CENTRO REVIEW

Photography

Amie M Centro, PhD CRIM

Crim Board Lecturer
 HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

• The History of
Photography is a matter
of technical growth and
of simultaneous
communicative growth.
Photography – is a technological invention that
has become the most universal means of
communication and artistic expression the
world has known. It overcomes the barrier of
language difference.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ERA

• EQUIPMENT
• CAMERA OBSCURA was designed by LEONARDO DA
VINCI and was used by painter / artist for accurate perspective
and scale. Perspective angular relationship of an object ex:
railroad track ( from bigger to small)
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ERA

• Camera Obscura – a box fitted with focusing lens and

mirror that reflected images onto drawing paper laid over
a glass surface in the top. It became a true photographic
camera when a light sensitive film was inserted for
permanently recording the image formed by the lens.
• CHEMICAL – 1725 – 1777 – light sensitivity of
silver nitrate and silver chloride solution has been
discovered and investigated
• CHEMICAL – 1725-1800 –
THOMAS WEDGWOOD
and HUMPHREY DAVY
produced “PHOTOGRAMS”
no camera was used but still
can photograph by placing an
opaque object such as shell or
a leaf on paper with silver
nitrate solution and exposing
it to sunlight (but none of this
work was permanent.)
• 1777 – light sensitivity of
silver nitrate and silver
chloride solution has been
discovered and investigated
 TRUE PHOTGORAPHY WAS
ACCOMPLISHED BY THREE (3) MEN

• JOSEPH NICEPHORE
NIEPCE – 1816 –
• was able to obtain camera
images on paper
sensitized with silver
chloride solution.
Fixation was partial.
 TRUE PHOTGORAPHY WAS
ACCOMPLISHED BY THREE (3) MEN

• LOUIS JACQUES
MANDE DAGUERRE
–
Father of Photography
The man who perfected
photography’s chemical
processing
• DAGUERREOTYPE
(1889)– the first
practical photography
process. Image was
made permanent by the
use of “HYPO”
• HYPO – an anti-staining
agent like acetic acid, a
preservative like sodium
sulfite, and a hardening
agent like potassium Above: Daguerreotype,
mid-nineteenth century
alum
 TRUE PHOTGORAPHY WAS
ACCOMPLISHED BY THREE (3) MEN
• WILLIAM HENRY FOX
TALBOT – 1840 – discovered the
method of developing paper
negative images that greatly
reduces the exposure required in
the camera. He patents the
“CALOTYPE” process, later
called TALBOTYPE – negatives
on paper sensitized with silver
iodine and silver nitrate. These
were contact but
DAGUERREOTYPE was better.
• 1819 – JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL –
first PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMIST:
• He coined the word
“PHOTOGRAPHY” from greek
roots PHOTOS means LIGHT and
GRAPHOS means DRAWING.
• He suggested the terms
“NEGATIVE” and “POSITIVE” to
distinguish the key stages of the
photographic image and coined the
word “SNAPSHOTS”.
• He made studies of the sensitivity
of various silver halides to different
colors of light and described the
effect of long wave energy on the
latent image.
• 1861 – JAMES CLERK MAXWELL – published
research in color perception and the three color
separation of light.
• 1871 – RICHARD LEACH MADDOX – invented the
first truly practical dry-plate negative process, using
gelatine in place of Collodion to bind silver halides to
glass plates.
• 1880 – WILLIAM ABNEY – discovered the use of
“HYDROQUINONE” as a developing agent.
• 1884 – EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY –
introduced negative paper; it consists of a light
sensitive emulsion or paper which, after development,
is made transparent enough for printing by treating it
with hot castor oil.
• Kodak Company was founded by George Eastman
• 1907 – LUMIERE color was introduced, a panchromatic film
was used but with blue, green and red filters.
• 1912 – FRIEDRICH DECKEL – invented the
“compur” shutter, which uses gears to control slow
speeds and a clockwork movement to control fast
speeds.
• 1914 – EASTMAN
KODAK introduced two
(2) color subtractive
process called
“KODACHROME”. 21
years later a three (3) color
process came out.
• 1923 – EASTMAN
KODAK – amateur movie-
making becomes possible
with the introduction of
16mm reversal black and
white film.
• 1929 – J. OSTERMEIER – produced the first commercially
acceptable self contained flash bulb: aluminum foil sealed in
an oxygen-filled bulb.
• 1932 – WESTON ELECTRIC INSTRUMENT CO. – produced
the first PHOTOELECTRIC EXPOSURE METER.
• 1936 – Agfacolor reversal film is introduced.
• 1947 – EDWIN H. LAND – introduced POLAROID “one-step
photography” with a self-processing black-and-white film that
yields a positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal
method.
• 1960 – LASER was invented, making possible
HOLOGRAPHY by the principles developed in 1947 by
DENNIS GABOR.
• Light Amplification and Stimulation in the Emission of
Radiation
• L A S E R – Light Amplification and Stimulation in
the Emission of Radiation.
• Scientist have defined the speed of light to exactly
299, 792, 458 meters per second or approximately
186,000 miles per second.
 A simple woman who just dreaming before!!!!!

A simple woman who just dreaming before!!!!!

A simple woman who just dreaming before!!!!!

as platoon leader of WPS
as platoon leader of WPS
Amie M Centro as Police Trainee, year 2005
William Henry Fox
Talbot – 1841 – he
patented “Calotype:
process negatives on
paper sensitized with
silver – iodide and silver
nitrate. These were
contact on sensitized
paper.
PHOTOGRAPHY
It was derived from two Greek words: phos (light)
and graphos (draw/chart/sketch).
It is an art or science, which deals with
the reproduction of images through the
action of light, upon sensitized materials
(film or paper) with the aid of a camera
and its accessories, and the
chemical processes involved therein.
What is Investigative Photography?

INVESTIGATIVE PHOTOGRAPHY – is
an art or science that deals with the study of
principles of photography, the preparation of
photographic evidence, and its application to
police work
 FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY is the art or

science of photographically documenting
a crime scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of
court trial. (Redsicker 2001)
PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:
Photography is an essential tool for the law-
enforcement investigator.
• Record the visible evidence of crime
• Record invisible evidence through IR, UV, etc.
• Can then be stored indefinitely and retrieved
when needed.
• No other process can ferret, record,
remember, and recall criminal evidence as well
as photography.
 PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

Photographs are also means of communication.

• defined as “the most universal of all languages”.
• it does not rely upon abstract symbols / words.
• more direct and less subject to
misunderstanding.
FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Identification

Communication and
micro film files
 Evidence

Offender detection

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Court exhibits

Reproduction or
copying

40
Personnel Training

Crime and fire prevention

hazard

1/17/2011

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Public relations

42
Types of Magnification
Photomacrography is the art or process of photographing
an object at greater than 1:1 ratio up to nine times magnification.
Photomacrography with powerful magnifier
Photomacrography with Polilight
Photomacrography
Photomicrography is the art or process of
photographing minute objects and magnified by
means of the microscope and enlarge it from 10
times up.
Micro Photography
Infra red Photography is the art or process of photographing or
recording unseen objects by means of infra red light.
Ultra Violet Photography is the art or process of
photographing unseen objects with the use of ultra
violet rays and filters.
Ultra-Violet Photography
Macro Photography with powerful magnifier
Macro Photography with transmitted light
Macro Photography with side-lighting
 X-ray
photography

The process of
photographing
or recording the
internal structure
of the body.

59
 Astroph
ot ography

It is a spe
cialized t
of photog ype
raphy tha
entails re t
cording
images o
f
astronom
ical objec
and large ts
areas of t
night sky he
.

60
Flash photography

Applied to the technique

whereby exposures are
made with illumination
from one or more
photographs.

61
 Mug shot
photography

It is usually use for

personal identification
which is the first use of
photography in police
work.

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MUG SHOTS PHOTOGRAPHY is the process of taking
photograph of the suspect in full length, half body, right and
left side views, and two quarter views.
 Thermo
photography

A kind of photo where

we use laser beam
radiation using laser
beam film.

65
Aerial photography

A kind of photography
applied for photo
mapping.

66
Underwater photography

Photographing things
underwater

Night photography

Technique used to capture

images at night.

67
Panoramic photography

It involves using
specialized equipment or
software, that captures
images with elongated
fields of view. It is
sometimes known as
wide format photography.

68
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

What is Light?
It is an electromagnetic
radiation that has wavelengths of
any length.
 Light is a form of wave energy
which travel in the approximately
186,000 _______________?

a. Miles per second

b. Miles per minute
c. Kilometer per second
d. Kilometer per minute
Scientist have defined the speed
of light to be exactly 299,792,458
meters per second
(approximately 186,000 miles per
second)
Light is the presence of all colors. This can be seen
by passing white light through a prism. And absence
of light is black.
 Light rays with a wavelength of 400 to
700nn is referred to as visible light
because it is only within these
wavelengths that the human eye is
capable of perceiving.
Those with shorter or longer wavelengths
are commonly referred as invisible
radiations.
 By definition all lights are visible.
For this reason the word “visible” is
superfluous in that common
expression “visible light.”
What the eye cannot see are referred to
as radiations.
 Light energy has several effects on an object. It is
either reflected, absorbed, transmitted or
converted.
The varying combinations of this reflectance and
absorption are what gives us the wide variety of
colors which are we able to perceive , at times,
other light are neither reflected or absorbed but is
transmitted through the object.
This transmitted light passing through the object and
allows a viewer on the other side of the object to
perceive these light waves.
 The final effect a radiant energy may
have on an object is to be converted to
another wavelength. This conversion is
known as LUMINISCENCE.
 Additive Color Mixture
If we get three projectors with beams of lights projecting
individually blue, green, and red (BGR-primary colors)
and have the three beams overlap over the other,
we will note that the portion
where the blue, and green lights merged over the other, it will
produce a CYAN color (greenish blue),
the green and red lights a YELLOW color,
and the red and blue lights a MAGENTA color (deep purple red).
At the center
where the blue,
green and red
light were
combined in
proper ratio, we
see white light.
 In this aspect, CYAN,
YELLOW and
MAGENTA are known
as the three secondary
colors of light.
white is the presence of
all colors while black is
the absence of all colors
or the absence of light.
 Most pictures are taken by white light falling
colored object; very few things in nature are truly
neutral .
WHITE LIGHT- is the sum total of all the colors of
the rainbow
WHITE BLACK- is the absence of all the colors.
For our purpose, we consider white light as
composed of the three primary light colors –blue,
green and red. When one or two of these colors is
subtracted or absorbed, we see the remaining
color.
 PRODUCTION OF COLORS
1. ABSORPTION – the color of most ordinary objects are due
to the fact that they do not absorb the same amount of light at
each wavelength.
 PRODUCTION OF COLORS

2. SCATTERING – the color of the blue sky is due to the

scattering of light by the atmosphere. Variation in the density
of the atmosphere gases act in such a way that they scatter
light of the shorter wavelength at the blue end of the
spectrum much more they scatter light of the longer
wavelength of the red end of the spectrum.
3. INTERFERENCE – Color can also be produced by
interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles
or a film of oil floating in water.

The light reflected from the top surface of such a film

undergoes a reversal or phrase but the light reflected from
the bottom surface does not undergo this type of
change.

This phenomenon is also responsible for the color pattern

known as “Newton’s ring” which sometimes cause trouble
in color printing works.
4. FLOURESCENCE – This happens when molecules of the
fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and
radiate it at another wavelength.

5. DISPERSION – Color may arise from differences in the

refractive or bending power of a transparent medium of light
of different wavelength. The rainbow is a good example
of the phenomenon.
Different Photographic Rays
1. X- rays – radiation having the wavelength between .01 to 30
nanometer or millimicrons, they are produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of vacuum tube.
2. Ultra-Violet Rays - radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400
millimicrons. It is used to photograph fingerprints on multicolored
background, documents that are altered chemically, or over
writings, and the detection of secret writings.
3. Visible light rays – rays having a wavelength of 400 to 700
millimicrons.
4. Infrared rays – radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000
millimicrons. It is used in taking photographs of obliterated writings,
burnt or dirty documents, or blackout photography.
Is the light condition where object in an open space cas
a deep and uniform shadow.

a. Bright sunlight c. Hazy sunlight

b. Dull sunlight d. dark sunlight
 D. Types of Lighting Condition
1. Natural – (Sunlight)
A) Bright – objects in open space cast a deep and uniform shadow
B) Hazy – objects in open space cast a transparent shadow
C) Dull – objects in open space cast no shadow
 D. Types of Lighting Condition
2) Artificial
a) Continous radiation – incandescent bulb, fluorescent lamp,
photoflood lamp, etc.
b) Short Duration – Chemical flash (flash bulb), electronic flash
 Films
Films for surveillance are either moderate to high
speed panchromatic materials or special purpose
films like infrared.
A photographer must select a film that will tiled a
good definition with speed adequate for lighting
condition at hand.
Film definition is influenced by graininess and
resolving power of the emulsion.
The sharpness of the film image is determined
by the quality of the image reaching the film,
the degree of exposure, and the method of
development.
During riotous demonstration or rallies,
photography is also the best method of
establishing exactly what happened, where,
and who did what to whom.
E. TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO
SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
Perhaps, the most important characteristics of a film is its
variation in response to the different wavelength of light
source which is called spectral sensitivity.

1.Blue Sensitive – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue

only
2.Ortochromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue
and green color. Not sensitive to red color.
3.Panchromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue,
green and red color (all colors).
4.Infrared – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to all the colors,
and infra red rays.
F. EMULSION SPEED

The extent to which an emulsion is sensitive to light is referred to as

its emulsion speed. Two general types of speed ratings are:
1. ASA (American Standards Association) rating – This is expressed
in arithmetical value system. The speed in numbers is directly
proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film with an
arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed
of 100. Example: ASA 400
2. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating – This is expressed in
logarithmic value system. In this system an increase of 3
degrees double the sensitivity of the film.
Example: 27º DIN
3. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating – Combination
of ASA and DIN Example :
ISO 400 / 27º
G. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
1. According to Chemical Contents
a) Chloride Papers – best for contact printing
b) Bromide Papers – suitable for enlargement
printing
c) Chloro-Bromide Papers – either enlargement
or contact printing
2. According to Contrast - #0, #1, #2, #3
3. According to Physical Characteristics
a) weight – single or double
b) surface – glossy, semi-matte, matte
c) color – white or cream
G. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
1. According to Chemical Contents
a) Chloride Papers – best for enlargement
printing
b) Bromide Papers – great for contact printing
c) Chloro-Bromide Papers – either enlargement
or contact printing
2. According to Contrast - #0, #1, #2, #3, #4, #5 *
* (#2 – for normal contrast negatives, 4-5 over exposed. 0-1 under exposed

3. According to Physical Characteristics

• weight – single or double
• surface – glossy, semi-matte, matte
• color – white or cream
 CAMERA
A camera is basically nothing more than a
light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter
at one end and a holder of sensitized material at
the other.
While there are various kinds of camera from
the simplest in construction (box-type) to the
most complicated, all operate in the same
principle. The exposure of sensitized material
to light is controlled by the lens and its
aperture, the shutter through its speed in
opening and closing of lens to light.
3.Shutter
5.View
Finder 4.Holder of
2.Lens sensitized
Material

1.Body or Light
Tight Box
Essential parts of the Camera

1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure

or devoid of light. Opens and closes on a
predetermined time during exposure and allows
only the light coming from the lens to reach the
film.

2. Lens - The function of the lens is to focus the

light coming from the subject. It is chiefly
responsible for the sharpness of the image
formed through which light passes during
exposure.
Essential parts of the Camera

3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and

reach the film for a pre-determined intervals of time, which
light is again blocked off from the film.

4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite

side of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly the sensitized
material in its place during exposure to prevent the
formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.

5. Viewfinder – it is a means of determining the field of view of

the camera or the extent of the coverage of the lens.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal Length – it is the

distance measured from
the optical center of the
lens to the film plane
when the lens is focused
at infinity position.
a) Wide Angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the
diagonal of the negative material. Equal or Less than 35mm.
b) Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately
equal or more but not more than twice of the negative
material. 35mm to 70mm.
c) Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more
than twice the diagonal of the negative material. From 70mm
up.
d) Zoom – a lens with variable focal length that can be quickly
adjusted to varying subject or image size.
I. LENS CHARACTERISTICS

2. Relative Aperture – The light gathering power

of the lens is expressed in the ƒ-number
system. It is otherwise called the relative
aperture or lens opening. By increasing or
decreasing the ƒ-number numerically, it is
possible to:

a) control the amount of light passing through the lens

b) control depth of field
c) control the degree of sharpness due to lens defects
2. Relative Aperture
Depth of Field – it is the distance measured from the
nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus
when the lens is set or focused at a particular
distance.
2. Relative Aperture

Hyperfocal distance – is the nearest

distance at which a lens is focused with
a given diaphragm opening, which will
give the maximum depth of field.
I. LENS CHARACTERISTICS
3. Focusing – is the setting of proper distance in
order to form a sharp image. The lens of the camera
except those fixed focused, requires focusing. A lens
may be focused by any of the following:
a) Focusing Scale or Scale Bed – a scale is usually
found at the lens barrel indicating pre-set distance
in feet or in meters. To focus the lens of the
camera, the distance of the object to be
photographed is measured, estimated, or
calculated and the point or marker on the lens
barrels is adjusted to corresponding number on the
scale.
3. FOCUSING
b) Range finders – is a mechanism that measures
the angle of the convergence of light coming from
a subject as seen from two apertures. There are
two types of range finders:
1) Split Image – through the range finder, the
image of an straight line in the object appears to
be cut into halves and separated from each
other when the lens is not in focus. When the
images of the line are aligned, the lens is in
focus.
2) Co-incident Image – through the eyepiece a
single image is seen double when the subject is
out of focus. Make the image coincide and the
lens is in focus.
3. FOCUSING
c) Ground glass – is focused directly by
observing the image formed at the ground
glass, screen placed behind the taking lens. If
the image formed is blurry or fuzzy, or not
clear, the lens is out of focus. Make the image
sharp and the lens is in focus.
3. FOCUSING

d) Zone – This is possible in wide-angle lens only.

There are only three setting for focusing. One
for close distance (approximately 3 - 6 ft.)
another for medium distance (approx. 6 – 15 ft.)
and finally distant objects (approx. 15 ft. to ∞)
J. SHUTTER

contraption or device used to block the path of light

passing through the lens and exposing the sensitized
material. Generally there are two types of shutters:

1. Central Shutters – one that is located near the lens

(usually between the elements of the lens). It is made of
metal leaves and its action starts from the center towards
the side, then closes back to the center.
2. Focal Plane Shutters – is located near the focal plane or
the sensitized material. It is usually made of cloth curtain.
It is action starts on one side and closes on the opposite
sides.
K. EXPOSURE
it is the product of illumination and time. Exposure is
computed by any of the following methods.

1. Use of light or exposure meter. The amount of

light coming from a source or the amount of light
being reflected by the subject is measured by
the light meter. Proper adjustment therefore
becomes simplified.
 FILTERS
is a homogeneous medium which absorbs and
transmits differentially light rays passing through it.

A color filter will work in such a way that it will

transmit its own color and absorbs all other colors.

By using filters in combination with black and white

films, the photographer can control the tonal values to
get a technically correct rendition or to exaggerate, or
suppress the tonal differences for visibility, emphasis
and other effects. With color films, filters are used to
change the color quality of the exposing lights to
secure proper color balance with the film being used.
 FILTERS

FILTER FACTOR

Because filter subtract some light passing

through the lens, an increase in exposure time or
lens opening is necessary. The number of times
that the normal exposure must be multiplied is
called “filter factor”.

The filter factor value depends on the film type

and light source in addition to the absorption of the
filter.
 FILTERS
Types of filter in black and white photography
1. Correction Filter – used to change the response of the
film so that all colors are recorded at approximately the
relative brightness values seen by the eye.
2. Contrast Filters – used to change the relative brightness
values so that two colors which would otherwise be
recorded as nearly the same will have decidedly different
brightness in the picture.
3. Haze Filter - used to illuminate or reduce the effect of
serial haze
4. Neutral Density filter – used for reducing the amount of
light transmitted without changing the color value.
5. Polarizing filter – used to reduce or eliminate reflections
on highly reflective surfaces.
Correction Filter
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
1. Development – is the process of reduction. Exposed silver
halides are reduced to metallic silver. There is a separate
developer for film (D-76) and another for paper (D-72 Dektol).
The factor that affects the developing time are: agitation,
temperature, concentration of chemicals, and exposure.
(5minutes)

2. Stop-Bath – an intermediate bath between the developer and the

fixer. It is usually a combination of water plus acetic acid or just
plain water. Primarily, its function is to prevent the contamination
of the two chemical solutions.(30 seconds)

3. Fixation – The process of removing unexposed silver halide

remaining in the emulsion after the first stage of development of
the latent image. The usual composition of an acid fixing solution
are a solvent for silver halide known as hypo, anti-staining agent
like acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfite and a hardening
agent like potassium alum.(5minutes)
2. Stop Bath/rinse bath

It  has  become  common  practice  to  rinse

 film  in running water after development to
retard development and to remove excess
chemicals. With prints, it is equally common
to use an acid bath to stop the action of the
developer and prolong the life of the fixer.
In either case, the bath is referred to as a
stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water is
the most commonly used stop bath.
Three (3) General Types of Rinse Bath

a. Water rinse bath - helps retard the action of the

developing agent and remove the excess developer from
the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing
bath. A water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most
negatives, however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if used, it
should be followed by an acid bath. The same procedure
applies when processing prints.
b. Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath
and is more effective than a water rinse, as it instantly
neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further
development. It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the
developer and prolongs the life of the fixing bath. To
prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32
oz. of water.
c. Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is impossible to
control the temperature of the solutions, particularly the
wash water, or when development is done in high
temperature or under tropical conditions. A typical
hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz. of water;
1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium
bisulfate ( a solution containing potassium chrome alum
is very unstable and becomes exhausted quickly with or
without use).

3. Fixing Bath
The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the
developed image permanent by removing all the
unaffected silver salt from the emulsion. These silver salts
are still sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the
emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure the
image, thus, making the negative useless.
Fixing Bath Ingredients:
a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called
“hypo” because the conditioners to shorten processing
time or to preserve other   solutions.   The   solutions
  commonly   found   in main ingredient of the fixer
formula, sodium thiosulfate, is also known as
hyposulfate.

The  purpose  of  the  fixer  is  to  convert  the  silver
halides not changed to metallic silver in the developer
into a soluble form. These soluble salts diffuse out of the
emulsion and into the fixer.
Fixing Bath Ingredients:

b. Acid or neutralizer. After development, the

pores of the swollen emulsion retains a
considerable amount of developer and if allowed to
remain it will continue its action causing uneven
stains in the gelating of the emulsion, rendering the
negative unfit for use. Acetic acid is added to the
fixing bath to neutralize the action of the developer
remaining in the emulsion when the film is
immersed in the fixing bath.
c. Preservatives. Sodium sulfite is added to the fixer as a
preservative to prevent oxidation of the developing
agents that are carried over into the fixing bath by the
film; prevent decomposition of the fixing bath; prevents
discoloration of the solution; and aids in the elimination
of stains.

d. Hardener. During the development, the emulsions

become soft and swollen, frilling and scratching may
occur if processing is continued without hardening the
solution. Potassium alum is the hardening agent used
expanded but firm for the washing process.

4. Wash.
Running water is not actually required but greatly
simplifies the removal of all the chemicals previously
used.   The   wash   step   is   necessary   if   you   desire
  a permanent  image  without  stains.  Wash  films  and
 papers with fresh running water for about five minutes.
5. Wetting  Agent.

The  wetting  agent,  usually  called  Photo-Flo,  is  a

chemical  designed  to  reduce  the  surface  tension  of
water,  thus  reducing  the  possibility  of  water  spots
forming on film as it dries. It reduces the overall drying
time  of  your  films  and  prints  —  a  point  to  consider
especially on “rush jobs.”

6. Drying.

The final step in processing film is to dry the wet

negative which is done in two phases. First is removal of
the excess water from the surface. Second is drying,
either by evaporation or forced air.
 ENLARGING PROCEDURE FOR BLACK
AND WHITE NEGATIVE

CROPPING- is the excluding or omitting some images on the

negative from the final print. Local exposure control is
achieved by their burning-in or dodging.
ENLARGING PROCEDURE FOR BLACK AND
WHITE NEGATIVE

BURNING-IN – is the adding of exposure time on a

specific area to bring out details.

DODGING – is the holding back of some lights to a

specific area to make it lighter in density.
Digital Photography
 Brief History on Digital Imaging
Based on a press release by Patrick Regan; Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill

George Smith and Willard Boyle invented the charge-coupled device

(CCD) at Bell Labs. They were attempting to create a new kind of
semiconductor memory for computers. A secondary consideration was
the need to develop solid-state cameras for use in video telephone
service. In the space of an hour on October 17, 1969, they sketched out
the CCD's basic structure, defined its principles of operation, and outlined
applications including imaging as well as memory.
By 1970, the Bell Labs researchers had built the CCD into the world's
first solid-state video camera. In 1975, they demonstrated the first CCD
camera with image quality sharp enough for broadcast television.
Today, CCD technology is pervasive not only in broadcasting but also in
video applications that range from security monitoring to high-definition
television, and from endoscopy to desktop videoconferencing. Facsimile
machines, copying machines, image scanners, digital still cameras, and
bar code readers also have employed CCDs to turn patterns of light into
useful information.
Brief History on Digital Imaging

Willard Boyle (left) and

George Smith (right).
Courtesy of Lucent
Technologies.

Since 1983, when telescopes were first outfitted with solid-state cameras,
CCDs have enabled astronomers to study objects thousands of times
fainter than what the most sensitive photographic plates could capture,
and to image in seconds what would have taken hours before. Today all
optical observatories, including the Hubble Space Telescope, rely on
digital information systems built around "mosaics" of ultrasensitive CCD
chips. Researchers in other fields have put CCDs to work in applications
as diverse as observing chemical reactions in the lab and studying the
feeble light emitted by hot water gushing out of vents in the ocean floor.
CCD cameras also are used in satellite observation of the earth for
environmental monitoring, surveying, and surveillance.
 Digital Photography - A method of
photography in which an image is
digitally encoded and stored for later
reproduction.
Principles of Photography
A photograph is the
mechanical and
chemical result of
photography.
To produce a
photograph, light is
needed aside from
sensitized materials.
Lights reflected or radiated by a
subject must reach the sensitized
materials while all other lights must
be excluded.

The exclusion of all unwanted

and unnecessary lights is
achieved by placing the
sensitized material inside a
camera.

139
 The amount of light on the
sensitized material after exposure
is not immediately visible to the
eyes.

To make the formed image

visible, it must undergo the
development process.

140
The visual effect that results
from the chemical processing
is depended on the quantity
and quality of the exposing
light.

141
More light will yield an opaque or
black shade on the sensitized
material after development.

Too little light will produce a

transparent or white shade.

142
The varying shade of gray
will finally form the
complete image.

143
 TO PASSED THE BOARD EXAM
With FLYING COLORS……!!!!!!!!!!!
 THANK YOU!
AIM HIGH CRC!!!
BE ON TOP.
Thank you