Soil Classification II

SOIL CONSISTENCY
• Indicates the degree of firmness of
fine-grained soil.
• Generally expressed in terms of
very soft, soft, stiff, very stiff, and
hard.

Soil behave like:

• SOLID at very low moisture
content
• LIQUID at very high moisture
content
3

ATTERBERG/CONSISTENCY LIMITS
Shrinkage Limit Plastic Limit Liquid Limit
SL PL LL

Soil volume, v or e

Plasticity
Index

Moisture content, w (%)

Solid Semi-Solid Plastic Viscous Liquid
4

LIQUID LIMIT (LL or wLL)

Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content at which

soil begins to behave as a liquid material and begins to
flow.
(LL of a fine-grained soil gives the moisture content at which the shear
strength of the soil is approximately 2.5kN/m2)
5

LIQUID LIMIT DETERMINATION

Casagrande
Apparatus

ASTM D-4318
6

LIQUID LIMIT DETERMINATION

A) Three-Point Method

LL is the moisture content required to close a 2-mm wide

groove in a soil pat a distance of 12.7 mm (1/2”) along the
bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
 FLOW INDEX (IF)
w1=44
IF=28.39
w2=39

N1=20 N2=30

Flow Index • Larger the IF, smaller will

be shear strength of soil.
9

PLASTIC LIMIT (PL or wPL)

Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at which

soil begins to behave as a plastic material.

Plasticity Index (PI or IP) = LL - PL

1
0

PLASTIC LIMIT DETERMINATION

ASTM D-4318

Moisture content at which the soil when rolled into threads of

3.2mm (1/8 in) in diameter, will crumble.
PL = w% at 3.2 mm (1/8 in) dia.
1
1

SHRINKAGE LIMIT
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content at
which no further volume change occurs with further
reduction in moisture content.
1
3

PLASTICITY/A-LINE CHART
1
6

LIQUIDITY INDEX (IL)

wn  PL
IL 
LL  PL
where,
IL= Liquidity index
wn= Natural moisture content
PL= Plastic limit moisture content
LL= Liquid limit moisture content

0<IL<1 → Soil is in plastic state

IL < 0 → Soil is in semi-plastic or solid state
IL > 1 → Soil is in liquid state (quick clays or ultra sensitive clays)
1
7

TOUGHNESS INDEX (It)

Plasticity Index PI
It  
Flow Index IF

Soil Type It
Clayey soils 0-3
Soils which are friable at plastic <1
limit (e.g. Silts)

Toughness index (It) is useful to distinguish between soils of

different physical properties.
1
8

ACTIVITY, A
PI
A
% clay fraction smaller than  0.002mm

• Helpful to predict the dominant clay type/mineral in soil

sample.

• High activity signifies large volume change when wetted

and large shrinkage when dried.

Clay Type Activity

Inactive Clays < 0.75
Normal Clays 0.75 < A < 1.25
Active Clays > 1.25
1
9

Practice Problem#1
The following data were recorded from a LL test on a silty
clay;

No. of blows Water content (%)

35 41.1
29 41.8
21 43.5
15 44.9

If PL=23.4%, determine LL, flow index, and the toughness

index.
2
0

Practice Problem#1
48

47

46

45

w (%) 44

43LL=42.8%

42

41

40
1 10 100
N=25
No. of blows (N)

LL = 42.8%
PL = 23.4%
PI = 42.8-23.4
PI = 19.4%
2
1

Practice Problem#1
48

47

46

45

w (%) 44 w1=43.5%
43

42 w2=41.7%
41

40 N1=20 N2=30
1 10 100
No. of blows (N)
w1  w2 43.5  41.7
IF   It= IP/IF
N   30 
log 2  log  It=19.4/10.22
 N1   20 
It=1.898
IF= 10.22
2
2

Practice Problem#2
Four different types of soil were encountered in a big project.
Their LL, PL, and natural moisture content (NMC) are given
below;
Type of Soil Liquid Limit Plastic Limit NMC (%)
(%) (%)
1 120 40 150
2 64 32 34
3 60 30 30
4 65 32 25

Determine liquidity index and comment on the state of soil in

the field.
wn  PL
IL 
LL  PL
2
3

Practice Problem#3
A soil specimen has liquidity index of 0.2, liquid
limit of 56% and plasticity index of 20%.
Determine the natural moisture content of this soil
specimen.
2

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Two commonly used classification system:

1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 preferred by Geotechnical engineers

2. American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System
 preferred by Transportation engineers
3
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM (USCS) (ASTM D 2487)
→ Developed by Casagrande in 1942 for US Army
→ System based on particles < 3 in
→ Uses grain size distribution and plasticity of fines

Three major categories:

 coarse-grained soils
 fine-grained soils
 organic soils

P200 < 50% → Coarse grained soil

P200 ≥ 50% → Fine grained soil
 USCS – Naming Convention
Soil symbols:
G: Gravel Liquid limit symbols:
S: Sand H: High LL (LL>50)
M: Silt L: Low LL (LL<50) Well  graded soil
1  C c  3 and C u  4
C: Clay Gradation symbols:
(for gravels)
O: Organic W: Well-graded 1  C c  3 and C u  6
Pt: Peat P: Poorly-graded (for sands)

Group Symbol SM Silty sand

Group Name

SW Well-graded sand
SC Clayey sand
CL Low plasticity Clay
MH High Plastic silt
 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM (USCS)
Definition of Grain Size
Use
Atterberg limits

Silt and
Gravel Sand
Clay
Boulders Cobbles
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm
6

Designation of Organic Soils

A liquid limit test is performed on:
 One sample that is only air-dried.
 On another that is oven-dried prior to testing.
 The liquid limit values are compared by computing the ratio of the two
values.

LL(oven dried)/LL(air dried) < 0.75 → Organic

LL(oven dried)/LL(air dried) > 0.75 → Inorganic
7

USCS – Terminology
Clay (C): Soil passing No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve that exhibits
plasticity. It has PI ≥ 4 and plot of PI and LL falls on or
above “A” line.
Silt (M): Soil passing No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve that is non-
plastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits little or no
strength when air dry. It has PI < 4 or the plot of PI versus
LL falls below “A” line.
Sand (S): Particles of rock that will pass No. 4 (4.75 mm)
sieve and retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
Gravel (G): Particles of rock that will pass 3 in. (76.2 mm)
sieve and retained on No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
8

USCS – Terminology
Organic Clay: A clay with sufficient organic content to influence
the soil properties.
(LL after over drying) < 75% (LL before oven drying)

Organic Silt: A silt with sufficient organic content to influence the

soil properties.
(LL after over drying) < 75% (LL before oven drying)

Peat (Pt): A soil composed of vegetable/animal tissue in various

stages of decomposition usually with an organic odor, a dark-
brown to black color, a spongy consistency, and a texture
ranging from fibrous to amorphous.
9

USCS – Terminology
W – Well Graded: Good representation of all particle sizes
from largest to smallest.
P – Poorly Graded:
Uniform, most particles about the same size;
Skip (or gap) gradation, absence of one or more
intermediate sizes.

Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and Coefficient of

curvature (Cc) are defined as below:
D60 D 2
Cu  , Cc  30
D10 D60  D10 
where D60, D30, D10 are diameter of 60%, 30% and 10% passing on
gradation curve, respectively.
Procedure for classification of soils
• From sieve analysis and the grain-size distribution curve
determine the percent passing as the following:
• > 3 inch: Cobble or Boulders
• 3” to No. 4 (76.2 ~ 4.75 mm): Gravel
• No. 4 to No. 200 (4.75 ~ 0.075 mm): Sand
• < No. 200 (0.075 mm): Fines
• First, find % passing No. 200. If (5%) or more of soil passes
No. 200 sieve, then conduct Atterberg Limits test (LL &
PL).
• If the soil is fine-grained (≥ 50% passes No. 200 sieve),
follow the guidelines for fine-grained soils.
• If the soil is coarse-grained (<50% passes No. 200 sieve),
follow the guidelines for coarse-grained soils.
• Obtain the following data:
• Find % Gravel & Sand
• Calculate Cu & Cc
• Calculate LL, PL and PI 28
Flow chart – coarse and fine grained
Measure passing No.
200 sieve

50% or more Less than 50%

passes passes
No. 200 sieve No. 200 sieve

Fine-grained Coarse-grained
soils soils
29
Flow chart – organic soils
Determine
whether organic
or not

Ratio of oven- Ratio of oven-

dry to air-dry dry to air-dry
LL value is LL value is
< 0.75 > 0.75

Organic soils Inorganic soils

Air-dry LL is Air-dry LL is Classify by

< 50 ≥ 50 plotting LL and
PI on Plasticity
OL OH chart
30
Flow chart – coarse grained
Less than 50% pass
No. 200 sieve

Less than 5% pass From 5% to 12% More than 12%

No. 200 sieve pass No. 200 sieve pass No. 200 sieve

Clean coarse Dual coarse Dirty coarse

grained grained grained

31
 Are 50% of particles > 0.075 mm?
Yes No

Soil is coarse-grained Soil is fine-grained

Is gravel fraction > sand fraction? Coarse-grained soil

Yes No classification
Soil is gravel, First letter is G Soil is sand, First letter is S

Is clay + silt fraction

Is clay fraction >
> 12% ? < 5% ? Between 5% and 12%? Yes
silt fraction?
Yes Yes
Yes No
Is clay fraction > silt fraction?
Yes No If first letter is G If first letter is G
Plastic clay fines Non-plastic silty fines Cu 4 and 1Cc 3, Cu 4 and 1Cc 3,
Second letter C Second letter M then GW-GC, then GW-GM,
else GP-GC else GP-GM
If first letter is G, Cu 4 and 1Cc 3, If first letter is G If first letter is G
then GW otherwise GP Cu 4 and 1Cc 3, Cu 4 and 1Cc 3,
If first letter is S, Cu 6 and 1Cc 3, then GW-GC, then GW-GM,
then SW otherwise SP else GP-GC else GP-GM 32
Coarse Grained Soils

33
FIG. 3 Flow chart for Classifying Coarse-Grained Soils (50% or More Retained on No. 200 Sieve)
Classification of fine-grained soils
• The Unified Soil Classification System uses the term
“fines” to describe everything that passes through a
No. 200 sieve (<0.075 mm).
• No attempt to distinguish between silts and clays in
terms of particles sizes since the biggest difference
between silt and clay is not their particle sizes, but
their physical and chemical structures.
• The soil consistency is used as a practical and an
inexpensive way to distinguish between silts and
clays.
• Plasticity property is important because it describes
the response of a soil to change in moisture content.
34
Atterberg Limits
• Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content at
which no further volume change occurs with further
reduction in moisture content (SL represents the amount
of water required to fully saturate the soil, i.e., S = 100%).

• Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at

which soil begins to behave as a plastic material.
• Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content at
which soil begins to behave as a liquid material and
begins to flow (LL of a fine-grained soil gives the moisture
content at which the shear strength of the soil is
approximately 2.5kN/m2).

35
Flow chart –fine grained (Based
50% or more pass
on Plasticity)
No. 200 sieve

LL < 50 LL ≥ 50

PI > 7 and 4 ≤ PI ≤7 PI < 7 and PI plots PI plots

plots on and plots plots on or below
or above on or above below above A-line
A-line A-line A-line A-line

CL CL-ML ML CH MH

36
 Are 50% of particles < 0.075 mm?
Yes No
Soil is fine-grained Soil is coarse-grained

LL (oven-dried)
Is
LL (not dried)
< 0.75 Fine-grained soil
Yes No
classification
Soil is organic, Is clay fraction > silt fraction?
First letter is O
Yes No

Soil is clay, first Soil is silt, first

letter is C letter is M

Is LL > 50%

Yes No

Plasticity is high, Plasticity is low,

second letter is H second letter is L
37
 Fine
Grained
Soils

FIG. 1 Flow chart for Classifying Fine-Grained Soil (50% or More Passes No. 200 Sieve) 38
Fine grained organic soils
Group Symbol Group Name

FIG. 2 Flow chart for Classifying Organic Fine-Grained Soil (50% or More Passes No. 200 Sieve)
39
Example
Gravel
= 98-62
= 36%

Sand
= 62-8
= 54%

Fines
= 8%

Cu = 46.67
Soil A: D60 = 4.2 mm , D30 = 0.6 mm, D10 = 0.09 mm Cc = 0.95 40
Example

LL = 42
PL = 31
PI = 42-31 = 11

ML

41
Gravel = 36%
Sand = 54%
Fines = 8%
Cu = 46.7
Cc = 0.95

LL = 42
PL = 31 ML
PI = 42-31 = 11

Soil A is classified as [SW-SM: well-graded sand with silt and gravel]

42
FIG. 3 Flow chart for Classifying Coarse-Grained Soils (50% or More Retained on No. 200 Sieve)
USCS – Example, Soil A

Soil A
Gravel = 100 – 80 = 20%
Sand = 80 – 52 = 28%
Fines = 52% > 50% => Fine-grained soil
43
USCS – Example, Soil A

LL = 30
PI = 8

CL

44
 CL – Sandy lean clay with gravel

Soil A
Gravel = 20%
Sand = 28%
Fines = 52%

45
AASHTO Classification - Introduction
• AASTO system of soil classification was developed in 1929.
• This classification is standardized by ASTM designation D
3282 and AASHTO method M145.
• It provides general rating of the soil as subgrade for road
construction.
• It considers grain size distribution and plasticity of fines.
• AASHTO system uses both grain-size distribution and
Atterberg limits to assign a group classification and group
index.
• The group classification ranges from A-1 (best) to A-8
(worst).
• Highly organic soils (muck and peat) are placed under
group A-8.
46
Introduction (contd.)
• Group index values near 0 indicate good soils, while values of 20 or more indicate
very poor soils.
• Soils classified under group A-1, A-2 and A-3 are granular materials of which ≤
35% pass through the No. 200 sieve.
• Soils of which > 35% of pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups
A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. these are mostly silt and clay type materials.

47
AASHTO & USCS

48
AASHTO Classification
• Grain size
• Gravel: fraction passing 3 in. (75 mm) sieve and retained on
the No. 10 (2 mm) sieve.
• Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2 mm) sieve and
retained on the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
• Silt and Clay: fraction passing the No. 200 sieve.
• Plasticity: The term is applied when the fine fractions
of the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or less. The
term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a
plasticity index of 11 or more.
• If cobbles or boulders (>75mm) are encountered, they
are excluded from the portion of soil sample from
which classification is made. However, the percentage
is recorded.
52
Granular materials
Granular materials (≤ 35% of total sample passing No. 200)

Note: To classify a soil, apply test data from left to right in the above
table. By process of elimination, the first group from left into which the
test data fit is the correct classification. 53
Silt-claySilt-clay
materials
materials (> 35% of total sample passing No. 200)

Note: To classify a soil, apply test data from left to right in the above
table. By process of elimination, the first group from left into which the
test data fit is the correct classification. 54
Plasticity Chart
Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7

55
Group Index
• Group index (GI) is calculated using the following empirical
formula:

GI  F200  35 0.2  0.005 LL  40   0.01F200  15 PI  10 

Partial GI determined from LL Partial GI determined from PI

where
F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve
LL = Liquid limit, and PI = Plasticity index

• GI is taken as zero, if the equation yields negative value.

• Calculated value of GI is rounded off to nearest whole number
(for example, GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded
off to 4).
56
Group• There
Indexis no upper limit for the group index.
• The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-
4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always zero.
• When calculating the GI for soils that belong to groups A-2-6
and A-2-7, use the partial GI for PI, or the following formula:

GI  0.01F200  15 PI  10 
• In general, the quality of performance of soil as a subgrade
material is inversely proportional to the GI.
• Group index is shown in parentheses after the group symbol as
A-2-6(3), A-6(12), A-7-5(17), etc.

57
AASHTO - Examples
• P = 80% P = 52% P200 = 20% Given data
10 40
obtained from
• LL = 35 PL = 20 PI = 15 gradation curve

• Since, P200 <35%, coarse grained soil

• Since, P10 > 50, not A-1-a
• Since, P40 > 50, not A-1-b
• Since, P200 > 10, not A-3
• So must be A-2 soil , use plasticity chart
• A-2-6 soil

GI  0.01F200  15 PI  10  Use this formula for

A-2-6 and A-2-7
GI  0.0120  15 15  10   0.25  0
• Therefore, soil is A-2-6 (0)
58
A-2-6 soil 59