UNIT l

THE TECHNOLOGY OF FIRE

Every humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and frighten away predators.
Sitting around a fire may have helped unite and strengthen family groups and speed the
evolution of early society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel out of warm, equatorial
regions and, eventually spread throughout the world. But fire also posed great risks and
challenges of controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the threat of wildfires.
As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses of fire. They used fire to
provide light, to make better tools, and as weapon in times of war. Early regions often included
fire as part of their rituals, reflecting its importance to society. Early myths focused on fire’s
power.
In ancient Greece and later, fire was considered one of the four basic elements, a
substance from which all things were composed. It’s great importance to humans, the mystery
of its powers, and its seeming capriciousness has made fire divine or sacred to many people.
Fire as a god is a characteristic feature of “Zoroastrianism”, in which, as in many sun-
worshipping religions, fire is considered the earthly representative or type of the sun.
Vesta
Roman goddess of the earth
To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose six
priestness called Vestal Virgins.
Vestal Virgins
They were responsible to keep the holy fire going in a community hearth.
Prometheus
Fire bringer
He stole fire from the gods, gave it to man, and taught him many useful arts and
sciences.
The earliest use of fire by humans may have occurred as early as 1.4 million years ago.
However, fire could have resulted from natural causes.
Homo Erectus
A species of human who lived from about 30, 000 years
First to use fire on regular basis.
The use of fire enabled them to adapt to new environments by providing light, heat and
protection from dangerous animals.

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 Tending fires probably helped foster social behavior by bringing early humans
together into a small area as they congregated around a fire.
The use of fire became widespread throughout Africa and Asia about 100,000 years
ago.
Early Fire Making Techniques
1. Rubbing together pieces of flint that could produce sparks that would set fire to wood
shavings.
2. Rubbing together pieces of wood until the wood produced a hot powder that could
light kindling
3. Adaptation of the bow and drill which consisted of a block of wood and a stick that
was fixed in the looped string of a small, curved bow.
4. Use of wood piston to compress air inside a bamboo tube that contained wood
shavings. Compressed air became increasingly hotter, eventually igniting the
shavings.
5. Glassmaking among the Greeks used to focus sunlight on, and thereby ignite
bundles of dry sticks.
6. Use of tinderbox-moisture-proof, metal carrying case held tinder, usually charred
cotton or linen cloth, and pieces of steel and flint. Striking the steel and flint together
produced a spark that lighted the tinder.
7. Tinderbox that operate like a present-day cigarette lighter in which the rotary motion
of a metal wheel against a flint set off sparks in tinder.
8. Development of phosphorus match. (mid 19th century)

Uses of Fire
Prehistoric Uses of Fire
1. Hunter gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) made use of fire so
that they can remain active after the sun set protect themselves from predators, warm
themselves, cook and make better tools.
2. Source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-burning fires to continue their
activities after dark and inside their dwelling
3. Enabled people to make better weapon and tools.
4. People learned to control fire by blowing at it through reed pipes. Then they used this
technique to burn hollows in logs to create cradles, bowls and canoes.

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 Fires in early civilizations
Artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks.
1. Ancient people developed improved devices for using fire to provide light.
2. Use of candles made of yarn or dry rushes dipped in animal fat.
Modern Uses of Fire
1. Used in appliances that relies on fire to operate
2. Used to supplement main heating system in their homes
3. Used over campfires
4. Used in incinerators to destroy garbage
5. Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste
6. Fire also heat large boilers to generate steam which then powers large turbines
7. Used in power plants to generate electricity
8. Used as a weapon in times of war
Curfew or “Fire-cover”
With the acquisition of fire came the problem of preserving it and interesting examples of
the ingenuity of man were presented. First, the fire was buried; preserved in the ashes of the fire
itself. Next, a type of slow-match or fire-stick was developed, and later, when man worked with
metals, the curfew, or “fire-cover” was invented. The coals were raked together and collected
in the chimney recess: the curfew set over them, preserving the fire until morning. Those
surviving are of sheet brass having perforations and a handle.
Beating drums was one of the earliest methods used to tell members of a community
that it was curfew time.
Curfew signal usually the tolling of a bell at a fixed hour at which time the inhabitants of a
place were required to extinguish or cover their lights and fires and go to bed.
The use of bells for this purpose is also of great antiquity, and in 1068, during the reign of
William the Conqueror, the bells were rung by law at seven in the evening, so that all might
cover the fire and extinguish the lights. This also prohibited nocturnal assemblies.
*One of the world’s greatest losses was caused by a fire in the great library in Alexandria, Egypt
in 48 B.C. This fire destroyed the world’s most complete collection of ancient Greek and Roman
writings.
The Technology of Fire
Fire
The heat and light that comes from burning substances, produced by the combustion of
substances. It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between

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 a combustible matter and an oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in
the form of heat and light. When a substance burns, heat and light are produced.
Burning is also called combustion.

Fire is the common term of the burning process – the combustion of a fuel.
Combustion involves rapid oxidation.
Technology
It is the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences.
It is the application of this knowledge to produce the material necessities of the society.
Oxidation
The chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements
of combustible substance.
Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. Rapid oxidation of material is chemically
termed as combustion. In some fuels, if the heat during oxidation is not easily dissipated, the
temperature gradually rises until the material automatically ignites.
When this situation occurs, the material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags or
papers saturated or soaked with animal fat (or vegetable oil) if stored in confined space where
heat of oxidation is not dissipated fast enough, tend to undergo spontaneous combustion.
Elements of Fire
The theory of fire states that to produce fire, three (3) things or conditions must exist:
1. Heat - ignition temperature
2. Fuel – combustible matter (organic material, hydrocarbons)
3. Oxidizing agent – the common oxidizing agent is oxygen.
Air is composed of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% inert gases
Heat, Fuel and Oxygen are the requirements of fire- the three elements that compose the fire
triangle.
Fire Triangle
A geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship of the three elements of fire. Each
side of the triangle represents an element, such that if one side is missing then there is
no fire triangle, meaning fire cannot be produced. If any of the elements are not
available, the combustion does not take place. Normally, oxygen is supplied by air,
ignition temperature can be provided by the ignition device (like flame), and any
combustible material (usually organic matter) burns on being heated by the ignition
device. Most combustible materials burn in gaseous state only.

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 If there is sufficient supply of oxygen, there is rapid oxidation resulting to complete
combustion. If the supply of oxygen and vaporization of a matter is sufficient combustion is
accompanied by heat and light. If there is insufficient supply of oxygen, there is smoldering fire,
no flames are manifested.
To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased) until ignition point is reached.
Thus, before a combustible material starts to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to b e
exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the temperature of a substance is very high,
it releases highly combustible vapors known as “free radicals”.
Flashpoint
The lowest temperature at which a substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily
(when a flame or spark is applied).
If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flashpoint, then it can be instantly ignited thus
producing a momentary fire. If its temperature still increases, such that it continuously releases
combustible vapors, the condition results to sustained burning (combustion). Hence, the fuel is
deemed to have reached its fire point.
Firepoint
The temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it has been ignited – that even
if some source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn.
*Flash point of a substance is usually a few degrees lower than the fire point.
If a substance automatically burns without human or mechanical intervention, the
temperature of the substance has been spontaneously increased until it reaches the auto –
ignition point.
Auto-ignition point or Self-ignition Point
The lowest temperature at which a substance can be heated to release vapors that will
ignite without the application of a flame or spark.

It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion take place. It is usually

much higher (in temperature than the fire point).
Flammable range or Explosive Range of a Fuel
It refers to the volume range needed to burn or explode a fuel when it is ignited.
Volume Range
It is the smallest and the largest amount of vapor in a given quantity air.
Example: A substance has a given flammable range of 1-12%. A 1-12% flammable range
means that a fire or explosion can occur if the atmosphere (air) contains more that 1% but less

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than 12% of the vapor of the given substance. The percentage mentioned concerning
flammable or explosive range is percentage by volume.
Flammable
It means easily ignited and capable of burning with great rapidity.
“Flammable substance” is therefore a highly combustible substance.
“Flammable and inflammable” are synonymous; meaning that they have same meaning thus
they can be interchangeably used.
Temperature of Fuel
Combustion may be in the form of:
a. Glowing combustion (condense-phased combustion)- manifested by embers
b. Gas phased combustion-flame
Fire Properties
Physical Properties
a. Specific Gravity- ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to weight of an
equal volume of water. The higher the specific gravity of a substance the greater the
amount of heat necessary to decompose it.
b. Vapor Density- weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the weight of a volume
of dry air at the same temperature and pressure
c. Vapor Pressure- force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.
d. Temperature- measure of the thermal agitation of molecules.
e. Boiling Point- constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure
f. Fire Point
g. Flash Point
h. Auto – ignition point or kindling temperature- minimum temperature to which the
substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self –contained
combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
Chemical Properties
a. Endothermic reaction- changes whereby energy or heat is absorbed or is added
before the reaction takes place.
b. Exothermic reaction- those that release or give off energy thus they produce
substances with less energy than the reactants.
c. Oxidation

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 d. Combustion
e. Flame
Flame
The matter produced by fire.
It is composed of burning incandescent gases.
It is manifested of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion.
Requirements to Produce Flame
1. High temperature
2. Reactants
3. Concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reaction between reactants (fuel
and oxidizer)
Types of flames
1. According to color and completeness of combustion
a. Luminous Flame
Reddish-orange in color
It deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion
It has lower temperature.
b. Non-luminous flame
Bluish in color
It does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion
It has higher temperature than luminous flame.
2. According to burning fuel and air mixture
a. Premixed Flame-e.g. flame of a Bunsen Burner
b. Diffusion Flame-e.g. flame of the oxyacetylene torch
3. Based on smoothness
a. Laminar flame-smooth flame
b. Turbulent flame- rough flame
Hydrocarbon
Any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen.
Pyrolysis
It refers to the chemical process whereby it consumes the most solid part of the fuel.
It is the thermal decomposition of combustible matter.
It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

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The process of pyrolysis involves the following:
a. The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its firepoint
b. Decomposition takes place- moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor
c. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel.
Combustible vapors are technically termed as free radicals.
d. Free radicals undergo combustion
Free radicals- combustible vapors such as:
1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Carbon monoxide
4. Nitrogen
Pyrolysis of Liquids
Combustible and flammable are not pyrolyzed in fire but are actually distilled is fire by the
boiling process.
Do gaseous substances undergo pyrolysis when they are being burned?
No, they actually undergo combustion process.

Two Basic Modes of Fire

1. Flaming Mode
It is represented by the fire tetrahedron- a four-sided figure with the sides
representing fuel, temperature, oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical chain
reaction.
2. Surface or Smoldering Mode
It is represented by the fire triangle with three sides representing fuel,
temperature and oxygen.
Fuels or Combustible Materials
Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some, especially
chemical fuels used in rockets, need special oxidizers in order to burn. Oxidizers are
compounds that contain oxygen. Nuclear fuels do not burn but release energy through the
fission (splitting) or fusion (joining together) of atoms.
In the fire triangle, fuel is one of the vital elements needed to produce fire. To burn a
fuel, it must be heated to its ignition point.

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General Categories of Fuels
1. Solid combustible materials- includes organic or inorganic natural or synthetic, and
metallic solid materials.
2. Liquid combustible materials- includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous substances- includes those toxic hazardous gases that are capable of
ignition.
Classification of Combustible Materials
1. Class A Fuels
Ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic substances
such as wood and wood-based products.
It includes some of those synthetic and/or inorganic materials like rubber,
leather,, and plastics.
2. Class B Fuels
Materials which are in form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
substances oil and other chemicals such those liquid petroleum products.
3. Class C Fuels
Normally fire resistant materials
Materials used in electric wiring and other electrical appliances
4. Class D Fuels
Combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium and potassium
5. Class E Fuels
Combustible gas such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
oxygen.

Solid Fuels
1. Biomass
The name given to such replaceable organic matter as wood, garbage, and animal
manure that can be used to produce energy.
Wood has been used as fuel since prehistoric times-longer than any other
material. Biomass materials other than wood are used as fuel. For example, heat
produced by burning nutshells, rice and oat hulls and other by-products of food
processing is often used to operate plant equipment.

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Factors affecting the combustibility of food and wood-based product
a. Physical form
b. Moisture content- water content
c. Heat conductivity
d. Rate and period of heating
e. Rate of combustion
f. Ignition of temperature
2. Fabrics and Textiles
Almost all fibers and textiles are combustible.
Fiber- very fine thin strand (thread-like) object
Fabric- twisted or woven fibers
Textiles- machine woven or knitted fabric
Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers
1. From plants- cellulose fibers
-Coir (coconut fiber)
-Kapok, cotton (seed fibers)
-pinya fiber
-pulp (wood fiber)
2. From animals
-wool, silk, protein fibers (leather)
3. From minerals
-Asbestos
b. Synthetic or Artificial Fibers
1. Organic fibers
-cellulose fibers
-cellulose acetate fibers
-non-cellulose fibers
2. Inorganic fibers- fiberglass, steel
Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers
a. Chemical composition
b. Fiber finish- fiber coating
c. Fabric weight
d. Tightness of weave

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Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI)
A numerical basis of measuring tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once
source of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that will
cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high. Fabrics with high LOI and
high ignition temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because they do
not ignite easily. In addition, they will continue burning after the source of heat or
flame is removed.
e. Flame-retardant treatment
3. Plastics
These are included as ordinary fuels under class A except those materials
composed of or containing “cellulose nitrate”.

Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical (powder) used in bombs.

Characteristics of plastics
a. primary composed of organic substances with high molecular weight
b. solid in finished state
c. initially in a liquid form or gel-like state but they are molded or cast through the
application of heat, pressure or both
4. Coal
It is used chiefly to produce electricity
It is burned to create heat to turn water into steam. The steam is then used to
rotate turbines, machines that generate electricity.
Some coal is made into coke, a charcoal-like solid that is an essential raw
material in the production of iron and steel.
It is used to heat building and to provide energy for industrial machinery.
There are four (4) forms of coal
a. lignite, or brown coal
b. sub-bituminous
c. bituminous coal
The most plentiful and important coal used by industry.
It contains more carbon and produces more heat than either lignite or sub-
bituminous coal.
d. Anthracite
Least plentiful and hardest coal

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 It contains more carbon and produces more heat than other coals.
It is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.
5. Peat
Partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bogs and used as a fuel chiefly in
areas where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut,
formed in blocks and dried. The dried blocks are then burned to heat homes.

Liquid Fuels
These are made primarily from petroleum but some synthetic liquid fuels are also produced.

Petroleum
It is also called crude oil ,ranges from clear yellow-brown oils to thick, black tars.
Some crude oil is burned as fuel in stoves and boilers without processing.
Most petroleum is refined to produce such fuels as gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.

Gasoline
It is used to provide energy for most motor vehicles and poison-engine airplanes.
Diesel Oil
Powers most trains, ships, and large trucks.
Kerosene
Provides energy for jet planes.

Distillate Oils
These are light oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings.
Residual Oils
Heavy, thick oils.
They provide energy to power utilities, factories, and large ships.
They are also used to heat large buildings.
Synthetic Liquid Fuels
It includes more fuels made coal, natural gas, biomass, oil shale (a rock that contains oil)
bituminous sands (sands that contain a substance from which oil can be obtained).
Such fuels are processed mainly in areas where on type of fuel is abundant, but other
vital fuels are scarce.

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Gasohol
It consists of a mixture of gasoline and alcohol.
The alcohol in gasohol is often produced from such grains as corn and wheat.
General Characteristics of Liquids
1. These are matters with definite volume but no definite shape
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of molecules
although these molecules do not have the tendency to separate from one another.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of definite expansion unlike gas.
Two General groups of liquid fuels
1. Flammable liquids
These liquids have a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F) and a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 psi (2068.6 um) at 37.8 C.
2. Combustible liquids
These liquids have a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F).
Note: Technically speaking, flammable and combustible liquid will not cause fire. It is the vapors
they produce which burn or explode when exposed to air under the influence of heat. Gasoline
is most widely used flammable liquid.
Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and burning of liquids
1. wind velocity
2. temperature
3. heat of combustion
4. latent heat of evaporation
5. atmospheric pressure
Latent Heat
The quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to
gas.
Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.
Techniques of preventing fire and explosion caused by liquid fuels
1. Exclusion of ignition source
2. Exclusion of air supply-excluding air by various means
3. Shutting off the fuel supply, if possible
4. Keeping liquids in closed container
5. Proper ventilation to prevent the accumulation of vapor within the flammable range
6. Using an atmospheric of inert gas instead of air

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 7. Cooling the liquid to stop evaporation
8. Combination of the above
Gas Fuels
It includes natural and manufactured gases.
Such fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses and
industries.
Characteristics of Gas Fuel
1. Matters that has no definite volume and no definite shape.
2. It is composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random motion in a
straight line.
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container
and are relatively far from one another.
Classification of Gases
A. Based on Source
1. Natural Gas
Gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provide energy for industries.It consists
chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas.It is usually mixed with compounds of the foul-
smelling element sulfur so gas leaks can be detected.Butane and propane, which make up a
small proportion of natural gas, become liquids when placed under large amounts of pressure.
When pressure is released, they change back into gas. Such fuels, often called liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG), are easily stored and Gas shipped as
liquids.
2. Manufactured Gas
This gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are abundant and others
are scarce.
Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating and by various
chemical procedures.
Gas can be produced by treating such biomass as animal manure with bacteria called
anaerobes. The bacteria expel methane as they digest the waste.
Based on according to physical properties
1. Compressed gas
2. Liquefied gas
3. Cryogenic gas

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 Based on usage
1. Fuel gases
2. Industrial gases
-oxygen, acetylene
-Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide
-Hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine
-Chlorine, fluorine
3. Medical gases
-Chloroform, nitrous oxide
-Oxygen
Basic hazards of gases
When confined in a container:
1. gases expands when heated
2. pressure is developed inside the container thus causing container failure
3. the gas container is destroyed due to contact with frames
When released:
Hazards vary with the physical and chemical properties of the gas and the nature of the
environment in two, which they are released. All gases, except oxygen, are hazardous to life if
they displace the breathing air. Most odorless and colorless gases are particularly dangerous,
as they are not detectable when inhaled.
Advanced hazards of gases
Combustion Explosion is among the dangers related to gases. This hazard occurs in the
following steps:
1. The liquid phases of a flammable gas or a liquefied flammable gas are released from its
container, piping or equipment.
2. The gas mixes with air
3. With certain proportion of gas and air, the mixture is ignitable and will burn when ignited,
the flammable mixture burns rapidly and produces heat at a fast rate.
4. The heat is absorbed by anything within the vicinity of the flame and very hot combustion
products.
5. If the heated air is not free to expand because it is confined, pressure in the container
will increase.

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 6. If the container is not strong enough to withstand pressure, some parts of the container
will suddenly depart or break thus resulting to violent release of the pressure
accompanied by a loud sound known as vapor-air explosion.
Explosion
A violent explosion effect of chemical reaction when combustion process is confined
so that appreciable pressure occurs.
Denotation
A violent reaction beginning with a very simple ignition that initiates a chain reaction.
A rapid and confined combustion process that produces energy waves that propagates
(spreads) in supersonic (very fast) speed.
Energy waves develop into a “shock front” that results to a very strong explosion.
Chemical Fuels
Produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and power.
Used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and an
oxidizer. Common rocket fuel is “chemical hydrazine”.
Used in some racing cars.
Nuclear Fuel
It provides energy through the” fission” or “fusion” of their atoms.
Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, through plutonium also provides nuclear
energy. When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts
of heat.
Used mainly to generate electricity.
They also power some submarines and ships.
Nuclear energy can also be produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
*Nuclear fission- splitting of the nucleus of atoms
*Nuclear fusion- combining two nuclei of atoms

Heat
Thermodynamics.
Science of heat and its relation to work.
Heat
In physics, it is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from
one body to another by virtue of the difference in temperature. Energy in transit. It
always flows from a substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower

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 temperature, raising the temperature af the latter and lowering that of the former
substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains constant. It does not flow from a
lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer, work is also
present. Heat transfer can be created by chemical reaction (burning), nuclear reaction
(fusion taking place in the sun), electromagnetic dissipation (electric stoves), mechanical
dissipation (friction).
Temperature
The measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
The hotness or coldness of something
Measure of the thermal agitation of molecules of matter
Thermometer
Instrument used to measure temperatures which can be commonly expressed in
degrees Celsius (Centigrade), F (Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin or Absolute).
Temperature Scales
1. Celsius
It has a freezing point of 0 degree Celsius and a boiling point of 100 degree Celsius. It is
widely used throughout the world particularly for scientific work, although it was
superseded officially in 1950 by the international temperature scale. It was introduced by
a Swedish, Anders Celsius (1701-1744).
2. Fahrenheit
Used in the English-speaking countries for purposes other than scientific work and
based on the mercury thermometer.
The freezing point of water is defined as 32 degrees Fahrenheit and the boiling point as
212 degree Fahrenheit. It was introduced by a German Dutch-Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(1686-1736).
3. Kelvin or Absolute
The most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale.
Zero is defined as the absolute zero of temperature, that is, -273.15 degrees C, or
-495.67 degrees F.
Absolute zero is coldest possible temperature. It was introduced by William Thomson or
Lord Kevin.
4. Rankie
Another scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point.

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 Each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The
freezing point of water is 492 degree R, and boiling point is 672 degree R. It was
introduced by a Scottish engineer- William John Macquorn Rankine.
5. International Temperature Scale
In 1933, scientists of 31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale with
additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamics
principles.
It is based on the property of electrical resistivity, with platinum wire as the standard for
temperature between -190 degree and 660 degree C.
Above 660 degree C, the melting point of gold, 1063 degree C, a standard
thermocouple, which is a device that measures temperature by the amount of voltage
produced between two wires of different metals, is used.
Beyond this point temperatures are measured by the so-called optical pyrometer, which
uses the intensity of light of a wavelength emmited by a hot body for the purpose.
273.16- the triple point of water (the point at which the three phases of water vapor,
liquid, and ice) are in. Heat is measured in terms of the equilibrium was adopted by
international agreement as 273.16 K.
Calorie
It is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of water at a
pressure of 1 atm from 15 degree to 16 degree C.
This unit is sometimes called the small or gram calorie to distinguish it from the large
calorie, or kilocalorie equal to 1000 cal. which is used in nutrition studies.
Latent Heat
A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a
substance. Almost all substances expand in volume when heated and contract when
cooled. The behavior of water between 0 degree and 4 degree Celsius (32 and 39 F)
constitutes an important exception to this rule. The phase of a substance refers to this
occurrence as either as a solid, liquid, or gas and phase changes in pure substances
occur at definite temperatures and pressures.

Latent heat was the derived from the Latin word “latere” which literally means “to lie
hidden”. It is the heat necessary to change the state of a given substance. It is the
amount of heat transferred during a phase change and it depends primarily on the
substance and its state.

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Sublimation
The process of changing from solid to gas.
Melting
The process of changing from solid to liquid.
Vaporization
The process off changing from liquid to vapor.
If the pressure is constant, these processes occur at constant temperature. The amount of heat
required too produce a change phase is called latent heat, and hence latent heats of
sublimation, melting, and vaporization exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of
1 atm, the temperature does not rise above 100 degree Celsius (212 F), no matter how much
heat is added.
The heat that is absorbed without changing the temperature of water is the latent heat; it is not
lost but is expanded in changing the water to steam and is then stored as energy in the steam; it
is again released when the steam is condensed to form water (condensation). Similarly, if a
mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is
melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice
together and is stored as energy in the water.
Specific Heat
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance one degree.
It is the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or from one unit of mass or mole
of a substance to change its temperature by one degree.
If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a constant volume or
is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at
constant volume or at constant pressure. The latter is always larger than, or at least
equal to, the former for each substance. Because 1 cal causes a rise of 1 degree
Celsius in 1g of water, the specific heat of water is 1cal/g/ degree Celsius. In the case of
water and other approximately incompressible substances, it is not necessary to
distinguish between the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats, as they
are approximately equal. Generally, the two specific heats of a substance depend on the
temperature.

19
 Transfer of Heat
Conduction
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between
bodies. It requires physical contact between the bodies or portions of bodies exchanging
heat.
Radiation
It does not require contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies.
Convection
It involves the motion of water. It occurs when a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid
body at a different temperature and is always accompanied by the motion of the liquid or
gas.
Heat Transfer
The science dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies.

Fire Behavior
Thermal Balance
It refers to the rising movement or pattern of the fire.
The normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed.
Thermal Imbalance
The abnormal movement of fire due to interference of foreign matter. It often confuses
the fire investigator in determining exact point where the fire originated.
Dangerous/fatal behavior of fire
1. Back draft
It is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that
occurs in the form of explosion.
This may occur because of improper ventilation. If room is not properly ventilated, highly
flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when door or window is suddenly
opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden combustion
occurs which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
The explosion is a result when air or oxygen is suddenly introduced in an area where
there is tremendous amount of incomplete combustion products.
These radical gases do not burn even if ignition temperature has been reached because
there is lack of oxygen.
This is a dangerous condition that usually results to fatal behavior of fire.

20
Characteristics of Back draft
a. Fire gases are under pressure
b. Existence of black smoke that is becoming dense gray yellow
c. Confinement of excessive heat
d. There is little flame or no visible flame
e. Smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
f. Windows are smoke stained
g. Muffled sounds are heard inside the building
h. Violent rushing of air inside when opening is made
2. Flashover
It is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels.
It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or a
flash produced when temperature rises until flashpoint is reached.
When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense
fire thatis capable of causing flames to jump at a certaion distance in the form of fireballs.
Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards within a few seconds.
3. Biteback
A fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishments operation and
becomes stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash fire
It is better known as dust explosion. This may happen when a metal post that is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by a lightning.
The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent
chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followd by an explosion.

Phases of Fire
1. Incipient phase- initial phase or stage
Characteristics
a. Normal room temperature
b. The temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 F
c. Ceiling temperature is about 200 F

21
 d. Pyrolysis products: mostly water vapors and carbom dioxide; small quantities of
carbon monoxide and sulfides maybe present.
2. Free- burning phase
Characteristics
a. Accelerated pyrolytic process takes place
b. Development of convection current; formation of thermal column as heat rises
c. Temperature
-800-1000 F @ the base of fire
-1200-1600 F @ the ceiling
d. Pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls (crawling of the flame) leaving
burnt patterns (fire fingerprints)
e. Occurrence of flashover
3. Smoldering phase
a. Oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and the heat
to develop in layers
b. Products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon
monoxide with an ignition temperature at about 1125 F
c. Ceiling temperature: 1000-1300 F
d. Heat and pressure in the room builds up
e. Building or room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but
little oxygen
f. When sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, back draft occurs

Classification of Fires
A. Based on cause
1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire
B. Based on burning fuel ( 4 Classes of Fire)
1. Class A Fires- ordinary fires; type of fire resulting from the burning of wood, paper,
textiles, rubber and other carbonaceous materials.In short, this is the type of fire
caused by ordinary combustible materials.

22
 2. Class B Fires- liquid fires; caused by flammable and/or combustible liquids such
as kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol, and other hydro-carbon
derivations.
3. Class C Fires-electrical fires: fires that starts in live electrical wires, equipment,
motors, electrical appliance and telephone switchboards.
4. Class D fires- fires that results from the combustion of certain metals in finely
divided forms. These combustible metals include metals include: magnesium,
powdered calcium, lithium, potassium, zinc, zirconium, sodium and titanium.
Reference
Bustria, L. (2006). Fire behavior and arson investigation. Quezon City: Wiseman’s Book
Trading
Montojo, F.G.(2006) Fire Technology and Investigation: lessons for criminology students.
Mandaluyong City: National Book Store

23
 UNIT II
CAUSES OF FIRE
Natural Causes
1. Spontaneous Heating
Automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous combustion due to auto- ignition
of organic materials.
The gradual rising of heat in a confined space until ignition temperature is reached.
A slow oxidation process that is exothermic in nature.
It involves the exothermic decomposition of organic materials in a confined area.
A slow process causing the burning of a plant combustible material even without an
external source of heat.
Factors affecting the development of spontaneous combustion
a. Air supply
b. Insulating materials
c. Temperature

2. Lightning
A form of electricity
A natural electric current with great magnitude producing tremendous amperage and
voltage.
It usually strikes objects that are better electrical conductors.
It can cause fire directly or indirectly.
Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission lines causing an induced line
surge.
It can cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod
covered with dust, the dust would suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.
A lightning may in the form of:
a. Hot bolt- longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials.
b. Cold bold- shorter in duration; capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart
an entire structure; produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very
high temperature.
Four basic paths of lightning include:
a. Striking a metal object
b. Direct strike to the structure

24
 c. Striking a nearby taller object allowing for transient horizontal surges to the building
through trees
d. Striking nearby public utility power lines, phone lines or television cables.\
3. Radiation of sunlight- when a light hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it
Accidental causes
1. Electrical Appliances
a. Short- circuit- unusual or accidental connection between 2 points at different
potentials(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
b. Arcing- production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated
electrodes; an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap
between 2 electrical conductors.
c. Sparking- production of incandescent particles when 2 different potentials (charged
conductors) come in contact; occurs during short-circuits or welding operations.
d. Induced current- induced line surge- increase of electrical energy flow or power
voltage; induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the
burning of insulating materials,
e. Overheating of electrical appliances- increase or rising of amperage while electric
current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of
insulating materials maybe gradual or rapid: internal or external.
2. Purely Accidental Cause
a. ignorance in using volatile substances or chemicals
b. overfilling of fuel tanks
c. spilling of fuel tanks
3. Negligence and other Forms of Human Error
a. Smoking
b. misuse of fuels
c. misfiling of fuel tanks
d. motor vehicle traffic accidents
Intentional Causes- incendiary
If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelarants and plants and
trailer then the cause of fire is intentional.

25
 a. Plants- booster- either a pool or liquid accelerant or a pile of combustibles used
to enhance the quality of fire in a selected location. It boosts the progress of fire
by producing a large body of fire.
b. Trailers- streamer- arrangement or configuration of flammable materials that is
intended to carry fire from one location to another. These may include gasoline
soaked towels, liquid accelerant splashed across the floor and accelerant soaked
newspaper.
c. Accelerants- used to accelerate the spread of fire by using gasoline, lighter
fluids or kerosene.
Pudding- it is the typical burnt pattern resulting from the use of liquid accelerants.
Reference
Bustria, L. (2006). Fire behavior and arson investigation. Quezon City: Wiseman’s Book Trading
Montojo, F. G. (2006). Fire Technology and investigation: lessons for criminology students.
Mandaluyong City: National Book store

26
 UNIT III
FIRE CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENTS
Fire Suppression Activities
1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING
This activity involves developing and defining systematic course of actions that maybe
performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection.
It involves the process of establishing the SOP in case of fire breaks out.
2. EVALUATION-SIZE-UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation)
This is the process of knowing the emergency situation.
It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of success.
The thing to consider in SIZE-UP (Evaluation of the situation):
a. Learn the facts of situation- by answering the 5Ws and 1 H
b. Understand the probabilities of dangerous or fatal behavior of fire
c. Know your own situation or capabilities- weaknesses and strengths; available
manpower and equipment.
d. Determine the specific course of action- entry or rescue
3. EVACUATION
This is the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the burning
area to minimize damage or destruction that he fire might incur in case it propagates to
other adjacent buildings.
4. ENTRY
This is the process of accessing the burning structure.
Entry maybe done in a forcible manner
The following are the purposes of conducting forcible entry:
a. to provide access for the fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments
b. to provide rescue
c. to aid in ventilation
5. RESCUE
This is the operation of removing (extricating)
Thus, saving people and other livestock from the burning building and other involved
properties, conveying them to secure place.

27
6. EXPOSURE- cover exposure
This is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning structure in order to
prevent the fire from extending to another building.
7. CONFINEMENT
This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started.
The process of preventing fire from extending from another section or from one section
to another section of the involved building.
8. VENTILATION
This is the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases.
It includes the process of displacing the heated atmospheric within the involved building
with normal air from outside atmosphere.
9. SALVAGE
The activity protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the fire.
Steps:
a. remove the material outside the burning area
b. protect or cover the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with the
water proofing).
10. EXTINGUISHMMENT
This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general methods of
fire extinguishments:
a. Cooling (removing heat)- a process using an extinguishing agent whose primary
characteristics is heat absorption
b. Separation- the removal of fuel.
c. Smothering (Removing of oxygen)- a process of excluding the oxygen from the fuel
so that gases or vapors cannot ignite and continue the combustion. (blanketing
effect)
d. Chemical interruption or inhibition- the sequence of events in suppressing or
extinguishing a fire by interrupting the chemical reaction.
11. OVERHAUL
This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein to
eliminate conditions that may cause “reflash”.
It involves complete extinguishments of sparks or smoldering (glowing) substances
(embers) to prevent or eliminate possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.

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 12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION
This is an inquiry conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Fire Trucks

The term usually means any other type of truck used to carry equipment or people to
a fire or emergency.
When a firefighter says “truck” though, he usually means a “hook and ladder” or
“aerial ladder” truck.
Types of fire trucks:
a. fire engines
b. ladder trucks
c. rescue trucks
d. aerial ladder trucks
Fire Engines

It has large pump that takes water from a small fire hydrant or other source.
The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses.
Engines carry several sizes of hoses and nozzles.
Many also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line.
Engines used for fighting grass or bush fire carry a tank of water and such tools as
shovels and rakes.
Ladder Trucks

These are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes.
These also carry forcible entry tools, which firefighters use to gain entry into a
building and to ventilate it to let out smoke.
Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.
Ladder trucks called quints have their own pump.
Kinds of Ladder Trucks

1. Aerial ladder truck

It has metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable.

The ladder can be raised as high as 100 feet (30 meters), or about eight stories.

29
2. Elevating-platform truck

It has a cage like platform that can hold several people.

The platform is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable.
The lifting device consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) or an extendable
boom made of several sections that fit inside each other.
The boom on the largest trucks can extend 150 feet (46 meters).
A built-in hose runs the length of the boom and is used to direct water on a fire.
In most cases, a pump in a nearby engine generates the pressure needed to spray
the water.
Rescue Trucks

These are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry
tools that ladder truck carry.
It also carries additional equipment for unusual rescues.
They have such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal and
hydraulic jacks, for lifting heavy objects.
It may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, commonly
known by the trade name Jaws of Life, firefighters can apply a large amount of
pressure to two objects to squeeze them together to or pry them apart. It is often
used to free people trapped in automobiles and other vehicles after the incident.
It also carries small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and topes and
harnesses for rescuing people from water or high places.
In addition it carries medical supplies and equipment.
Special Fire Vehicles

It includes airport crash trucks and hazardous material trucks.

Airport crash trucks are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft.
Water is ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that involve jet fuel,
gasoline, or certain metals.
Protective Clothing

Firefighters require special clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, heat,
toxic gases or lack of oxygen, loss of vision, loss of communication, and physical damage.

30
Fire Ladder

Straight Ladder

It is non-adjustable in length and consists only of one section.

Sometimes called a wall ladder, used for quick access to windows and roofs of one
and two-story buildings. (12’, 14’, 16’, 18’ and 24’)
Extension Ladder

It is adjustable in length.
It consists of two or more section, which travels in guides or brackets to permit length
adjustment.
It provides access in windows and roofs within the limits of extendable length.
Extra long ladders are usually equipped with stabilizing poles, called tormentors (24’
to 55’ in length).
A baby extension (baby Bangor) is a 12-foot long extension ladder without a halyard
for raising the flying section.
The hand-raised fly is held in position by engaging its heel spurs over the upper
rungs of the main section.
Roof Ladders

It is designed for one specific function. However, it may be used for other purposes
if condition warrant.
These are equipped with folding at the top and which provide a means of anchoring
the ladder over the roof ridge or other roof part.
These are generally equipped to lie flat on the roof surface so that firefighters may
stand on the ladder for roof work.
Their length range from 12 to 20 feet
Folding Ladders or Collapsible Ladders

It provides a means of reaching through opening into attics and lofts and other areas
which are somewhat difficult to reach without a special ladder.
It is constructed so that they can be folded or collapsed for small or closet work.
These are usually short in length since they only require reaching a short distance.

31
Aerial Ladders

An artificial ladder is a mechanical unit generally operated by hydraulic power that is

mounted built chassis.
The source of power is usually derived from apparatus engine which actuates a
hydraulic hoist.
These are currently constructed of metal and are trusted to provide adequate
strength.
These generally range in length from 65 to 100 feet, but longer ladders do not exist.
Tower Ladders

Tower ladder apparatus combines some features of both aerial ladder equipment
and elevating platforms.
A telescoping boom has a ladder mounted on it, but the top working area is a
partially enclosed platform. Various ground ladders are also carried.
Elevating Platforms

Though these are not considered to be ladders, some elevating platform apparatus
carry ground ladders.
This apparatus has some features, which is similar to aerial ladders, but they are
primarily a portable elevator controlled by an operator.
Pompier Ladders

It consists of a large gooseneck book at the tip, which a single bed through which the
rungs project.
At one time, the pompier ladder was used by firefighters to reach the upper stories of
tall buildings, beyond the reach of ground or aerial ladders but their use has
diminished greatly.
Fire Hose and its Parts

Fire Hose

A type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the
source of supply to a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire.

32
Hose Hoist

It is a device over which rope or hose may be pulled to hoist or lower equipment
when firefighters are operating in buildings above the ground level.
It consists of a metal frame, curved so that it will fit over a windowsill or the edge of
the roof.
It contains two or more rollers over which rope or hose may be drawn.
This device reduce the possibility of cutting the hose on the sharp edge of the wall,
cornice, or roof while it is being raised or lowered.
Hose Clamp

It is a tool to shut off the water in hose lines when other control valves are not
applicable.
It is used to replace a burst section of hose, to extend lines, or to hold water back for
line advancement without shutting off the source of supply.
Hose Jacket

It is used to seal small cuts or breaks which may occur in fire hose or to connect
damaged couplings of the same size.
Hose Spanner Wrench

It is to tighten or loosen hose couplings, but this versatile tool can be used to close
utility cocks, pry, and hammer.
Fire Hose Rams and Ridges

It protects hose from injuries from vehicles crossing hose lines.

Firefighters at the nozzles will receive sudden jerks each time a wheel cuts off the
water momentarily.
Nozzle

It is a piece of firefighting equipment used to direct and control a stream of water.

The characteristics of the stream of water or fire stream are determined mainly by
the nozzle.
Water Sprinkler System

They are generally used to protect living quarters, adjacent and passageways.
The system may extinguish fire in these places.

33
 Their primary function is to protect the building structure, limit the spread of fire and
control the amount of heat produced.
They also protect the people in these areas and maintain escape routes.

Fire Code of the Philippines mandates that all high-rise buildings (above 15 meters in
height) be equipped with sprinkler fire suppression systems. If you are living in a new building
constructed in the ‘80s and ‘90s your building will surely have one. If you live in an older
structure built in the ‘60s and early ‘70s before the Fire Code took effect, most likely, your
building does not have a sprinkler system. Also, if you happen to live in a building below five (5)
stories, and the builder was just concerned with nominal safety compliance, rather than genuine
concern for safety, your building may not also have sprinkler system or an automatic smoke
detector system.

The Ideal Safety Tandem: Sprinkler System and Smoke Detector

Ideally, an effective combination would be to have an automatic fire detection system

operating in tandem with the sprinkler suppression system. As the fire starts, and begins
generating smoke, the smoke detection system will activate way ahead of the sprinkler system,
warning the residents, and triggering a local fire department that will put out the fire, perhaps
without the need for the sprinkler system to go into action. On the other hand, if nothing is
immediately done and the fire gets bigger, the sprinkler system activates and eventually douses
the fire. One system detects; the other extinguishes the fire.

34
Using the Right Fire Fighting Tools

Fire Burning Material Extinguishing Extinguishing

Category Method Agent
Class A Ordinary combustible Cool below flash Water
materials point

Class B Flammable or combustible Cut oxygen supply Foam

liquids

Class C Electrical Equipment Cut oxygen supply Dry chemical

powder
Class D Combustible metal Cut oxygen supply, Dry powder
cool below flash
point

Class E Petroleum Gas Remove gas supply Dry chemical

powder
Class F Spontaneously Remove material Dry chemical
combustible materials powder, water

When not to Fight Fire?

If fire has already spread beyond where it originally started.

If you are in a situation where, while fighting the fire, you have no avenue of escape.
If you do not have any adequate firefighting equipment.
In anyone of the above circumstances, the safest thing for you to do is to LEAVE
IMMEDIATELY and CALL THE FIRE DEPARTMENT in your place as soon as you reach a safe
area outside the endangered premises. It is important for you to balance any “Gung-ho” macho
tendency to do it yourself, with the right sense to know when to leave the job to property
equipped and trained professional firefighters.

In any case, even if you decide to initially handle the firefighting, make sure you let
someone else in your household call immediately for outside help – the nearest local firefighting
units or other people.

35
Specific Fire Fighting Tips
Upon discovery of Fire or Smoke
1. Remove persons from immediate danger!
2. Alert others in near vicinity and Administration
3. Contain Fire and Smoke (close doors)
4. Evacuate and/or Extinguish
It is a normal reaction for most people to immediately flee, at the first onset of fire. This
is certainly the safest personal approach to nay fire. However, there are specific instances
when you can actually successfully fight fire, provided:

The fire has just started, and it is still small.

You have the correct, appropriate firefighting equipment.
You know what you are doing.

Assuming the above conditions, here are specific tips and firefighting techniques:

TIMING is critical. You must be able to act fast and correctly, as soon as the fire starts –
before it has a chance to grow and spread. This assumes that there is very early detection of
this incipient fire – either with an early warning smoke detector, or you were fortunate enough o
have someone immediately notice it while at its very early state. It is only at this early state of
the fire that you can expect to put it out. Once it has begun to spread, you only alternative is to
evacuate.

Equipment Familiarity and Firefighting Practices

For you to have this quick instinctive firefighting reaction, assumes that you are properly
oriented to fight fire. This also means prior familiarity with all the firefighting tools you have
available, and regular practice on their use. This is true for both the professional firemen, as
well as rank amateurs. Firefighting is a very serious task, and can be fatal to the careless or
inexperienced. So, if you expect members of your household to be able to do this, they must
have proper familiarization and practical exercises. Without this, your chances of success are
very poor, your firefighting capability is minimal – you are better of evacuating immediately at
the first sign of fire.

36
What to do if someone actually catches fire?

Stop moving immediately.

Drop to the ground or floor.
Roll to smother the flames. If you have a fire blanket or damp clothing material,
cover the person as he or she rolls.
FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

The extinguishment of fire is based on an interruption of one or more of the essential

elements in the combustion process. With flaming combustion the fire may be extinguished by
reducing temperature, eliminating fuel or oxygen, or by stopping the uninhibited chemical chain
reaction. If a fire is in the smoldering mode of combustion, only three extinguishment options
exist: reduction of temperature, elimination of fuel or oxygen.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT THEORY

1. Extinguishment of Temperature Reduction

One of the most common methods of extinguishment is by cooling with water.

The process of extinguishment by cooling is dependent on cooling the fuel to a point
where it does not produce sufficient vapor to burn.
If we look at fuel types and vapor production, we find that solid fuels and liquid fuels
with high flash points can be extinguished by cooling.
Low flashpoint liquids and flammable gases cannot be extinguished by cooling with
water as vapor production cannot be sufficiently reduced.
Reduction of temperature is dependent on the application of an adequate flow in
proper form to establish a negative heat balance.
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal

In some cases, a fire is effectively extinguished by removing the fuel source.

This may be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by
removing solid fuel in the path of the fire.
Another method of fuel removal is to allow the fire to burn until all fuel is consumed.
3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution

The method of extinguishment by oxygen dilution is the reduction of the oxygen

concentration to the fire area.

37
 This can be accomplished by introducing an inert gas into the fire or by separating
the oxygen from the fuel.
This method of extinguishment will not work on self-oxidizing materials or on certain
metals as they are oxidized by carbon dioxide or nitrogen, the two most common
extinguishing agents.
4. Extinguishment by Chemical flame Inhibition

Some extinguishing agents, such as dry chemicals and halons, interrupt the flame
producing chemical reaction, resulting in rapid extinguishment.
This method of extinguishment is effective only on gas and liquid fuels as they
cannot burn in the smoldering mode of combustion.
If extinguishment of smoldering materials is desired, the addition of cooling capability
is required.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable fire extinguishers are designed to attack a fire in its initial stage. The selection
of a suitable extinguisher is primarily influenced by the following factors:

• the size and rate of fire spread

• the Class of fire (i.e. type of materials involved)

• the training and capabilities of the person using the extinguisher

Note: Always follow the specific instructions on a fire extinguisher and familiarize yourself with
these instructions prior to an emergency situation. Persons should be trained in the use of
extinguishers to optimize their effectiveness

General Guidelines for Using a Fire Extinguisher

P.A.S.S.

1. raise the alarm, summon help and have someone call the fire service.

2. keep your escape path at your back. Never allow the fire to get between you and the escape
path.

38
3. select the correct extinguisher for the Class of fire
4. remember P.A.S.S.
… Pull the pin
… Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of flames
… Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright
… Sweep the extinguisher or nozzle from side to side covering the base of the fire.
5. observe fire after initial extinguishment, it may rekindle
6. the contents of small extinguishers may last as little as 8 seconds and up to 60 seconds for
larger extinguishers. The time to discharge an extinguisher depends on the type and size of
the extinguisher
Do Not Use (or continue to use) an extinguisher if:

• the fire is larger than a waste paper basket

• the fire is spreading quickly beyond the point of origin

• the extinguisher is not having any effect or is having an adverse reaction on the fire

• you are putting your life at risk

• you cannot extinguish the fire quickly (less than 30 sec)

• you do not know what fuels are involved in the fire

REMEMBER: Saving lives through a quick escape is far more important than saving property.

An emergency is not the time to read extinguisher instructions, if you do not know how to use
the extinguisher or the type of materials involved in the fire:

• Close the door to contain the fire

• Ensure everyone is out of the building

• Ring the fire service.

• Never go back into the building once out

• Wait to meet the fire service

39
 Fire extinguishers are provided for a 'first attack' fire fighting measure generally
undertaken by the occupants of the building before the fire service arrives. It is important that
occupants are familiar with which extinguisher type to use on which fire. Most fires start as a
small fire and may be extinguished if the correct type and amount of extinguishing agent is
applied whilst the fire is small and controllable. The principle fire extinguisher types currently
available include:

Water (solid Red): wood and paper fires - not electrical

Foam (Blue band): flammable liquid fires - not electrical
Carbon Dioxide (Black band) electrical fires
Dry Chemical (White band) flammable liquids and electrical fires
Wet chemical (Oatmeal band) fat fires - not electrical
Special Purpose (Yellow band) various (eg. metal fires)
Fire extinguisher locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are colour coded
according to the extinguishing agent. The important thing to remember is that fire fighting
must always be secondary to the safety of people.

Extinguishing Agent:

An extinguishing agent is a substance that will put out a fire. Every extinguishing agent
operates by attacking one or more side of the fire tetrahedron. The specific actions involved are
the following:

1 – Cooling

To reduce the temperature.

This is a direct attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.
2 – Smothering

To separate the fuel from oxygen.

This can be considered as an attack on the edge of the fire tetrahedron where the
fuel and oxygen meet.
3 – Oxygen dilution

To reduce amount of available oxygen needed to sustain combustion.

This is an attack on the oxygen side of the fire tetrahedron.

40
4 – Chain breaking

To disrupt the chemical process that sustains the fire (the chain reaction side of the
fire tetrahedron).
Types of Extinguishing Agent:

1. Water Extinguishing Agent

It is a liquid between the temperatures of 0 °C and 100 °C (32 °F and 212 °F); at 100
°C (212 °F) it boils and burns to steam.
It weighs about 1 Kg/liter (8.5 lb/gal);
Fresh water weighs slightly less, and seawater slightly more.
Being fluid and relatively heavy, water is easily transported through fire mains and
hoses when it is placed under pressure.
The velocity of the water is increased by forcing it through a restricted nozzle at the
working end of the hose.
The water stream can be thrown a fairly good distance if sufficient pressure is
available.
Extinguishing Capabilities of Water

Water is primarily a cooling agent. It absorbs heat and cools burning materials more
effectively than any of the commonly used extinguishing agents.
Water provides a smothering action.
2. Foam extinguishing agent

A blanket of bubbles that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering.

The bubbles are formed by mixing water and foam-making agent (foam concentrate).
The result is called foam solution.
Various foam solutions are lighting than the lightest flammable oils.
When applied to burning oils, they float on the surface of the oil.
Extinguishing effects of foam:

Use to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids, including oils.

It has a cooling effect which gives foam its Class A extinguishing capability.

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3. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Agent

It delivers a quick smothering action to flames, reducing oxygen and suffocating the
fire.
It dissipates without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue.
A colorless and odorless gas will not damage clothing, equipment and other valuable
items.
Extinguishing Properties of Carbon Dioxide

It extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until
the oxygen content is too low to support combustion.
It is effective on Class B fires, where the main consideration is to keep the flammable
vapors separated from oxygen in the air.
It has a very limited cooling effect and thus, can be used on Class A fires in confined
spaces, where the atmosphere may be diluted sufficiently to stop combustion.
Extinguishment takes time.
It is use to protect areas containing valuable article.
It does not conduct electricity and can be used on live electrical equipment.
Limitations on the Use of Carbon Dioxide

Effectiveness
- It is not effective on substances that contain their own oxygen.

- It is not effective on combustible metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium,

and zirconium.

Possibility of re ignition
- It has a very limited cooling capacity.

Hazards
- It is suffocating in the concentration necessary for extinguishments. A person
exposed to this concentration would suffer dizziness and unconsciousness.

4. AFFF – Aqueous Film Foaming Foam

Light water.
A synthetic foam-foaming liquid designed for use with fresh water.
When proportionally mixed with water and applied with conventional foam or water, it

42
 generates white foam with a remarkable ability to make a water float on flammable
liquid which are lighter than water.
This double action foam and aqueous film enhances extinguishments of flammable
liquids fires and prevent reflash.
This action also takes place on spilled or leaking liquid fuels, which have not been
ignited so they are secured and are not readily ignited.
Light water can extinguish a liquid fire in less than half the time when used in
conventional foam.
5. BCF-HALON 1211

It stands for Bromochlorodifluoromethane

One of the modern and effective fire-extinguishing agents available for general risk.
It is a vaporizing liquid, which will chemically interrupt the chain reaction taking place
in the flames.
It has the ability to minimize the possibility to re flash after the fire has been
extinguished.
A colorless, non-corrosive liquefied gas that leaves no messy residue.
Highly recommended for use in industrial factory, home computers and electronic
companies, motor vehicles, etc.
6. DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHING AGENT

Chemicals in powder form.

It should not be confused with dry powders which are intended only for combustible
materials.
Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical

Cooling. No dry chemicals exhibit any great capacity for cooling. However, a small
amount of cooling takes place simply because the dry chemical is at lower
temperature than the burning material. Heat is transferred from the hooter fuel to the
cooler dry chemical when the latter is introduced to the fire.
Smothering. When dry chemical react with the heat and burning material, some
carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the
air surrounding the fire. The result is a limited smothering effect.
Shielding of Radiant Heat. Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the
combustion area. This cloud reduces the amount of heat that is radiated back to the

43
 heart of fire, i.e., the opaque cloud absorbs some of the radiation feedback that is
required to sustain the fire. Less vapor is produced, and the fire becomes less
intense.
Chain Breaking. Chain reactions are necessary for continued combustion. In
these, chain reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules are broken down by heat, they
recombine into the new molecules giving off additional heat. This additional heat
breaks down more molecules, which then recombine and gives off still more heat.
The fire thus builds, or at least sustains itself, through reactions that liberate enough
heat to set off other reactions.
All dry chemical agents may be used to extinguish fires involving

Flammable oils and greases

Electrical equipment
Hoods, ducts and cooking ranges in galleys and diet kitchens.
The surfaces of bated textiles.
Certain combustible solid such as pitch, naphthalene and plastics (except those that
contain their own oxygen)
Machinery spaces, engine rooms and paint and tool lockers

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 UNIT IV

FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Fire Investigation

The process of determining the origin, cause and development of a fire or explosion.

Basic Methodology
Nature of Fire Investigation
A fire or explosion investigation is a complex endeavor involving both art and science.
The compilation of factual data, as well as an analysis of those facts, should be accomplished
objectively and truthfully.

The basic methodology of the fire investigation should rely upon the use of a systematic
approach and attention to all relevant details. The use of systematic approach often will uncover
new factual data for analysis, which may require previous conclusions to be reevaluated.

Systematic Approach
The systematic approach recommended is that of the scientific method which is used the
physical sciences. This method provides for the organizational and analytical process so
desirable and necessary in a successful fire investigation.

Relating Fire Investigation to the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a principal of inquiry that forms a basis for legitimate
scientific and engineering processes, including fire incident investigation.
The scientific method is applied using the following six steps:

 Recognize the need: In this case a fire or explosion has occurred and the cause must
be determined and listed so that future, similar incidents can be prevented.
 Define the problem: Having determined that a problem exists; the investigator or
analyst must define in what manner the problem can be solved. In this case, a proper
origin and cause investigation must be conducted. This is done by examination of the
scene and by a combination of other data collection methods, such as the review of
previously conducted investigations of the incident, the interviewing of witnesses or other
knowledgeable persons, and the results of the scientific testing.

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  Collect Data: Facts about the fire incident are now collected. This is done by
observation, experiment, or other direct data gathering means. This is called empirical
data because it is based upon observation or experience and is capable of being
verified.
 Analyze the Data (Inductive Reasoning): All of the collected and observed information
is analyzed by inductive reasoning. This is the process in which the total body of
empirical data collected is carefully examined in the light of the investigator’s knowledge,
training, and experience.
 Develop Hypothesis: Based upon the data analysis, the investigator must now produce
a hypothesis or group of hypotheses to explain the origin and cause of the fire or
explosion incident. This hypothesis must be based solely upon the empirical data that
the investigator has collected.
 Test the Hypothesis (Deductive Reasoning): All other reasonable origins and causes
must be eliminated. This is done by the principle of deductive reasoning, in which the
investigator compares his or her hypothesis to all known facts. If the hypothesis cannot
withstand, the fire cause must be listed as “unknown”.

Basic Method of a Fire Investigation

Using the scientific method in most fire incidents should involve the following six
major steps from inception through final analysis.
 Receiving the Assignment: The investigator should be notified of the incident, what his
or her role will be, what he or she is to accomplish.
 Preparing for the Investigation: The investigator should marshal his or her forces and
resources and plan the conduct of the investigation.
 Examination of the Scene: The investigator should conduct the examination of the
scene and collect basic data necessary to the analysis.
 Recording the Scene: The scene should be photographed and diagrammed, and notes
of the progress of the investigation should be made. Valuable empirical data should be
noted and preserved.
 Collecting and Preserving Evidence: Valuable physical evidence should be
recognized, properly collected, and preserved for further testing and evaluation or for
courtroom presentation.

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  Analyzing the Incident: In incident scenario or failure analysis should be described,
explaining the origin, cause and responsibility for the incident. This analysis should be
reported in the proper forum to help prevent reoccurrence.
Basic Steps in a Fire Scene Investigation

 Search systematically
 Observe
 Take photograph
 Work by process of elimination
 Check and verify
 Take note
 Draw diagrams

Types of Fire/Arson Investigation

There are three types of fire investigation namely:

 Basic Investigation: Under this step, the concerns are

o To determine what property was damaged
o Causes and reasons
o The number and extent of injuries or fatalities
o The recommended corrective actions to prevent reoccurrence
 Technical Investigation: This focuses on:
o There is suspicion of arson in connection with any fire
o There is suspicion of negligence or violation of regulations
o The cause of any fire is undetermined (to establish the most probable cause)
o There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire suppression or
rescue operation.
o Loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.
 Arson Investigation
o The direct result of the basic or technical investigation, or it maybe brought about
from outside knowledge.

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Personnel who are Qualified to Investigates Fires

 Should posses knowledge of investigative techniques

 Should have an insight of human behavior
 Should have a first hand knowledge of the fire chemistry and behavior of fire
 Should be resourceful

Fireman’s Role in Arson Investigation

A. Observing General Conditions at the Fire Scene

1. Upon approaching the fire
a. Observe the elements.
b. Observe persons in automobiles.
c. Observe color of smoke and flame.
2. Upon arrival at the fire scene.

a. Observe number of separate fires, intensity and rapidity of spread.

b. Observe odors and methods required to extinguish the flames.
B. Observing condition of building openings at the time of a fire
1. Find out whether doors and windows are locked.
2. Determine condition of doors, windows and locks.
C. Observing owners, occupants and bystanders at the time of a fire
1. Observe dress and manner of persons at the fire.
2. Look for familiar faces.
D. Locating evidence of fire causes
1. Look for indications of arson intent.
a. multiple fires
b. odors
c. undue wood charring and uneven wood burning
d. holes made in walls and floors
e. inoperative sprinkler and fire doors
2. Look for arson materials and arson equipment.
E. Protecting and Preserving Evidence
1. Keeping the evidence where it is – untouched and undisturbed, if all possible.

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 2. Property identifying, removing and safeguarding such evidence as cannot be left at
the scene of the fire as it was discovered.
3. Points on protecting and preserving evidence
a. Use care in the application of hose streams.
b. Do overhauling and salvage work carefully.
c. Handle evidence as little as possible.
d. Move evidence from the scene of the fire only when absolutely necessary.
e. Don’t allow evidence to be walked over and tramped out.
f. Place barricades, or rope off area around evidence.
g. Have someone witness your discoveries.
h. Record date, location and circumstances by which evidence was discovered.
i. Notify officer in charge of fire, so than he can place a call for the investigator.
j. Have photos taken by a qualified photographer at the scene of the fire when
evidence must be removed.
4. Observing condition of contents of a building involved in a fire.
5. Watch for indications of removal of personal articles.
6. Watch for indications of removal of valuable merchandise.
F. Recording and reporting observations made at a fire.
G. Appearing in court in an arson case.

Role of the Fire Investigator

Determine the origin and cause of the fire

The point of origin of a fire is the location where the fire started – the place of beginning.
Multiple points of origin are said to exist when there is more than one place of beginning, or
when several separate fire burn in the same structure at the same time.

Exterior Examination

Exterior examination of the fire scene should be based on the following questions:

1. Were any people or vehicles observed in the vicinity of the fire?

2. If so, could their conduct or actions be interpreted as suspicious?
3. Was the structure fully involved?
4. Were the doors and windows open or closed?

49
 5. What was the approximate reflex time (time elapsed between alarm and first water –
response time + set-up time)?
6. Were any unusual odor noticed?
7. Were hydrants, standpipes, and sprinkler systems operational?
Guidelines in exterior examination of the fire scene include:

1. Examine and evaluate the fire damage on the exterior.

2. Examine and containers or items on the ground around the structure, and photograph
the outside of the building.
3. Note the construction and use of the structure.
4. Note the building material, such as type of roof and siding.
5. Note the differences in multiple sections of the building.
Interior Examination

1. Wear full turnout ear or its equivalent at all times.

2. Evaluate its suitability before entering.
3. Reconstruct mentally what happened during the fire.
4. All observations made should be written down.
Rooms and Point/s of Origin

1. Migrate to the area of the most severe damage. This is usually the area where the fire
burned the longest except when flammable liquids were involved.
2. Record, photograph and sketch the fire scene. It should clearly show that the multiple
points of origin were not the result of normal fire travel, flashover, or burning having
been moved during the suppression, overhaul or salvage operations.
3. Fall down fires (drop down fire) may indicate multiple points of origin.
4. Multiple points of origin are prima facie evidence that the fire was of incendiary origin.
Fire Language

These are physical signs and substances that reveal, by implication, how a fire
developed.

1. Line and Areas of Demarcation

It appears between the affected area and adjacent unaffected or less affected area
of structure and its contents.

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 It depends on the material, the rate of the heat release of the fire, fire suppression
efforts, the temperature of the heat source, any ventilation, and the length of time the
materials was exposed to the heat.
2. Char
It is the carbonization of a fuel by the action of heat or burning.
It is applied to the combustible residue remaining after the pyrolysis of wood.
It is usually the deepest where the fire burned the longest (excluding the use of
accelerants) and, thus, can be used to identify the point of origin.

3. Depth of Char
Depth of charred material.
Its value is obtained by measuring the distance from the surface of the original
dimensional wood to the boundary of the carbonized fraction, and comparing this
with remaining unburned matter.
It indicates the length of the time that a wooden structural member was exposed
to flame.
It is used to estimate the duration of a fire. The rate of charring wood varies
widely depending upon such variables such as:
a. Rate and duration of heating
b. Ventilation
c. Surface area-to-mass ratio
d. Size, direction, orientation of wood gain
e. Species of wood
f. Moisture content
g. Nature of surface coating
4. Spalling
It is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement (concrete)
building materials.
It may appear as a distinctive discoloration of brick or concrete and, in some
cases, the surface of the material may be pitted and rough.
It is result of mechanical forces in the material, particularly between the surface
of the concrete and the underlying aggregate.

51
 It is characterized by distinct lines of striation and the loss of surface material
resulting in cracking, breaking, chipping, or the formation of craters on the
surface.
5. Oxidation
A basic chemical process of combustion. Oxidation of some materials that do
not burn can produce lines of demarcation and fire patterns useful to the
investigator.
Effects of oxidation – changes of color and texture.
6. Heat indicators
Pieces of fused or metal (and/or gas) that suggest both the path of fire spread
and the location of the highest temperatures. The most severe heat damage is
usually found at or near the point of origin.
7. Calcinations
It refers to the changes that occur during a fire in either plaster or gypsum wall
surfaces.
It includes the elimination of water from gypsum to charring the paper surface off
the wall board.
8. Smoke stained
9. Checkering of glass
It refers to the half-moon shapes that are sometimes seen on the surface of glass
items.
These half-moon shapes result after droplets of water (usually from the
firefighting) land on a heated surface.
They usually indicate that the glass was in place or intact when the water was
applied.
10. Crazing
It refers to the cracking of glass into smaller segments of subdivisions in an
irregular pattern.

Legal Considerations
Legal considerations impact upon every phase of a fire investigation. Whatever the
capacity in which a fire investigator functions, it is important that the investigator be informed
regarding all relevant legal restrictions, requirements, obligations, standards and duties. Failure

52
to do so could jeopardize the reliability of any investigation and could subject the investigator to
civil and criminal prosecution.
A. Preliminary Legal Considerations
 Authority to Conduct the Investigation: The investigator should ascertain the basis
and extent of his or her authority to conduct the investigation. Normally, the authority is
public or governmental. Proper identification of the basis of authority will assist the
investigator in complying with applicable legal requirements and limitations.
 Right of entry: Once a legal entry onto the property has been established, the
investigator should notify any officer or authority then in charge of the scene of his or her
entry. In the event that destruction, disposal, or removal is authorized or necessary, the
investigator should engage in such act only after the scene as been properly recorded
and the record has been verified as to accuracy and completeness.
 Method of Entry: Whereas right of entry refers to the legal authority to be on a given
premise or fire scene. There are four general methods by which entry maybe obtained:
o Consent: The person in lawful control of the property can grant the investigator
permission or consent to enter and remain on the property. This is voluntary act
on the part of the responsible person and can be withdrawn at any time by that
person. When consent is granted, the investigator should document it.
o Exigent Circumstance: It is generally recognized that the fire department has
the legal authority to enter a property to control and extinguish a hostile fire. It is
also been held that the fire department has an obligation to determine the origin
and cause of the fire in the interest of the public good and general welfare.
o Administrative Search Warrant: The purpose of an administrative search
warrant is generally to allow those charged with the responsibility, by ordinance
or statute to investigate the origin and cause of a fire and fulfill their obligation
according to the law. An administrative search warrant maybe obtained from a
court of competent jurisdiction upon a showing that consent has not been
granted or has been denied.
o Criminal Search Warrant: The purpose of a criminal search warrant is to allow
the entry of government officials or agents to search for and collect any evidence
of a crime.

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Sources of Information
A. Purpose of Obtaining Information. The thorough fire investigation always involves the
examination of the fire scene, or by evaluating the prior documentation of that scene. The fire
investigator should not however, end with the mere examination of the fire scene.
By necessity, the thorough fire investigation also encompasses interviewing and the
research and the analysis of other sources of information. The fire scene examination, interview,
and the research and the analysis of other sources of information provide the fire investigator
with an opportunity to establish the origin, cause, and responsibility for a particular fire.
B. Forms of Information: Sources of information will present themselves in different forms.
 Verbal: Sources which, maybe encountered by the fire investigator, may include but are
not limited to, verbal statements during interviews, telephone conversations, tape
recording and the like.
 Written: Sources may include, but are not limited to, written reports, written documents,
reference materials, newspapers and the like.
 Visual: Visual sources of information, by definition, are limited to those that are gathered
utilizing the sense of sight. Sources may include but are not limited to, photographs,
videotapes, motion pictures, and computer generated animations.
 Electronic: Computers have become an integral part of modern information and data
systems. As such, the computer system maintained by any particular source of
information may provide a wealth of information relevant to the fire investigation.
 Interviews: The purpose of any interview is to gather both useful and accurate
information.
 Types of Interviews: Interviews can generally be categorized into three different types
o Interviews with those you can approach with an attitude of trust
o Interviews with those you must approach with caution
o Interviews with those you must approach with an attitude of distrust

Origin Determination
Determination of the origin of the fire will frequently involve the coordination of
information derived from:
 The physical marks (fire patterns) left by the fire
 The observations reported by person who witnessed the fire or were aware of the
conditions present at the time of the fire

54
 The analysis of the physics and chemistry of fire initiation, development, and growth as
an instrument to related known or hypothesized fire conditions capable of producing
those conditions.
There is no single item sufficient to establish the origin of fire, thus the investigator must
use all the available resources in developing potential scenarios and determining which
scenarios plausibly fit all of the evidence available. It is important that the determination of a
single point of origin not be made unless the evidence is conclusive.

What is the purpose of determining the origin of the fire? This is to identify the
geographical location where the fire began. If the specific location where the heat source
ignited the first fuel can be identified, then the point of origin can be determined.

The various activities of origin determination often occur simultaneously with those of
cause investigation and failure analysis. Likewise, recording the scene, note taking,
photography, and evidence identification and collection are performed simultaneously with
these efforts.

Generally, the various activities of origin determination will follow a routine sequence,
while the specific actions within each activity are taking place at the same time. Investigator
should establish a systematic procedure to follow for each type of incident. By following a
familiar procedure, the investigator can concentrate on the incident at hand and not have to
dwell on the details of what the next step in the procedure will be.

Recommended Techniques to Follow when Examining a Fire Scene

A. Fire Damage Assessment: These assessments include recognizing and documenting

heat movement and intensity patterns and analyzing the importance and direction of
each pattern found.
B. Notes: The investigator should be making detailed, written, or tape-recorded notes.
These notes should list all the pertinent observations, including the type, location,
description, and measurements of the patterns and other details.
C. Photography: The patterns should be photographed several different ways as to
effectively show their shape, patterns, size and the location within the fire scene.
D. Vector Diagrams: Vectoring is applied by constructing a diagram of the scene including;
walls, doorways, and doors, windows, and any pertinent furnishings or contents. Then

55
 through the use of arrows, the investigators note his or her interpretations of the
direction of heat and flame spread.
E. Depth-of-Char Survey Grid Diagram: For analysis purposes, the investigator can
construct a depth-of-char grid diagram. On this diagram, the char measurements are
recorded on graph paper to a convenient scale. The resulting “isochars” may display
identifiable lines of demarcation and intensity patterns.

Cause Determination
The determination of the cause of a fire requires the identification of those
circumstances and factors that were necessary for the fire to have occurred.

What are the circumstances and factors? These include but are not limited to: device or
equipment involved in the ignition, the presence of the competent ignition source, the type and
form of the material first ignited, and the human actions that allowed the factors to come
together so as to allow the fire to occur.
Classification of the Cause:
 Accidental Fire Cause
 Natural Fire Cause
 Incendiary Fire Cause
 Undetermined Fire Cause

Safety
Fire scenes by their nature are dangerous places. Fire investigators have a duty to
themselves and to others who maybe endangered at fire scenes to exercise due caution during
their investigations.
A. Investigating the Scene Alone: Fire scene examinations should not be undertaken
alone. A minimum of two individuals should be present. In that way, if an investigator
should become trapped or injured, assistance would be at hand.
B. Safety Clothing and Equipment
C. Fire Scene Hazards
D. Personal Health and safety
E. Factors Influencing Scene Safety
a. Status of suppression
b. Structural stability
c. Utilities

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 d. Standing water
F. Safety of Bystanders
G. Safety of the Fire Scene Atmosphere

The Legal Aspect of Fire

Republic Act No. 6975

It is otherwise known as the DILG Act of 1990.

It created the Bureau of Fire Protection, referred to as the Fire Bureau under Rule VIII,
Section 49.
Powers and Functions of the Fire Bureau:

The Fire Bureau is held responsible for the prevention and suppression of destructive
fires on buildings, houses, and other structures, forests, land transportation vehicles and
equipment, ships or vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major seaports,
petroleum industry installations, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the
enforcement of the Fire code and other related laws.
It is also empowered to investigate all causes of fires and, if necessary, file the proper
complaints with the city or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case.
It is a community-oriented government agency that provides assistance to the citizenry
not only during fire but also in times of typhoons, floods, earthquakes, vehicular
accidents, and various other calamities.
It primary mission is to serve the fire safety needs of the country,
It is also active in rescue, evacuation, and paramedic and relief operation in any life-
threatening situation.
Act No. 3815 (Revised Penal Code)

It took effect in January 1, 1932.

It penalizes the crime of arson under Article 320-326b.
Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the laws on Arson

Section 1. Arson – Any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be
punished by prision mayor.

57
 The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property
under circumstances which expose danger the life or property of another.

Section 2. Destructive Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period
to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or
combustible materials are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture,
education or social services.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or water craft, or conveyance for
transportation of persons or property.
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative
or other official proceeding.
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center,
public or private market, theatre or movie house or any similar place or building.
7. Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or
congested area.
Section 3. Other Cases of Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion
Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies.
2. Any inhabited house or dwelling.
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platforms or tunnel.
4. Any plantation, farm, pasture land, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove
or forest.
5. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central.
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.
Section 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson – The penalty in any case of
arson shall be imposed in its maximum period:
1. If committed with intent to gain.
2. If committed for the benefit of another.
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned.
4. If committed by a syndicate.

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Section 5. Where Death Results from Arson – If by reason of or on the occasion of arson
death results, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall be imposed.
Section 6. Prima Facie Evidence of Arson – Any of the following
circumstances shall constitute prima-facie evidence of arson:
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or
establishment.
2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the
building not necessary in the business of the offender or for household use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, or ashes or traces of any
of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value of the
time of the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires
have occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the
offender and/or insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a
building or property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary
course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made were the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or for the safety of the person or
property of the victim.
Section 8. Confiscation of Object of Arson – The building which is the object of arson
including the land on which it is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the State,
unless the owner thereof can prove that he has no participation in nor knowledge of such
arson despite the exercise of due diligence on his part.
Article 320. Destructive Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed
upon any person who shall burn:

1. One or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning, or as a

result of simultaneous burning, or committed on several or different occasions.

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 2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general or
where people usually gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not
limited to official government function or business, private transaction, commerce,
trade worship, meetings and conference, or merely incidental to as definite purpose
such as but not limited to hotels, motels, transient dwelling, public conveyance or
stop terminals, regardless or whether the offender had knowledge that there are
persons in the said buildings or edifice at the time it is set on fire and regardless
also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel or airplane, devoted to transportation or
conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse, installation and any appurtenances thereto, which
are devoted to the service of public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or destroying
evidence of another violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing backruptcy or
defrauding creditors or to collect from insurances.
Irrespective of the application of the above-mentioned qualifying circumstances, the
penalty of reclusion perpetua to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated
or committed by two or more persons or by a group of persons, regardless of whether their
purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or burning merely constitutes an overt act in
the commission of another violation of law.

The penalty of reclusion perpetua to death shall be imposed upon any person who shall
burn:

a. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military powder or fireworks factory, ordinance

storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
b. In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosive material.
If a consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this articles,
death results the mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed.

Arson

It is the malicious or intentional destruction of property by fire.

It is the concern of the fire investigation to provide malicious intent of the offender.
Intent must be proved, otherwise, no crime exists.
The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence designs must be shown.

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 Fire caused by accident or criminal design must be shown.
Fire cause by accident or negligence does not constitute arson.
What constitutes arson?

a. Burning: Their must be burning or changing. The fiber of the wood must be destroyed or
decomposed, its identity or physical state changed.
b. Willfulness: The act was done purposely and intentionally
c. Motive: The moving cause that induces the commission of the crime
d. Malice: It denotes hatred or a desire for revenge
e. Intent: The purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will to do the
act.
What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

Kind and character of the building burned

Location of the building
Extent or value of the damage
Whether inhabited or not
Special aggravating circumstance in arson

If committed with intent to gain

If committed with the benefit of another
If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned
If committed by a syndicate
Prima-facie evidence of arson

If the fire simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
If substantial amounts of flammable substances or materials are stored within the
building not necessary in the business of the offender or for household use.
If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of
any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or
property.
If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the
time of the issuance of the policy.

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 If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender
and/or insured.
If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a
building or property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course
of business.
If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or the safety of the person or property of the
victim.
Methods of proof of arson

Physical evidences of arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed,
corpus delicti must be shown and identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus delicti is
the fact that a crime has been committed. The following must show it:

1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint,
firemen responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may
also indicate location.
2. Criminal design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of
incendiary devices, flammable such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire
is not accidental.
3. Evidence of intent – when valuables were removed from the building before the fire, ill-
feeling between the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of
effort to put off the fire and such other indications.

Basic Lines of Inquiry in Arson Investigation

A. Point of origin
This is the important point to be established a point where the fire had started. It is
established by examining the witnesses, by inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by
studying the fingerprints of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the
fire when pyrolytic decompositions move upward on walls leaving a burnt pattern.

Note fire setting mechanism:

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 1. candles
2. matches
3. electrical system
4. chemical methods
B. Motives of Arsonist
To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following
that fires are set by:

Persons with motives

1. those with desire to defraud the insurer

2. employees or such other persons who have grievances
3. those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
4. those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
Persons without motive

1. those who are mentally ill

2. pathological fire-setters
3. pyros and the psychos
Motives of Arsonists

1. Economic gain
a. insurance fraud
b. desire to dispose merchandise
c. existing business transactions that the arsonist would like to avoid such as
impending liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash, prospective
business failure, and increase rentals
d. profit by the perpetrator other than the assured like insurance agents wishing
business with the assures, business competitors planning to drive others,
person seeking job as personnel protection, salvagers and contractors
wishing to contact another building.
2. Concealment of crime
3. Punitive measure – due to hatred, jealousy and revenge
4. Intimidation or economic disabling

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 5. pyromania – uncontrollable Impulse to burn anything without any motivation.
Pyromaniacs do not run away from the fire scene since they love watching fire
burning.
Types of pyromaniac

a. abnormal youth
b. hero type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on
the alarm or make some rescue works to appear as hero.
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts
C. Prime Suspects
The development of prime suspects involves the identification results form the full
development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the
development of expert testimony. The following technique may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence

a. protection of the scene
b. mechanics of the search
c. collections and preservation of evidences
d. laboratory aids
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other
person having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogation of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who turned
the first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance
D. The Tell tale signs of Arson
These signs maybe obvious that the first firemen at the scene will suspect arson:

1. Burned building – the type of the building may indicate a set of fire under certain
circumstance. A fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the
scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete building.
2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building, the fire
certainly is suspicious.

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3. Color of smoke – some fire with little or no smoke must be made at the start of the fire
scene once the fire has assumed a major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost,
because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.
a. When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact
with the fire, it indicates humid material burning such as burning hay, vegetable
fibers, phosphorous (with garlic odor).
b. Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and casing lacrymation and coughing
indicate products and rubber.
c. Black smoke indicates lack of air. If accompanied by large flames, it indicates
petroleum products and rubber.
d. Reddish-brown smoke indicated nitrocellulose – SO4, HNO3 or HCl
e. Meaning of color of smoke and fire:
- Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber,
plastics, etc.
- Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
- White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
- Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
- Purple-violet – potassium products
- Greenish-yellow flame – chloride or manganese products
- Bright reddish yellow flame – calcium products
- Gray or white smoke – burning dry wood
- Gray smoke with blowing ash – loosely packed organic matter such as
straw or water paper
E. Color of flame – the color of flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an
important factor in determining incendiarism.
F. Amount of Heat – a reddish glow indicates heat of 500 degrees centigrade; a real bright
read about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate petroleum. Blue flame
indicates the use of alcohol as accelerant.
G. Smoke marks – Investigator shall determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and
the characters as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smokes in marks have often
been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire having more than one place of
origin.
H. Size of fire – Fire makes what is termed a normal progress. Such progress can be
estimated after an examination of the material burned the building and the normal

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 ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and the degree of headway by the
flames to determine the factors of possible incendiarism.
I. Direction of travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it
can be shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building
materials, combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances
surrounding the sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a
fire spread abnormally fast.
J. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes
indicate that some accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a
building and the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use such
accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing a fire often led to suspect presence of such fluid as
gasoline and kerosene.
K. Odor – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are
often used as accelerant and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale
sign. Most of the fire-setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze
certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
L. Condition of Content – persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove
objects of value either materially or sentimentally. Store and other business
establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or replace valuable
merchandise with out of style articles.

Testimonial Evidence of Arson

To corroborate the physical evidence that you will have on hand, testimonial evidence is
always resorted to. Besides, as an investigator, it is impossible to observe everything directly.
Undeniably, the investigator has to be precise with his observation what others did observe.
Persons who actually saw what happened should therefore be availed of. If nobody saw all the
incidents, insert his observation to the entire picture. It will be found that all the witnesses will
differ in many factors, like their willingness, intelligence or capacity to report accurately or
correctly. Their reports should be carefully studied and accordingly judged and interpreted.
Those interested in the fire can be checked against those interested by-stander or spectator.
Witnesses who are intelligent, trained and expert can easily have their testimony gain
acceptance in court.

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Who can be witnesses?

Section 20 of the Revised Rules on Evidence provides that “except as provided in the
next succeeding section, all persons who, can perceive, and perceiving, can make known their
perception to others, may be witnesses”.

“Religious or political belief, interest in the outcome of the case, or conviction of a crime
unless otherwise provided by law shall not be a ground for disqualification.

1. Starting from the person who turned in the alarm

2. Those who suffered injuries in the fire should be interviewed.

3. The occupants and employees of the building

4. The spectators

5. The bookkeeper or accountant

6. The firemen

7. The first person that discovered the fire

8. The last person in the premises

9. The owners of banks

10. The police department

The Role of Circumstantial Evidence in Arson Investigation

Circumstantial evidence is sufficient for conviction if:

- There is more than one circumstance.

- The facts from which the inferences are derived or are proved.
- The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce a conviction beyond
a reasonable doubt.
As the crime of arson is difficult to establish, and convictions are so hard to get, those
whose job is to bring the facts in court, should most often rely upon circumstantial evidence to
prove their facts. One reason for the difficulty is that the incendiary does not invite witnesses to
see him set the fire. There has been a saying by people, “you cannot prove arson unless

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someone saw the arsonist light the match”. But those who have placed themselves seriously in
fire investigation know that such statement is not true and that arson can be built by
circumstantial evidence, as it is indeed a rare case in which there is an eyewitness to the deed.

Circumstantial evidence can even be stronger that direct evidence. To have a good
appreciation of this comparison, let us take for granted that one is pushing a wheeled tray from
a door to the center of the room. One hard push that could send the tray from the door to the
center of the fire room may be similar to direct evidence. A series of small pushes, each of
which brings the tray nearer the center, until the last push sens the wheeled tray at the very
center, is likened to circumstantial evidence.

Example of Circumstantial Evidence

- Testimony of a witness showing that accused was seen leaving the burned house five
minutes before the outbreak of the fire.
- Testimony of a witness that the accused was the only person who had been in the burned
house from the time he was seen leaving it five minutes before the outbreak of the fire up to
the actual occurrence of the fire.
- Fingerprints of the accused on a gasoline container.
- Testimony of a witness saying he smelled odor of gasoline emanating from the house
shortly before the fire.
- Excessive insurance
- Movable property removed just before the fire
- Separate fires
- Alibi – the usual form of alibi is that accused shows that he was somewhere when the crime
was committed and therefore, it would have been impossible for him to be the author of the
crime charged. One way of destroying alibi is to exclude alibi witnesses and to examine
each one of them in the minute’s detail. Fabricated evidence cannot or seldom be availed
of, and if the alibi is prepared, discrepancies are apt to show up.

Causes of Fire

The cause of a fire usually can be determined from a detailed inspection of the charred
debris, combustibles, devices, and residues located at the point of (or within the area of) origin.
Theoretically, the cause of fire can be categorized into three classifications: natural, accidental
and incendiary.

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Recording the Scene

In recording any fire or explosion scene, the investigator’s goal is to record the scene
through a medium that will allow the investigator to recall his or her observations at a latter date
and to document the conditions at the scene. Common methods of accomplishing this goal
include the use of photographs, videotapes, diagrams, maps, overlays, recording and notes.
Thorough and accurate recording of the scene is critical because it is from this
compilation of factual (accurate) data that investigative opinions and conclusions will be
developed and supported.
A. Photography
a. A visual documentation of the fire scene can be made using either film or video
photography.
b. They are the most efficient reminders of what the investigator saw while at the
scene.
c. They can also substantiate reports and statements of the investigator
B. Timing
a. Photographs taking during or as soon as practical after a fire are an important
means of recording the fire scene, as the scene may become altered, disturbed,
or even destroyed. Some reasons why time is important include:
i. The building is in danger of imminent collapse or the structure must be
demolished for safety reasons.
ii. The condition of the building contents creates an environmental hazards
that needs immediate attention.
iii. Evidence must be documented when discovered as layers of debris are
removed, documenting the layers can also assist in understanding the
course of the fire.
C. Basics
a. The most fundamental aspect of photography that the investigator should grasp
and comprehend is how a camera works.
b. One of the most important aspects to remember about fire investigation
photography is light. The average fire scene consists of blackened subjects and
blackened background creating much less than ideal conditions for taking a
photograph.

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D. Composition and Techniques
a. In fire investigation, a series of photographs should be taken to portray the
structure and contents that remain at the fire scene.
b. The investigators generally takes a series of photographs working from the
outside toward the inside of the structure.
c. From the unburned toward the heaviest burned areas.
d. The concluding photographs are usually of the area and point of origins as well
as any elements of the cause of the fire.
E. Sequential Photos
a. Sequential photographs are helpful in understanding the relationship of an small
subject to its relative position in a known area. The small subject is first
photographed from a distant position where it is shown in context with its
surrounding. Additional photographs are then taken increasingly closer until the
subject is the focus of the entire frame.
F. Mosaics
a. This is created by assembling a number of photographs in overlay form to give a
more than peripheral view of an area.
G. Assisting Photographer
a. If a person other than the fire investigator is taking the photographs, the angles
and composition need to be supervised by the fire investigator to ensure the
shots needed to document the fire are obtained.
H. Suggested Activities to be Documented
a. During the Fire
i. These help show the fire’s progression as well as fire department
operations. The documentation should include suppression activities,
overhaul, and the origin and cause investigation.
b. Crowd or People Photographs
i. Photographs of people in crowd are often valuable for identifying
individuals who may have additional knowledge that can be valuable to
the overall investigation.
c. Fire Suppression Activities
i. All aspects that include hydrant location, engine company position, hose
lays, attack line locations and other.

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d. Exterior Photographs
i. A series of exterior shots should be taken to establish the location of a fire
scene.
ii. Street signs, numerical address, or landmarks that can be readily
identified and are likely to remain for sometime should be photographed.
iii. Surrounding areas that would represent remote evidence, such as fire
protection and exposure damage, should also be photographed
e. Structural Photographs
i. Structural photographs document the damage to the structure after heat
and flame exposure.
ii. Structural photos can expose burn patterns to track the evolution of the
fire and can assist in understanding the fire origin.
iii. A recommended procedure is to include as mush as possible al exterior
angles and views of the structure. This is necessary for a full explanation
of a condition.
iv. Photographs of structural failures such as windows, roofs or walls should
be taken because such failures can change the route of ifre travel and
play a significant role in the eventual outcome of the fire.
f. Interior Photographs
i. All ventilation points accessed or created by the fire should be
photographed, as well as all smoke, heat, and burn patterns.
ii. Rooms within the immediate area of the fire origin should be
photographed even if there is no damage. Closets and cabinet interiors
should also be documented.
iii. All furniture should be photographed in its original position before and
after reconstruction as well as any protected areas left by any furnishings
or other contents.
iv. The position of doors and windows
v. Interior fire protection device
vi. Clocks should be photographed to indicate the time power was
discontinued to them or the time in which fire or heat physically stopped
their movement.

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 g. Evidence Photographs
i. Items of evidentiary value should be photographed at the scene and can
be re-photographed at the investigator’s office or laboratory if a more
detailed view is needed.
ii. If photographs are taken in an archeological manner, the location and the
position of evidence that can be of vital importance will be documented
permanently.
iii. Photographs orient the articles of evidence in their original location as
well as show their condition when found.
h. Aerial Photographs
i. The views from a high vantage point, which can be an aerial fire
apparatus, adjacent building, from an airplane or helicopter can often
reveal fire spread and patterns.

Fire Investigation Drawings

After selecting the level of detail to which a drawing will be made, the fire investigator
needs to decide how to record the damage patterns observed during the investigation.
Supplemented by photographs, drawings of damage provide good documentation of a fire
scene and can assist the investigator in re-analyzing a fire scene if previously unknown
information becomes available.
A. Selection of Drawings
a. In selecting the type of drawing to obtain or create, the investigator should ask
what construction features, equipment, or other factors where important to the
cause, origin and spread of the fire.
b. Example: if the building caught fire due to an adjoining burning building, then a
plan showing the location of the two buildings would be important.
B. Symbols
a. The selection of drawing symbols is the investigators decision, most importantly,
the investigator should be consistent with the symbols used on a fire scene.
C. Minimum Drawings
a. In all fire cases the minimum drawing should consist of a simple sketch. A typical
building sketch would show the relative locations of rooms, stairs, windows,
doors and associated damage. These drawings can be done freehand with

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dimensions that are paced off or approximated. This type of drawing should
suffice on fire cases where the fire analysis and conclusions are simple.

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