in more light and smaller
openings let in less light. Each aperture setting is one stop more or less than the one before it. An aperture opening of
f/8 gives one stop more light than an aperture opening of f/11 but allows one stop less light than does f/5.6. Observe
the illustration below.

2. Controller of Depth of Field (DOF). DOF is the area of acceptable sharpness in a photograph or the area
from near to far in a scene that is acceptably sharp in a photograph. It is also defined as the distance from foreground
to background that is in acceptable focus. A change in aperture size affects the sharpness of the image as well as the
amount of light entering the camera.

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 LESSON IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS
Trivia on Lens

“The Hansa-Canon camera was made in 1935. It was marketed with a Nikkor 50mm f3.5 lens plus two
additional lenses. Canon continued to use Nikon lenses on their camera until 1948,
when Nikon created its first camera.”

The Photographic Lens

Lens is a disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces capable of transforming an
image. The eye of the camera is also the heart of the camera.

A lens is a piece of transparent material made of glass or plastic with two (2) opposite symmetrical
(proportional or well balanced) surfaces or at least one curved surface; any transparent device for concentrating or
dispersing by refraction.

How Lens Works?

The basic function of a camera lens is to “gather” light rays from a subject, form and focus those rays into an
image, and project this image onto film inside the camera. Optical glass can bend or change the direction of light rays
that pass through it. When a piece of glass is shaped with concave or convex surfaces, light rays may be directed up,
down, or straight, depending on the configuration of the lens.

Types of Lenses

A. General Classification

1. Simple lens (converging and diverging lens). They differ in the way they are curved and therefore in the
manner in which they refract light.

a. Convex lens (converging/positive lens). It has at least one surface curving outwards. It is thicker at the
middle than at the ends. It is used in the focusing assembly of the camera. Convex lens gathers light rays and refracts
them to meet in a certain point. Beside is a convex lens showing the direction of the light rays after passing through it.
The types of convex lens are (1) double convex or bi-convex lens, (2) plano-convex lens, and (3) positive meniscus.

b. Concave lens (diverging/negative lens). A type of lens with at least one surface that curves inward. It
spreads out those light rays that have been refracted through it. Concave lens is thicker at the edges than at the
center. Beside is a concave lens showing the direction of the light rays after passing through it. The types of concave
lens are (1) double concave or biconcave lens, (2) plano-concave lens, and (3) negative meniscus lens.

2. Compound lens. Simple lens generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images which can be corrected
using compound lens. It consists of two or more simple lenses fitted together. Beside are example of compound lens

B. Types of lenses based on Lens Speed.

Lens speed is the largest opening of the diaphragm that the light can pass through. It is the light-transmitting
power of the lens at its maximum aperture, or f-stop setting. Each higher f-stop represents a setting that cuts light
transmission in half. The following are the types of lenses based on lens speed:

1. Fast lens - A lens with maximum aperture of f/2.8 or larger is a fast lens because it delivers more light
intensity to the focal plane, allowing a faster shutter speed. Beside is a Nikon 55mm lens with a maximum aperture of
f/1.2, the largest aperture opening of a normal lens.

2. Slow lens - A lens with a maximum aperture of f/.3.5 or smaller is a slow lens because it delivers less light
intensity and requires a slower shutter speed. Lens speed is important in taking pictures in dim light. Beside is a slow
lens with a maximum aperture opening of f/3.5.

Basic Photography by: Mr. Marcelo L. Montanio, Ph D Crim. 2013 Edition Page 10
. C. Types of lens based on focal length

Focal length is the distance between the lens (technically from its rear nodal point) and the focal plane when
the lens is focused on infinity (a far distance from which light reaches the lens is approximately parallel rays).

Focal length controls (a) magnification (the size of the image formed by the lens) and (b) angle of view (the
amount of the scene shown on a given size of film)

Note:

 A lens of short focal length bends light sharply. The rays of light focus close behind the lens and form a
small image of the subject.

 The longer the focal length, the less the lens bends the light rays, the farther behind the lens the image is
focused, and more the image is magnified.

The following are the types of lens based on Focal Length:

1. Prime lens. A lens with fixed-focal-length or unifocal lens. Alternative terms are primary focal length, fixed
focal length, and FFL are sometimes used to avoid ambiguity. Below are examples of prime lenses with different focal
length.
a. Normal or standard lens. A lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of
the film or sensor format is considered to be a normal lens. It reproduces a field of view that generally looks
"natural" to a human observer under normal viewing conditions, as compared with lenses with longer or shorter focal
lengths which produce an expanded or contracted field of view that distorts the perspective when viewed from a
normal viewing distance.

By international standards, 50mm lenses with focal lengths from 45 to 60 millimeters are normal lenses
because they produce an image that approximated the angle of view of the human eye which is 45 degrees. Beside is
an example of normal lens.

Zoom lens (also called parfocal lens). A mechanical assembly of lens elements for which the focal length (and
thus angle of view) can be varied, as opposed to a fixed focal length (FFL) lens or prime lens.
A true zoom lens is one that maintains focus when its focal length changes. A lens that loses focus during
zooming is more properly called a varifocal lens.

The following are the types of a zoom lens:

a. Wide-angle lens. A lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal
lens for a given film plane. This type of lens allows more of the scene to be included in the photograph, which is useful
in architectural, interior and landscape photography where the photographer may not be able to move farther from the
scene to photograph it.

b. Telephoto lens. A lens with longer focal lengths that constrict the field of view and decrease the depth of
field while greatly magnifying the image.

For a 35-millimeter camera, lenses with focal lengths of 85 millimeters or more are considered telephoto.
Lenses beyond 58mm are included in the group of telephoto lenses. For identification shots in police work, lenses of
85-135mm focal lengths are frequently used.

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 2. Special types of lens.

a. Fish Eye Lens. Ultra wide-angle lens that do not produce a rectilinear image is called fisheye lens. Common
focal lengths for this type of lens in a 35 mm camera are 6 to 8 mm (which produces a circular image). Lenses with
focal lengths of 8 to 16 mm may be either rectilinear or fisheye designs.

b. Macro Lens. A lens that is capable of producing a reproduction ratio of 1:1. It is specifically designed for
close-up work, with a long barrel for close focusing and optimized for high reproduction ratios, and one of the most
common tools for macrophotography.

Macrophotography otherwise known as photomacrography  or macrography is an extreme close-up photography,

usually of very small subjects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size.

Macrophotography is technically refers to the art of making very large photographs. By some definitions, a
macrophotograph is one in which the size of the subject on the negative or image sensor is life size or
greater. However in other uses it refers to a finished photograph of a subject greater than life size.

Macro lens allows the photographer to get closer to the subject without the need of special close-up
attachment like extension ring or tube.

The opposite of macrophotography is photomicrography or photomicroscopy. It is in law enforcement as well

as in the medical profession. A photograph made through a microscope is called photomicrograph.

Lens Defects

Aberration is the failure of light rays to focus properly after passing through a lens or being reflected from a
mirror. Proper focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at a single point. Aberration occurs because of
minute variations in lenses and mirrors, and because different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or refracted by
varying amounts.

The following are the six (6) main forms of optical aberration:

1. Spherical aberration. It is the focusing at different points of rays passing through different parts of spherical
lens. This aberration occurs because light hitting the outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus
sooner than that passing through the middle. In spherical aberration, the image is blurred because different parts of a
spherical lens or mirror have different focal length.

2. Chromatic aberration. It is the failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens;
focusing of light of different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image. In chromatic aberration the image is
surrounded by colored fringes, because light of different colors are brought to different focal points by a lens.

3. Astigmatism. It is the inability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same
plane of focus in the image. Astigmatism occurs at the edge of the image. The image appears elliptical or cross-
shaped because of an irregularity in the curvature of the lens.

4. Coma. It occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones is
brought to a focus at different distances from the film plane. A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet.
In coma, the images appear progressively elongated toward the edge of the field of view.

5. Curvature of field. A curved, concave or saucer shaped image of an object which has flat surface. The
image distance is different for different points of the object due to their distance from the axis.

6. Distortion. Where there exists a different magnification for rays angles distortion exists. Example of
distortion are:

a. Barrel Distortion. A lens effect which causes images to be spherised or "inflated". Barrel distortion is
associated with wide angle lenses and typically occurs at the wide end of a zoom lens. It is most visible in images with
perfectly straight lines, especially when they are close to the edge of the image frame.

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 b. Pincushion distortion. A lens effect which causes images to be pinched at their center. Pincushion
distortion is associated with telephoto lenses and typically occurs at the tele end of a zoom lens. It is most visible in
images with perfectly straight lines, especially when they are close to the edge of the image frame.

Lens Filters

Filters are colored disks of glass or gelatin which when placed in front of a camera lens, stop one or another
color of light from passing through and striking the film, (Sansone, S., 1987).

Filters are a transparent colored medium employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of light used to
expose the film. They are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike the film. These
changes may be desired for artistic effect, to increase contrast, or for photographing certain colors at the exclusion of
other colors. Beside are the different color filters: Yellow, green, red, orange and blue filters.

Filters for Black-and-White Films (Jacobs Jr., 1976)

Filters are used with black-and-white film primarily to lighten or darken tones by several means. A tinted filter
absorbs (or subtracts) colors other than its colors from the light rays entering a lens. Thus:

 Red Filter. It blocks blue and green, but passes red and orange onto the film.
 Green Filter. It blocks red and other warm colors, but passes greens and blue green.
 Yellow Filter. It blocks blue, but passes colors close to it in the spectrum.

Filters for Police Photography

1. Blue Filters. It is used effectively when photographing blood. When used outdoors, a blue filters will make
the sky, or any blue object, appear white in the photograph.

2. Green Filters. It is used in place of blue filters for photographing blood. Often, they work better than blue
filters.

3. Yellow Filters. It is used to photograph white cars; the details of the car will stand out. Also cut through
haze to a certain extent and can be used with good results to photograph an accident on a hazy day.

4. Ultraviolet Filters. A filter which screens out the violet end of the spectrum. It is placed in front of a lens
and left there. It will not only improve most of the police photographer’s work, it will also prevent the lens from being
scratched.

Polarizing and Neutral Density Filters

These are filters which do not affect the color or tonal quality of the scene except for the sky. They can be
used both for color and black-and-white films.

Neutral density filters is used to cut down light transmission. It does not affect the tonal quality of the scene.

Polarizing filters does not affect the transmitted colors in a way that will change its color temperature.

When light is reflected by a nonmetallic surface such as water, it is polarized. With a polarizing filter the
photographer can intercept this polarizing light and dramatically reduce reflections in the photograph.

Polarizing filters also increase the saturation of a blue sky in a color photograph (or darken the tone of the sky
in black-and-white photograph) as long as the lens/filter combination is not pointing directly at the sun.

This is the only filter that can increase the blue saturation in the sky in a color photograph without altering the
remaining colors in the scene. It is very useful in photographing many different vehicles in auto accidents.

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 Exposure with Filters

Filters cut down on the amount of light which reaches the film, so exposure must be adjusted accordingly. With
automatic cameras, this is not a problem because the Through-the-Lens (TTL) metering will compensate.

For all other cameras, the photographer must know the filter factor of the filter he is using. The filter factor is a
figure which tells the photographer how much more light he will need for correct exposure. A filter factor of 2, for
instrance, means that the exposure should be doubled. For an exposure that would be 125 at f/16, the photographer
would double his exposure and shoot with the filter at 125 at f/16, or 60 at f/11.

Some filters are marked with figures like this: 1X, 2X etc. This are not filter factors; they mean that for a filter
marked 2X, the aperture should be opened up two stops.

LESSON V. SENSITIZED MATERIALS

Photographic film

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, celluloid (nitrocellulose) or cellulose acetate) coated with an
emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the
sensitivity and resolution of the film. When the emulsion is subjected to sufficient exposure to light or other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical processes can then be applied
to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film development.

In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are
developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film
negative.

Color film uses at least three layers. Dyes added to the silver salts make the crystals sensitive to different
colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers. During development, the silver
salts are converted to metallic silver, as with black and white film. The by-products of this reaction form colored dyes.
The silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step of development. It is removed from the film in the fix step.
Some films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each
layer.

Film speed

Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light. Stock with lower sensitivity (lower ISO
speed rating) requires a longer exposure and is thus called a slow film, while stock with higher sensitivity (higher ISO
speed rating) can shoot the same scene with a shorter exposure and is called a fast film.

In simple term, the concept of film speed is “the higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film to light and
vice versa.” Like f/stops and shutter speed numbers, film speed represents one stop difference from number to
number. For example, ISO 400 is one stop faster or more sensitive to light than is ISO 200.

ISO film speed scales

The standard known as ISO 5800:1987 from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines
both a linear scale and a logarithmic scale for measuring film speed.

In the ISO linear scale, which corresponds to the older ASA scale, doubling the speed of a film (that is, halving
the amount of light that is necessary to expose the film) implies doubling the numeric value that designates the film
speed. In the ISO logarithmic scale, which corresponds to the older DIN scale, doubling the speed of a film implies
adding 3° to the numeric value that designates the film speed. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as
sensitive as a film rated ISO 100/21°.

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 Commonly, the logarithmic (DIN) component is omitted from film speed ratings, and only the linear component
is given (e.g. "ISO 100"). In such cases, the quoted "ISO" rating is in effect synonymous with the older ASA standard.

GOST (Russian: ГОСТ) is a pre-1987 linear standard used in the former Eastern Bloc. It was almost, but not
quite identical to the ASA standard. After 1987 the GOST scale was aligned to the ISO scale. GOST markings are only
found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Eastern Bloc manufacture.
The most common ISO film ratings are 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, and 3200. Consumer films are generally
rated between 100 and 800, inclusive.

Structure of Film

The thickest part is a clear plastic base which holds the rest together. The top layer is a hard transparent
coating to help ward off scratches. The bottom is anti-halation coating which means that it has a dull quality so that
light that passes through the rest of the film won’t bounce back in a mirror fashion.

The surface of a film and photographic paper capable of restraining a latent image is the Emulsion. The
emulsion contains thousands of tiny grains of silver salts (halides) suspended in animal gelatin. It is very thin and
fragile; hence, it must be coated in a glass plate or celluloid material or paper.

If light rays hits one of the particles, it disturbs it in such a way that when a film is developed in the proper
chemicals, the grains turn black and remain in the film. Those emulsion grains not touch by light rays are washed away
by other chemical, which simultaneously fixes the exposed grains so they will not fade.

The result is a transparent film image, but the image is “negative”. The light and dark parts are reversed. The
light part of the original subject turns out black in the negative and the dark part of the original turns out clear or light.

Exposure Speeds of Film

The exposure speed of film determines the usable conditions for that film. Use 100 speed films outside in
bright sunlight. Use film with 200 speed outdoors or inside with bright lights. Use 400 speed films for indoor
photography; bright light is not necessary if a flash is used. A film with 1000 or 1600 speed is for indoor photography
when you do not want to use a flash. Lower film speeds also require subjects to hold still while the film is exposed, to
avoid blurring. High-speed films are also good for catching action, like at sporting events.

Structure of Black and White Film

The base of the film, which forms the structure of the film, is a transparent celluloid material that is 4/1000 to
7/1000 of an inch thick. One side of the film is shiny and the other side is opaque. This difference serves handling
purpose during both the manufacturing process and the developing process.

1. Anti-scratch layer. The top layer of the film protects the fragile emulsion from human hands. The protective
coating also protects the emulsion from minor scratches and abrasions. The protective coating washes away during
film processing.

2. Emulsion/Inner Gelatin. The emulsion is the true “heart” of film. It is the part of the film that records the
image by physically reacting to light that reflects from the scene being photographed, passes through the camera’s
lens and strikes the film. Emulsions are composed of light-sensitive materials suspended (hence the name emulsion)
in a gelatin substance.

3. Film Base. The base, the thickest of the layers, supports the other layers.

4. Anti-halation backing/Anti-curl. The bottom layer of a sheet of film is a very dark-colored material that
prevents halation. This anti-halation backing prevents light from passing through the film and subsequently reflecting
back up from any reflective surface under the film. Because light reflects at an angle, the reflected light would not
return at the same angle as it struck the reflective surface. The light, travelling at an unwanted angle, would expose
halos (hence the name halation) around existing images. The dark-colored material absorbs any light that penetrated

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the film, thus preventing the light from reflecting and causing halation. The anti-halation backing is washed away
during film processing.

Structure of Color Film

Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as the black and white, except that the emulsion layer
is consists of three or four layers stacked one on top of another with filter in between each. These separate layers
record the green, blue and red values that go on making all colors, because all colors can be made of mixtures of red,
blue and green which are called primary colors.

The three primary colors in art subjects are red, yellow and blue. But in dealing with light, it is red blue and
green. A yellow filter known as carey-lea silver suspended between the top and the second layer to absorb any
penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light.

The following are the layers of color films:

1. Protective layer. Scratch-resistant coating.

2. Emulsion Layer. The emulsion layer of color films is composed of four (4) filters as follows:
1. Blue filter. It is sensitive to blue light only. Green and red light passes through it without exposing the
color halides.
2. Yellow filter (Carey-lea silver suspended in gelatin). It is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light allowing green and red light to pass through.
3. Green Filter. A layer that is orthochromatic. The layer is sensitive to blue light and green, but not to
red. Red light passes on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
4. Red filter. It is sensitive to blue and red. It is also somehow sensitive to green light but not to such a
slight degree that it is not important.
3. Anti-halation coating
4. Film Base.

Types of Film According to use

1. Black and white film. It is used for B&W photography

2. Color Film. It is used for Color photography
3. Chrome Film. It is used for color transparency; for slides films that are exposed by slides, mounted on a
cardboard for slide projectors.
4. X-ray film. It is sensitive to x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is used for medical purposes as
well as in law enforcement for security purposes like in airports.

Film Grain

It is the gritty texture visible in enlargements made from fast film negatives. Silver halide crystals clump
together when film is exposed and developed. This clumping creates film grain. As a rule, the faster the film, the larger
the film grain in the photograph and vise versa.

Slow film produces finer gain structure but requires more light because its sensitivity to light is slow. On the
other hand, fast film can be used in relatively low light situations because it has a higher sensitivity to light but a larger
grain structure.

Film Sensitivity to Colors

Black and white film is sensitive to color wavelengths of light. This sensitivity produces the various tones from
white to black within a print. The degrees to which the tones are provided depend on how sensitive the film is to
various color wavelengths. Below are the types of film according to their sensitivity to colors.

1. Monochromatic film also called blue-sensitive or color-blind. This film is sensitive only to blue light. Any
light source that contains blue can expose them. The silver in these emulsions is not exposed by yellow light, so
yellow-lit rooms are safe to handle them. Monochromatic emulsions are often used in various proof and plate

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materials. Rooms where those materials are exposed have yellow safelights. The following are the kinds of
monochromatic film.
a. Blue sensitive film. A film that is specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light.
b. Ultra-violet sensitive film. It is sensitive to UV rays only.

2. Panchromatic Film. The most commonly used film for black and white photography. It is sensitive to all
colors of light. No light can be used as a safelight, so technicians using this type of film must work in complete
darkness.

3. Orthochromatic Film. It is sensitive to blue and green light. They are not sensitive to red light, so
darkrooms in which orthochromatic film is used have red safelights.

4. Infrared film. It is sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum – what the eyes see – and some
wavelengths that are not visible to the eyes.

5. Non-chromatic film. Sensitive to ultra-violet and blue-violet colors only. This film may be used when natural
radiation is not important. E.g. it is used to copy black and white originals and to photograph colorless subjects when
extreme contrast is needed.

Film Format

A film format is a technical definition of a set of standard characteristics regarding image capture
on photographic film, for either stills or filmmaking. It can also apply to projected film, either slides or movies. The
primary characteristic of a film format is its size and shape. Below are the categories of film according to film format.

1. Subminiature and Miniature (anything smaller than 35mm). Enumerated below are examples of this type of
film format.
a. Minox—8x11mm image area on film 9.2 mm wide.
b. 110—a cartridge format miniaturized from the once-popular 126 cartridge format; 13x17mm image area.
c. APS—the short-lived format introduced by a consortium led by Kodak and Minolta to rationalize consumer
snap shooting at the end of the film era. 24mm-wide film in cassettes, with three standard aspect ratios.

2. Small format. The image area is 24x36mm. This same size has come to be known as "full frame" in the
digital Universe, mainly to adapt to legacy camera and lens designs.

Small format is the most successful and ubiquitous film format in the history of still photography and movie
film, 35mm wide, with totally redundant double rows of sprocket holes, one on each edge (by contrast, 110 film has
one index hole per frame).

3. Rollfilm (also called medium format). Generally, the term applies to film and digital cameras that record
images on media larger than 24 by 36 mm, but smaller than 4x5 inches (which is considered to be large-
format photography).

4. Large format. It refers to individual sheets of film that can be loaded into a camera, regardless of size. The
size of large format film is 4×5 inches (102×127 mm) or larger. A subset of large format is ultra large format, which
refers to anything larger than 8x10-inch. The main advantage of large format, film or digital, is higher resolution. A
4×5 inch image has about 16 times the area, and thus 16× the total resolution, of a 35 mm frame.

Photographic Paper

The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. Photographic paper is a paper coated with a light-
sensitive chemical formula, used for making photographic prints. When photographic paper is exposed to light it
captures a latent image that is then developed to form a visible image. The light-sensitive layer of the paper is called
the emulsion.

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 The print image is traditionally produced by interposing a photographic negative between the light source and
the paper, either by direct contact with a large negative (forming a contact print) or by projecting the shadow of the
negative onto the paper (producing an enlargement). The initial light exposure is carefully controlled to produce a gray
scale image on the paper with appropriate contrast and gradation.

Structure of the Photographic Paper

After film development, the positive image is produced from the negative, which is a true presentation of the
relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called a print. A print is ordinarily made of paper that is coated
with light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is similar to the basic layers of printing paper which are written below.

1. Emulsion Layer. The layer of film containing minute silver suspended in gelatin; the layer of chemical
needed to reproduce the opposite tone of the negative print.
2. Baryta Layer. A gelatin layer containing Baryta crystals (barium oxide particles) to increase the reflectivity
of the paper.
3. Base. It is made of hardened white paper, which must be chemically pure to ensure that it will not interfere
with the chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected.

In the preparation of photographic papers, there are three important factors to be considered. These are the:
1. Type of emulsion
2. Contrasting light rays and
3. Physical characteristics

Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the preparation of photographs. The types of
emulsion use in photographic papers are as follows:

1. Silver Chloride emulsion

2. Silver Bromide emulsion
3. Silver Chlorobromide emulsion

Types of Photographic Papers

1. Based on emulsion used. The following are the types of photographic paper based on emulsion used:

a. Silver Chloride Paper. It contains silver chloride emulsion and produce deep black images. It is used for
contact printing. Its sensitivity to light is low. Generally, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used and usually it will give blue-black tone if properly developed.

b. Silver Bromide Paper. It contains silver bromide emulsion. Light sensitivity of this type is faster than the
silver chloride paper. This photographic paper is used for projection printing or enlarging process wherein the
negative image is projected or enlarged. If properly developed, the silver bromide paper will give a black tone.

c. Silver Chlorobromide Paper. It contains a combination of silver chloride emulsion. Its emulsion speed lies
between that of chloride and bromide papers; used both for contact and projection printing. The sensitivity of this
paper is either slow or fast. The slow emulsion is used for contract printing while the fast emulsion is used for
projection printing.

d. Variable Contrast Paper. It combines the contrast ranges in one paper. It uses a special Chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light.

2. Based on contrast range. The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas classifies the contrast
range of photographic paper. They produce different photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the
negatives to be printed. Generally, this contrast range is classified into four (4):

a. Low Contrast. It is suitable to a very contrast negative to produce a normal print or photograph.
b. Normal and Medium Contrast.
c. Hard Contrast

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 d. Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast. It is suitable to a very low contrast paper is suitable to a very low
contrast negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print or photographs.

Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish.
The texture of photographic papers maybe smooth, rough or linen and their finest maybe glossy with a very smooth
surface texture while other type of textures may produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture.

The paper based of the photographic paper maybe either white or tinted and their weight or thickness maybe
either lightweight or single-weight or double-weight.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be made.
Black and white object are usually printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs would
give satisfactory results if printed on glossy white photographic paper. For portrait photographs, a cream paper base
photographic paper is recommended and for law enforcement photography. The smooth photographic paper is
necessary so that the details of the image appear and appreciated by the viewers.

3. According to grade.

Paper can be purchased as "multi-grade" or as fixed contrast grades (contrast range of 0 to 5, zero being the
least contrast and 5 being the greatest).

The advantage to using the "multi-grade" is that you don't have to buy a large supply of paper (grade 2, 3, 4
etc.) in each of your preferred sizes (8x10 and 11x14), since paper can be very expensive. All that you will need to
purchase in order to use "multi-grade" paper is a set of inexpensive acetate filters that you can insert into your
enlargers filter drawer. These filters will allow you to "adjust" the papers contrast.
Low contrast negatives can be corrected by printing on a most contrast paper; conversely a high contrast
negative can be printed on a low contrast paper. 

4. According to physical characteristics

Photographic paper is made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish.
Photographic papers are supplied according to weight or thickness of the base, surface, color and contrast.

a. Weight

1. Light weight. It is used when the thickness of the paper is not a consideration and high degree of flexibility is
necessary.

2. Single weight. It is used for small print or print which need to be mounted on solid and fine details are
necessary in the production. Used only for ordinary photographic purposes.

3. Double weight. It is generally used for large prints because they stand up better under rough treatment.

b. Surface texture

1. Glossy papers. They are preferred where fine detail and brilliant images are required.

2. Semi–mate papers. These are papers with textures which obscure fine details.

3. Rough papers. It is used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.

c. Color

1. White. It is preferred for cold effect

2. Cream. It is preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
3. Buff Papers. It is preferred for tone prints.

Basic Photography by: Mr. Marcelo L. Montanio, Ph D Crim. 2013 Edition Page 19