Methods of Investigation

Psychology is an Empirical Science

 To be empirical means to be based on
experience. The ways that we gather data are
all based on experience in what we see, hear,
touch, etc.
 The theories proposed and conclusions reached
are based on the results of research.
Psychology is an Empirical Science
Methods of scientific research produce answers
that are
 more reliable,
 unbiased.
 Attitude Measures Covert
Measures

Bogus Non
Self-Report Biological
Pipeline Obtrusive
Measures Measures
Measures Measures
(direct)

Semantic
Thurstone Likert
Differential
Scales Scales
Scales
Self Report Measures
Thurstone Scales
 individual has to respond to a number of
statements
 individual responds by agreeing or
disagreeing with each statement
 from the responses, the researcher arrives at
certain conclusions concerning the attitudes
of that individual
Thurstone Scale
1. Achieving success is the only way for my child to repay me
my efforts as a parent
Agree _________ Disagree _________
2. Going to a good college and getting a good job are important
but not essential to my child‟s happiness.
Agree _________ Disagree _________
3. Happiness has nothing to do with achieving educational or
material goals.
Agree _________ Disagree _________
4. The customarily valued trappings of success are a hindrance
to true happiness.
Agree _________ Disagree _________
Likert Scales
 Present the individual with a number of
statements to which they can make a wide
variety of possible responses (usually on a 5
point scale).
 Likert Scales
Regular exercise is an essential component of a
healthy life-style.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
Semantic Differential Scale
Osgood et al (1957) suggested that people
evaluated objects or concepts (including
attitudes) along three dimensions:
 evaluative (good-bad),
 potency (strong-weak), and
 activity (active-passive).
Such scales rely on the use of contrasting
adjective pairs (as illustrated on next slide).
 Semantic Differential Scale
1. Pleasant _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Unpleasant
2. Strong _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Weak
3. Cruel _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Kind
4. Active _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Passive
5. Hard _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Soft
6. Good _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Bad
7. Beautiful _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ugly
8. Aggressive _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Defensive
9. Tense _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Calm
10. Favourable _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Unfavourable

Evaluative:- 1 3 6 10 Potency:- 2 5 7 Activity:- 4 8 9

Covert Measures

 Measures of attitude using scales, observation,

etc., have shortcomings.
 Other covert measures have been developed to
measure true attitudes.
 The following methods offer some insight into
the elusive nature of attitudes.
 Physiological Measures
Electromyography
EMG
• Electrodes are attached to
the face
• Muscles involved in
smiling and frowning used
• Facial movements that
occur when responding to
messages are monitored
• Message agreement
indicates happiness
• Disagreement with
message indicates sadness
Electroencephalograph
EEG
• Brain activity recorded via
electrodes attached to the
scalp
• Change in brain activity
occurs when disliked
terms are followed by
liked terms and vice versa
Electromyography
Electroencephalograph
The Bogus Pipeline
 The bogus pipeline is a set of procedures that
motivates people to provide more truthful
responses to questions.
 It is a “seemingly sophisticated” piece of
equipment that fools people into disclosing
their attitudes.
 It leads people into believing that their answers
can and will be verified by a biochemical or
physiological test.
Non-Obtrusive Measurement
 Observation of behaviour overcomes the bias
inherent in self report measures.
 Behaviours indicate both what we feel and
what we think.
 People are observed without their awareness
 If you are not aware of being observed, you are
unlikely to change your behaviour.
The Lost Letter Technique
The Lost Letter Technique is an indirect attitude measure introduced
by Stanley Milgram. Milgram „planted‟ stamped, addressed envelopes
in public places so that they appeared to have been „lost‟ by someone.
The letters were addressed to different organisations, including
UNICEF and Nazi groups. Milgram wanted to determine the
relationship between the mailing rates (how many people mailed the
letters) and the organisations the envelopes were addressed to. He was
able to do this by counting all the envelopes that he received in his
mailbox (all the mail was addressed to him). According to Milgram, the
number of letters received for each organisation reflected the general
attitude of the population towards that organisation. The higher the
mailing rate, the more favorable the attitude.