Theory AM 2.1 TM1016

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Part Details
Operating Environment Indoor (laboratory)

Altitude up to 2000 m
Temperature range 5°C to 40°C
Maximum relative humidity 80% for temperatures up to 31°C,
decreasing linearly to 50% relative humidity at 40°C
Overvoltage category 2 (as specified in EN61010-1).
Pollution degree 2 (as specified in EN61010-1).
Dimensions and Weight 1280 mm wide x 450 mm front to back x 800 mm high
(assembled) and 80 kg
Other parts approximately 4 kg total
Electrical Supply 90 VAC to 250 VAC 50 Hz to 60 Hz 0.4 A
External Connections Type RJ45 socket for VDAS

4 x sensor sockets (analogue outputs and triggers)
All Extra Low Voltage <25 VDC
See Sensor Connections on page 97.
Fuse 20 mm 5 A Type T
Servomotor Exciter Nominal Maximum Speed: 17 Hz or 1020 rev.min-1

Mass PH[FLWHU: 4.2 kg
Offset mass: 2 x 4.5 g
Displacement sensor Distance from pivot = 0.5 m

Note: Accelerometer is scaled to show acceleration at the same
position as the displacement sensor.
Coiled Spring and Fixing Nominal Rate NVSULQJ: 3800 N.m-1

Spring Mass PVSULQJ: 0.388 kg
Fixing Mass PIL[LQJ: 0.09 kg
OVSULQJ (distance from pivot): 0.75 mm
Masses and Mass Holder 5 x 400 g Masses
200 g Mass Holder
Beam Tool Steel

( = 2.0 x 1011 Pa
25 mm wide x 10 mm thick (nominal)
OEHDP (rigid beam and spring) = 0.815 mm
Distance between pivots (simply supported) = 800 mm
O(simply supported) = 0.375 m
,EHDP(rigid beam and spring)= 0.332 kg.m2
,EHDP(simply supported)= 2.083 x 10-9 m4
NEHDP (simply supported) = 4.74 x 104 N.m-1
Mass PEHDP: 1.65 kg
Damping Fluid 500 mL non-toxic silicone oil

Viscosity 200 cSt
Damper PGDPSHU (simply supported) = 0.4 kg

PGDPSHU (rigid beam and spring) = 0.53 kg
Distance from pivot (rigid beam and spring) 200 mm to 300 mm

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Part Details
Calibration blocks Sensor zero - machined to 27 mm

Sensor span - machined to 40 mm
Vibration Absorber Spring Steel (plated)

( = 2.0 x 1011 Pa
,DEVRUEHU = 7.2179 x 10-12 m4
NDEVRUEHU = 1.09 x 103 N.m-1
Mass (total) PDEVRUEHU = 438 g
Each moveable mass PPDVV = 121 g
Beam mass (each side) PDEVRUEHUEHDP = 0.126 kg.m-1
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The maximum sound levels measured for this apparatus are lower than 70 dB(A).

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Symbol Details Units
$ Beam displacement amplitude m
% Vibration absorber m
displacement amplitude
F Viscous Damping Coefficient Ns.m-1 or kg.s-1
H An exponential function 2.718
( Young’s Modulus MPa or N/mm2
I Frequency Hertz
J Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m.s-2
Moment of Inertia (mass) kg.m2

, Moment of Inertia (area) or m4
second moment of area
,$ Total moment of inertia for a (as above)

complete assembly
N Spring rate N.m-1
/orO Length m
P Mass kg
T Forcing coefficient m.s-2
4 Force due to offset mass N
W Time Seconds
[Vand [G Spring or damper linear m

displacement
[ and [ Linear velocity and acceleration m.s-1 and m.s-2

1 1 1
\and \ and \ Linear displacement, velocity m, m.s-1 and m.s-2

1 1 1
and acceleration
D Phase Lag Degrees
E Magnification factor -
I Phase angle Radians
G Logarithmic decrement -
J Decay coefficient s-1
S Pi
Angular displacement, velocity rad.s-1 and rad.s-2

Tand T and T
1 1 1
and acceleration

! " #
$ % & ' & (
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Symbol Details Units
7 Period Seconds
7G Damped period Seconds
Z Angular Frequency radians per second (rad.s-1)
: Forced frequency radians per second (rad.s-1)
] Damping ratio -
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Constants Details Units
& Constants -
Matrix
UandU Roots for 2nd -

order
differential
equation
) Force Matrix N
0and1 Generic -
Mathematical
Constant
< Amplitude m
Matrix
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The display shows the rotational velocity (speed) of the motor in revolutions per minute (rev.min-1),
radians per second (rad.s-1) and frequency (Hz).
2S (6.28) radians = 360 degrees = one revolution.
One radian = 57.29578 degrees.
1 rev.min-1 = 1/60 rev.s-1 (0.0166 rev.s-1) = 2S/60 rad.s-1 (0.1047 rad.s-1)
1 rev.min-1 = 1/60 rev.s-1 = 0.0166 Hertz
60 rev.min-1 = 1 rev.s-1 = 1 Hertz
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Frequency can be termed in ‘ordinary’ frequency (I), where something repetitive occurs in a given unit
of time, and with units of Hertz. Where it applies to something moving with a sinusoidal motion, it may
also be termed ‘angular’ frequency (Z) or (:). It has units of radians per second.
One revolution = 360 degrees = 2S radians
One revolution per second = 2S rad.s-1 = 1 Hertz
Z or : = 2SI
The period (7) is the time taken for a complete oscillation. It is equal to the inverse of the frequency, so
7= 1/I = 2S/Z
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@ A B C B D
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E E H H
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mspring
q mfixing
x
mbeam
lexciter
mexciter lspring
lbeam
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When used with the spring, this theory assumes that the beam itself does not
bend - it is sensibly ‘rigid’ in comparison with the spring.
NOTE
The theory also assumes that the exciter forms a simple point mass at a given
position along the beam.
The exciter remains fitted to the beam for all experiments. You may increase its value using the added
masses.
From Figure 11, you can see that the beam will oscillate about the left hand pivot through an angle T.
This is an angular motion. Using the small angle approximation, this angle is approximately equal to its
sine in radians:
T#T
Q R S
8 9 : ; < = > ? : D @ : I M = > N O : G L P L ?
@ A B C B D
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; : : F G ? ; I : ? J > K ; F L > G 9
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Free vibration occurs in a system when it is given an initial input of energy. The system then vibrates at
its natural frequency until the initial energy has been dissipated to friction or some other sort of damper
or absorber.
From Figure 11, summing the moments about the pivot gives an equation of motion as:
,$ T N[ V O VSULQJ
U U
V W
Theoretically, for a ‘slender’ beam with a uniformly distributed mass, its inertia would be based around
its centre of gravity with the addition of any parallel axis components. Also, in theory you would assume
the spring is light, having no effect on the total system inertia. However, because the beam becomes a
relatively long moment arm and the spring has a relatively large mass, you must allow for the spring and
its fixing as a point mass.
The total mass moment of inertia for the complete assembly (,$) is the sum of the individual values for
the beam, the mass and the spring.
,$ , EHDP , H[FLWHU , VSULQJ (1)

V V
O
\
P EHDP § EHDP·
Y Y
, EHDP P EHDP O EHDP P EHDP O EHDP

\ \
(2)
V
© ¹
X X
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
Y Z Z ]
, H[FLWHU P H[FLWHU O H[FLWHU

\
(3)
Note: This theory assumes the central mass acts as a point load.
For accuracy, the theory allows for a proportion of the spring mass - that part which moves and
contributes to the overall mass of the system. According to Rayleighs theory, this is equal to 1/3 the mass
of the spring. You also need to allow for the fixing between the spring and the beam.
, VSULQJ § P VSULQJ P IL[LQJ· O VSULQJ

\
(4)
V
© ¹
X
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
Using the small angle approximation
[V X
TO VSULQJ
So
NO VSULQJ
\
,$ T NO VSULQJ T
\
or T T
^ ^ ^ ^
(5)
V W V W
X X
,$
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
@ : I M = > N O : G L P L ? T 8 9 : ; < = > ? :
h p q r q s
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b a a u m f b i a f w e x b u n e m `
t t v v
This is a second order differential equation. A general solution of this equation gives:
§ NO VSULQJ ·
\
T $ ¨ W D¸ (6)
z { |
,$
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ y
© ¹
Where A is the amplitude and D is the phase (two constants based on the initial conditions of the
motion).
a/w T
A
t
0
a/w
A
t
0
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From the diagram, we can see the vibratory character of the motion. Cosine function is a periodic
function that repeats every 2S. Thus our period of oscillation is:
NO VSULQJ ,$
\
7 S and therefore 7 S
Z Z
X X
,$
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
NO VSULQJ
\
This is the natural time period, determined by the spring rate and inertia (and therefore mass) in the
system. The system will continue to vibrate with this period unless an external force influences it. The
natural period in terms of frequency or angular velocity gives:
NO VSULQJ NO VSULQJ NO VSULQJ

\ \ \
I or Z or Z
\
X X X
(7)
S ,$ ,$ ,$
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
Inserting this into the differential Equation 5 gives:
T Z T
\
^ ^
V W
From this, you can see that you can find the natural frequency of any system if you arrange the equation
into that form.
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h p q r q s
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b a a u m f b i a f w e x b u n e m `
t t v v
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To examine the phase relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration of the beam as it
vibrates through a cycle, you must consider the general equation for a sine wave (Equation 6):
T $ ZW D

Then
T Z$ ZW D and T Z $ ZW D

~ ~ ~ ~
This means that if you measure the displacement of the beam and find its 2nd derivative (acceleration),
you can compare it with the acceleration measured by the accelerometer.
We know that sin and cos have a 90 degrees (S/2 or 7/4) phase difference, so the velocity is -90° (-S/2)
out of phase to displacement. Also, acceleration is negative or 180° (S or 7/2) out of phase with
displacement.
180° 90°
or p or p/2
or T/2 or T/4
+
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ent
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Figure 13 shows that the displacement curve and its derivatives - velocity and acceleration, obey a
sinusoidal shape. Also note that assuming displacement as the reference, velocity is 90 degrees out of
phase and acceleration is 180 degrees out of phase.
You can visualize this by looking at the oscillation:
• Displacement is zero as the beam reaches equilibrium point and maximum as it reaches the
extremes of its travel.
• Velocity slows to zero as the beam reaches the extremes of its travel, but increases to
maximum as it moves past the equilibrium point.
• Acceleration (or deceleration) is zero as the beam reaches equilibrium point (velocity is
constant) and maximum when the beam reaches the extremes of its travel (velocity
approaches or leaves zero).
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No vibrating system is ‘ideal’, in that without continued applied energy, vibrations will eventually reduce
to zero, due to friction or some other resistive method of dissipating or damping the energy of the
oscillations.
If you add a constant external influence to the oscillating system, such that it causes the system to lose
energy and therefore amplitude, you have ‘damped’ the system.
The most common form of damping is ‘Viscous damping’ where the damping force is proportional and
in opposition to the velocity of the displacement. The dashpot damper used on the equipment uses a
fluid to provide viscous damping.
In application, you quantify the amount of viscous damping as a coefficient, with the letter (F).
ldamper m mbeam
damper
xd mexciter
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As shown in Figure 14, when you attach the damper to the beam and spring, the equations of motion
become:
,$ T N[ V O VSULQJ FO GDPSHU [ G
¡ ¡
¢ ¢
FO GDPSHU NO VSULQJ
¤ ¤
T T T
¡ ¡ ¡
¦ ¦ §
,$ ,$
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
Introducing the decay coefficient (J) to show the level of damping in the system:
T JT Z T
¤
¡ ¡ ¨ ¡
(8)
¦ ¦ §
F u O GDPSHU
¤
J £
,$
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
Note that Z remains the same, as it is the natural frequency.
To account for the additional inertia of the damper, you can assume the damper piston forms a point
mass, giving for the complete system:
,$ , EHDP , VSULQJ , H[FLWHU , GDPSHU (9)

¦ ¦ ¦

© » ¶ ¼ ¶ ½
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¹ ª ª ¿ ± ´ ¹ « ª ´ Á ® Â ¹ ¿ ² ® ± ¸
¾ ¾ À À
Where
, GDPSHU P GDPSHU O GDPSHU

¤
(10)
The displacement equation remains a second order linear differential equation. This time it is easier to
assume a solution in the standard form:
UW
T £
&H (11)
Inserting this into Equation 8 gives:
U JU Z
¤ ¤
(12)
¦ ¦ §
U Jr J Z
¤ ¤
¢ ¢
(13)
At this point, there are three cases:
1. Underdamped, where J Z gives two complex roots.
2. Critically damped, where J £
Z gives a single root.
3. Overdamped, where J ! Z gives two real roots.
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+
Displacement
Under-damped
Time
0
Over-damped
Critically damped
- No damping
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• An undamped system (in theory) oscillates forever at its natural frequency. In reality, it
oscillates, losing energy to external factors (such as heat, sound and friction) until it reaches
equilibrium.
• An under-damped system oscillates with gradually reducing amplitude until equilibrium.
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• A critically damped system displaces and returns to equilibrium in the shortest possible time
without oscillating.
• An over-damped system would not oscillate at all. The extra damping means that its return
to equilibrium takes longer than critical damping.
The damping ratio (]) is a dimensionless value found from the ratio of the actual damping coefficient
and the critical damping coefficient (FF).
Undamped F=0 ]= 0
Under-damped F < FF ]= between 0 and 1

F
] Þ
(14)
FF
Ý Ý Ý Ý
Critically damped F = FF ]= 1
Over-damped F > FF ]> 1
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When J Z we define the two root constants
U J LZ G
á
U â
Þ
J LZ G à
Adding these into the general solution Equation 11 and expressing in phase form, we can show:
JW
T $H Z J W D G
â â
ä å æ
à à
Where $ and D are amplitude and phase based on initial conditions. The cosine term represents the
Ü
free element of the motion, and the exponential term represents the damping element. Like in free
vibration, we can deduce the damped time period knowing the cosine function repeats every 2S.
· ¸ ª ¹ º ® ´ ª Ã Ä Å Æ Ç È É Ê Ë Ì Æ Í Î Ï Î Ð
Å Ñ Ò Ó Ò Ô
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Õ Ö Õ Ø Ö Ö Ø
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Displacement Td
0
Time t
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S
ì ë
Z J W G S or W G S
â â
ë ë
Þ Þ Þ
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à Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý
Z J
â â
ZG Z J
â â â
(15)
Using this and Equation 14 gives:
ZG â
]
ì
Z
Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý Ý à
Which is in the form of the equation of a circle. Figure 17 shows the textbook plot of this equation as
the quadrant of a circle. It shows that low damping levels giving a ratio below 0.2 have minimal effect
on frequency ratio (it remains near to unity). Therefore even non ideal systems oscillate near to the
natural frequency.
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ï û ü ý ü þ
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ð ð ÷ ú ñ ð ú ô ø ô ÷
ÿ ÿ
1.0
Frequency
or speed ratio
wd/w
0
0.2 1.0
Damping ratio z
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For critical damping J
Z , which gives one repeated root. The displacement equation becomes:
ZW ZW
T & H & WH

Where & and & are constants based on initial conditions.
This equation has no cos or sin terms, showing that it does not describe an oscillatory system.
2YHUGDPSHG2VFLOODWLRQV
For overdamped systems J ! Z , which gives two real roots. The displacement equation becomes:
U W U W
T & H & H

As with the critical damping, the motion is ‘aperiodic’ - meaning that it has no period of oscillation. As
you increase damping, the system takes longer to reach equilibrium. Too much damping means that the
system may never return to equilibrium.
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NOTE VDAS has a tool to automatically calculate these values for you.
x0
+ x1
x2
x3
Td x4 - gt
Ae
Displacement x
0
Time t
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When you apply damping to a system, the oscillation amplitude decays at an exponential rate (see
Figure 18. Equation 16 describes the curve that follows the amplitude decay.
JW
$H (16)

To calculate a damping value based on physical properties needs so many variables that only complex
equations or computer analysis can give an answer. The answer will be very approximate because of the
many possible differences between theory and a real application. A better method is to measure the
oscillations of a system and find its damped period (7G) and logarithmic decrement. This is the natural
log of the ratio of amplitude of successive peaks of M time periods apart, where:
JW
[ $H

JM7 G

MG
H H (17)

[

JW MW G

M $H

and
[ SJ | SJ for low damping levels

G J u 7G (18)

M [

ZG Z

M

ï ð ñ ò ó ô õ ö ð ÷ ø ù ø ú ð ó ô ú ð
% - . / . $
$0
1 * " & " 3 ! 4 1 + ! *
0 0 2 2
For the best accuracy, an average of the log of three or more ratios of successive peaks is better, unless
the amplitude reduces too quickly to obtain more than two peaks. For example, for the five peaks of
Figure 18:
[
5
G J u 7G (19)
: ;

[

7 8
2YHUGDPSHG6\VWHPV
From Equation 13:
U Jr J Z and U Jr J Z
> > > >

= = = =
>
<
&ULWLFDOO\'DPSHG6\VWHPV
For critical damping, you can use the overdamped model, as it assumes the aperiodic motion. The VDAS
tool may predict damping ratio near to 1, where we can assume critical damping.
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% - . / . $
$0
1 * " & " 3 ! 4 1 + ! *
0 0 2 2
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NOTE These derivations include damping
When the exciter turns it provides an oscillating force (4) that causes the beam to oscillate at a frequency
that may not be the natural frequency Z.
The equation is:
,$ T FO GDPSHU T NO VSULQJ T O PDVV 4 :W

B B
A A A
C C
D E F
4 : P RIIVHWPDVV U RIIVHWPDVV
B
§ FO GDPSHU· T § NO VSULQJ · T § O H[FLWHU 4·

B B
T :W
A A A
C C
D E F
© ,$ ¹ © ,$ ¹ © ,$ ¹
G
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
T JT Z T T :W
B
A A I A
C C
D E F
Where
O H[FLWHU 4
J and Z remain the same and T G
,$
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Q
q
x
W
lexciter
lspring
lbeam
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One solution to this equation gives:
T 0 :W 1 :W
C
J K D D E F
Differentiating this and substituting it into the base equations will lead two linear algebraic equations to
calculate the generic mathematical constants M and N.
Writing in the phase angle form, and introducing the magnification factor:
% & ' ! ( ) * + , + " ? @ ! "
V ^ _ ` _ a
$0
O N N c [ S O W N S e R f O c \ R [ M
b b d d
T
T E :W I
D E F
H H H H H H g
Z
B
Where
E G
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
B
H H H H H
B
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
(20)
: eZ ]: e Z
B B
and phase lag (I) of the offset mass is:
]: e Z
I
I
i j
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
: eZ
B B
The phase relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration remain the same for forced
vibrations.
L M N O P Q R S N T U V N W X Q R Y Z N [ \ ] \ S
u v w x w y
$0
p o o { | t p ~ o t s p { s | n
z z } }
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Under forced vibration, the vibrations of the structure are considered to be subject to a ‘magnification
factor’ (E). This is a dynamic increase in amplitude compared to the amplitude caused by a statically
applied force. This value is based on the relationship between the damping ratio and the forced and
natural frequency ratio :/Z.
E

(21)
: eZ ]: e Z

In an ideal system with no damping, & is zero, then J and the damping ratio ] are both zero. The
magnification simplifies to:
E

(22)
: eZ

This shows that for an ideal undamped system, when the forced frequency matches the natural
frequency (resonance), the magnification factor and vibration amplitude become infinite. Looking at
Equation 21, even small amounts of damping (as in a real system) prevent the magnification factor from
reaching infinite.
4.0
z=0
z = 0.15 z = 0.1
3.0
Magnification z = 0.2
Factor b
2.0 z = 0.25
z = 0.5
1.0
z = 0.7
z=1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Frequency Ratio W/w
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Figure 20 shows the typical textbook curves for the relationship between magnification factor and
frequency ratio for a range of damping ratios. The dotted line shows that the peak of the magnification
factor moves to a lower frequency ratio with increased damping ratio. Equation 23 shows the
relationship between the frequency ratio and the damping ratio.
:

]

(23)

Z

V N W X Q R Y Z N [ \ ] \ S k l m n o p q r s t o
u v w x w y
$0
p o o { | t p ~ o t s p { s | n
z z } }
3KDVH/DJI
Phase lag (f) = 90°= p/2

+
Dis
pla
For
c
em
ce
ent
0
90° 180° 270° 360°
p/2 p 3/2p 2p
)LJXUH)RUFHG9LEUDWLRQ3KDVH/DJ
You would expect that if an external force of a given sinusoidal angular frequency (:) causes a structure
to vibrate, then the waveform of the applied force would be in phase with the displacement waveform
of the structure. In practice, the two waveforms are not in phase. The phase of the displacement
waveform of the structure lags behind the force waveform. Figure 21 shows a phase lag of 90 degrees
as an example.
0
Phase lag (f)
Beam
270° 90°
3/2p p/2
180°
p
)LJXUH([FLWHU3KDVH/DJ
On the equipment, the exciter uses an eccentric mass to create the forced vibrations. If you know the
angular position of the eccentric mass and compare it with the displacement of the beam, you will see
the forced vibration phase lag in the system. Figure 22 shows a sketch of the exciter on the beam with
the eccentric mass at roughly 90 degrees with respect to the top position. If the displacement is at its
peak with the mass at 90 degrees, then the phase lag would be 90 degrees, as shown in Figure 21.
m n o p q r s t o x u o ~ r s o | t

$0
¡ ¢ £

3KDVH/DJDQG'DPSLQJ
Equation 24 gives the phase lag of the offset mass on the exciter, allowing for damping:
¤ ¥ ¦
I ¬
« « « «
§
« « «
]: e Z
« « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « «
(24)
: eZ
© ©
From this, an ideal system with no damping gives:
I (25)
¤ ¥ ¦
« « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « « «
: eZ
© ©
The value of the frequency ratio and any damping affect the phase lag. Figure 23 shows the textbook
curves of phase lag against frequency ratio with different damping. It shows that in an ideal system with
no damping (] = 0), there is no lag until resonance, where the lag changes quickly to 90° precisely, then
a full 180° past resonance. As damping increases, the change from 0 to 180° becomes slower.
180°
p z=0 z = 0.1
z = 0.5
Phase lag (f)

z = 1.0
90°
p/2
z = 1.0 z = 0.5
z=0
z = 0.1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Frequency Ratio W/w
(or Speed Ratio)
)LJXUH3KDVH/DJDJDLQVW)UHTXHQF\5DWLR
Figure 24 shows the textbook plot of a tangent function to help you understand the theory.
u o ~ r s o | t

$0
¡ ¢ £

y
y = tan x
-180 -90 0 90 180

x
)LJXUH7DQ3ORW
® ¯ ° ± ² £ ³ £

$0
¡ ¢ £

6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
%DVLF7KHRU\
lbeam
2
mexciter
lbeam
)LJXUH6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
The exciter remains fitted to the beam for all experiments. It forms a simple point mass at mid-span of
the beam. You may increase its value using the added masses.
From Figure 25, you can see that the beam will flex so that its mid point will move up and down in
oscillation. This is a linear motion.
This basic theory assumes that the beam mass is negligible compared to the point
NOTE mass.
It also assumes that the exciter forms a point mass.
ymax
lbeam
2
mexciter
lbeam
)LJXUH'HIOHFWLRQLQD6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
From simply supported beam deflection theory, the static deflection depends on the flexural rigidity of
the beam, its length and the applied mass:
P H[FLWHU JO EHDP
G VW ¹
(, EHDP
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
¶ ·
° ± ² £ ³ £ ´ µ
Ä Ì Í Î Í Ï
$0
½ ¼ ¼ Ñ É Á ½ Å ¼ Á Ó À Ô ½ Ñ Ê À É »
Ð Ð Ò Ò
EG
Õ
, EHDP ¹
¸ ¸
Ö
¸ ¸ ¸
×
¸ ¸ ¸
d
b
)LJXUH%HDP'LPHQVLRQV
The flexural rigidity of the beam is directly comparable to a spring, such that it has an effective spring
constant (Nbeam).
So:
) ¹
N EHDP [ and PJ ¹
N EHDP G VW
Where
(, EHDP
¶ ·
N EHDP ¹
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
O EHDP
Õ
The beam deflection along the length of the beam is symmetrical about the centre and we assume its
curve obeys the equation:
§ [O [ · [ ½
Ù
Õ
Ø ¶
\ \ PD[ ¨ EHDP ¸® d ¾
Ú
¹¯O
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
© O EHDP
Õ
¿
×
The motion is linear, so we can examine the forces:
P H[FLWHU \ N EHDP \
Û Û
Ü Ý
N EHDP
\ \
Û Û
Ü Ý
P
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
Using the steps described for the rigid beam, you cam see that:
N EHDP
Z
Ù
P H[FLWHU
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
\ Z \
Ù
Û Û
Ü Ý
You can see this equation is in the same form as the one derived for the rigid beam system. Using the
same steps as before, we can show the period of oscillation is:
P H[FLWHU P H[FLWHU O EHDP

Õ
7 S = S
× ×
N EHDP (, EHDP
¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸
¶ ·
and:
º » ¼ ½ ¾ ¿ À Á ¼ Â Ã Ä ¼ Å Æ ¿ À Ç È ¼ É Ê Ë Ê Á
è é ê ë ê ì
$0
ã â â î ï ç ã ñ â ç ò æ ó ã î ô æ ï á
í í ð ð
(, EHDP
ø ù
I û
(26)
S P
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
H[FLWHU O EHDP
ú
Also we can show our displacement equation in the phase form:
\ $ ZW D
ý þ ÿ
This is in the same form as before. The same relationship between displacement, velocity and
acceleration is proven using the same method.
Ä ¼ Å Æ ¿ À Ç È ¼ É Ê Ë Ê Á Þ ß à á â ã ä å æ ç â
è é ê ë ê ì
$0
ã â â î ï ç ã ñ â ç ò æ ó ã î ô æ ï á
í í ð ð
,PSURYHG7KHRU\5D\OHLJK
The basic theory assumes two things:
1. That ‘the beam is light in comparison with the central load’.
This is acceptable in most applications, but for accuracy you must also allow for the beam mass and
inertia.
An English physicist - John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) experimented with frequencies of vibration and
conservation of energy. His work led to a correction of the standard beam theory when used in
vibrational analysis.
õ
This gives a corrected mass that allows for the mass of the simply supported beam of ÷

÷ ÷ ÷

÷
P EHDP .
Adding the corrected mass of the beam to the central mass (of the exciter), gives an ‘effective’ mass.
The equations then apply to the complete assembly:
õ
P HIIHFWLYH P H[FLWHU P EHDP

÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷

then, from the basic equations:
(, EHDP
ø ù
I û
S P
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
HIIHFWLYH O EHDP
ú
2. That ‘the central mass (exciter) is a point load’.
However, in the application, it clamps a central portion of the beam, increasing its stiffness, affecting its
flexural rigidity. To allow for this you see that the beam actually forms two cantilevers, one each side of
the exciter.
l3 l3
Exciter
Left-hand Right-hand
cantilever cantilever
)LJXUH(IIHFWLYH0DVVIRU6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
The static deflection then becomes
P HIIHFWLYH e JO P HIIHFWLYH JO (, EHDP

ú ú
G VW and N EHDP
ú ú
û û û
(, EHDP (, EHDP
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
O
ú
Compiling these improvements gives:
(, EHDP

I û
(27)
S P
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
HIIHFWLYH O
ú
à á â ã ä å æ ç â ì è â ñ å æ â ï ô ô ç

$0

N EHDP
Z "
(28)
P HII
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
P HII
7 "
S (29)
N EHDP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
'XQNHUOH\¶V0HWKRG
Stanley Dunkerley - an engineer in mechanics during the late 19th Century, worked with vibrations and
whirling shafts. He discovered that the addition of the (reciprocal) angular velocities of individual
elements of a whirling shaft give the total (reciprocal) angular velocity of the shaft. Vibrating beams are
directly analogous to a whirling shaft, as both obey simple harmonic motion.
The reciprocal of the total oscillating frequency of the beam assembly (Itotal) is due to the sum of the
reciprocal oscillating frequencies of the beam (Ibeam) and any masses (Imasses) that are clamped to it.
$ $ $
(30)
%
"
I WRWDO I EHDP I PDVVHV

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Finding the natural frequency of a beam by itself is very difficult, as you would need to remove all the
items attached.
So, to find the natural frequency of just the beam, you can simply find its vibration frequency for a range
of additional masses and extrapolate the results down to zero mass. The intercept on a 1/I axis for zero
mass would produce 1/I of the beam itself. However the frequency and mass relationship is not linear,
so to make it linear for an easier prediction, you must plot 1/I2 against mass. See Figure 29. You then
simply find the square root of 1/(1/I2).
2
1/ftotal X
X
2
1/fbeam
0 Mass
)LJXUH)LQGLQJ%HDP)UHTXHQF\
Equation 31 gives the theoretical frequency for just the beam itself.
S (, EHDP
I EHDP "
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
(31)
P EHDP O
&
# &
è â ñ å æ â ï ô ô ç


$0

When simplified gives:
(, EHDP
I "
- . / / / 0
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
(32)
P EHDP O
&
&
' ( ) * + ,
; < = > = ?
$0
6 5 5 A B : 6 D 5 : E 9 F 6 A G 9 B 4
@ @ C C
6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP'DPSLQJ
meff
Ldamper
mdamper
yd
)LJXUH'DPSLQJZLWKWKH6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
NOTE All other equations and methods are the same as for the beam and spring, but
may need changes in notation for the different systems.
Writing our displacement equation of motion:
P HII \ F\ N HII
H H H
I I J
Where:
L M
P HII P PDVV P EHDP P GDPSHU

I I
P P P P P
N O
\ J\ Z \
R
H H Q H
I I J
This time
J K
F
P HII
P P P P P P P P P P P P
JW
\ $H ZG W DG
S
U V W
Again, the correlated equations mean that the relationships remain as with the rigid beam.
The theory remains the same for underdamped, critically damped and overdamped.
) * + , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : 5
; < = > = ?
$0
6 5 5 A B : 6 D 5 : E 9 F 6 A G 9 B 4
@ @ C C
6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP)RUFHG9LEUDWLRQV
P HII \ F\ N HII \ 4 :W
H H H
I I
W ] ^
\ J\ Z \ T :W
R
H H Q H
I I
W ] ^
Where
T K
4
P HII
P P P P P P P P P
This becomes
\ TE W ] ^
:W D § 4 ·E W ] ^
:W D (33)
© N HII¹
K K
P P P P P P T P P P P P P P T
Z
R
)LJXUH)RUFH4RQWKH6LPSO\6XSSRUWHG%HDP
NOTE All other equations remain the same as for the beam and spring.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : 5 X > ; 5 D Y 8 9 Z [ 5 B G \ G :
i j ` k ` l
$0
d c c n o h d q c h r g s d n t g o b
m m p p
7KH8QGDPSHG9LEUDWLRQ$EVRUEHURU1HXWUDOL]HU
labsorber
mmass
)LJXUH7KH9LEUDWLRQ$EVRUEHU
The vibration absorber works exactly as its name suggests. It absorbs the energy of the oscillations in the
simply supported beam assembly. In doing this, its own flexible beam vibrates and dissipates or
neutralizes the energy from the main beam, mainly to air movement (friction). It can be considered as
an auxiliary oscillating system.
Made of a centrally clamped flexible beam, the absorber has two opposing and symmetrical cantilevers
(for balance), each with a mass attached. You may adjust the position of the masses to ‘tune’ the
absorber until it absorbs or cancels the vibrations in the main assembly.
First Mode Second Mode

Frequency Frequency
Vibration Amplitude
Vibration
Absorber
Simply
Supported
Beam
Frequency
Antiresonance
)LJXUH$PSOLWXGHDQG)UHTXHQF\&KDUWIRU7ZR'HJUHHVRI)UHHGRP
; 5 D Y 8 9 Z [ 5 B G \ G : _ ` a b c d e f g h c
i j ` k ` l
$0
d c c n o h d q c h r g s d n t g o b
m m p p
Both the rigid beam and spring and simply supported beam are examples of ‘one degree of freedom’
(1 DOF) systems. They have one natural frequency. The addition of the vibration absorber to the simply
supported beam creates a system of two degrees of freedom (2 DOF). These systems have two natural
frequencies. They obey an amplitude and frequency relationship as shown in Figure 33. At some point
of ‘antiresonance’ between the two frequencies, the amplitude of the simply supported beam reduces
to zero. At this point, the vibration absorber will still vibrate, but at a lower value than at either of the
two natural frequencies.
NOTE If the masses on the vibration absorber are not at equal distances, then this can
create a 3DOF system.
labsorber
y2 y1 y2
m2 Q m
2
kabsorber kabsorber
W
kbeam
m1
2 m2
y2
2 kabsorber(y2-y1)
y1
Q
W
y1 Qsin(Wt)
kbeam(y1)
)LJXUH6LPSOLILHG6NHWFK
Figure 34 shows a simplified sketch of the vibration absorber on the main beam assembly. It can be
broken into two parts, giving two equations of motion.
P \ N EHDP N DEVRUEHU \ N DEVRUEHU \ 4 :W (34)

} }
| |
~ ~

{ { {
P \ N DEVRUEHU \ N DEVRUEHU \ (35)

} } }
| |
~

Using the same methods as shown earlier in the theory, and using solutions:
a b c d e f g h c u v i c q w f g x y c o t z t h

\ $ ZW \ $Z ZW
£
¢ ¢
and

¡ ¡

\ % ZW \ %Z ZW
£
¢ ¢
and

¡ ¡
Where A and B are oscillation amplitudes, we can compute:
> N EHDP N DEVRUEHU P Z $ N %@ ZW 4 :W

£
¤ ¤

¥ ¥
> N DEVRUEHU $ N DEVRUEHU P Z %@ ZW

£
¤ ¤ ¤
§
¥ ¥
Writing in matrix form
N EHDP N DEVRUEHU P Z N DEVRUEHU

£
$ ZW 4 :W
¤ ¤

¥ ¥
N DEVRUEHU N DEVRUEHU P Z % ZW
£
§
¤ ¤ ¤
¥ ¥
&< ¡
Natural frequencies are determined with external forces set to zero. From this, the determinate of the
coefficient matrix (C) must be zero.
N EHDP N DEVRUEHU P Z N DEVRUEHU

£
¤ ¤
¥ ¥
§
N DEVRUEHU N DEVRUEHU P Z
£
¤ ¤ ¤
¥ ¥
P P Z > P N DEVRUEHU P &N EHDP N DEVRUEHU @Z N EHDP N DEVRUEHU

¨ £
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
¦ ¦ ¦
£ £

Er E DF
£ ©
Z
£
¥ ¥
(36)
D
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
Where:
D P P (37)
¤
E P N DEVRUEHU P N EHDP N DEVRUEHU (38)

¤ ¤ ¤
¦ ¦
F N EHDP N DEVRUEHU (39)

¤
The purpose of the vibration absorber is to reduce the amplitude of the main beam (A) to zero.
i c q w f g x y c o t z t h

$0

&< ¡
DGM &
< & ) )

¡ ¡
GHW &
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
N P Z N
£
$ ZW 4 :W
¤ ¤ ¤

£ £ £
'
ª ª ª
% ZW N N N P Z
£
§
¤ ¤
£ £

$ > N P Z 4 N @
£
¤ ¤ ¤
'
ª ª ª ¥
£ £ £
% > N 4 N N P Z @
£
¤ ¤
¦ ¦
'
ª ª ª ¥
£ £

The undamped vibration absorber is a special case where its job is to reduce amplitude A to zero. If you
set the value of A to zero, then you can find the frequency for the vibration absorber.
²
N P Z 4
£
¤ ¤
'
ª ª ª ¥
£ £
N
N P Z and Z
£
¤ ¤
¡ ¡
P
ª ª ª ª ª ª
£ £
This is the natural frequency of the vibration absorber.
We can also calculate the expected amplitude of the vibration absorber (B).
²
% N 4
¤
'
ª ª ª
' N P Z N N P Z N
£ £ £
©
¤ ¤ ¤
¥ ¥ ¥
£ £ £ £

N
Z
£
and
¡
P
ª ª ª ª ª ª
§ N P N ·§ P N·
¤
' N N N
£
©
£ £ £
¤ ¤
© P ¹© P ¹
¡
¥ ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ¥ ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ¥
£ £ £
£ £
N
£
©
N 4
¤
% 4 =
£
N
¥ ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ¥ ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
N
£
©
¤
This shows that as the amplitude of the vibration absorber is 180° out of phase compared with the main
beam. It creates an opposing force equal and opposite to the excitation force, cancelling it out and
reducing the amplitude to zero.
« ¬ ® ¯ °

$0

Based on beam theory for a cantilever, the effective stiffness is:
(, DEVRUEHU
µ
N
£
¡
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
(40)
O DEVRUEHU
¶
Where the ( and , values are for the material and beams of the vibration absorber.
In a similar manner to the theory for the main beam, according to Rayleighs formula, the total value of
the mass (m2) on each cantilever of the vibration absorber is the sum of the applied mass and a portion
of the vibration absorber beam mass, so that:
µ µ
P P PDVV P DEVRUEHUEHDP
¦
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
©
and
² ·
P P H[FLWHU P EHDP P DEVRUEHU

¦ ¦
ª ª ª ª ª
µ ¸
You only need to calculate values for one side of the absorber, as the other half is
identical and is only for balance. However, you must allow for the total weight of
NOTE the absorber when calculating the complete beam assembly equations.
The vibration absorber only works for the simply supported beam.
From this, the frequency equation is:
(, DEVRUEHU
µ
I ¡
S P O
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
¶
¤
DEVRUEHU
£
rearranging this to find the position for the masses on the beam gives:
§ (, DEVRUEHU e P ·
¹ ¹
O DEVRUEHU
£
© ¹
¡
ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª
SI
£
® ¯ ° ³ ´

Theory AM 2.1 TM1016

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³7KLVHGXFDWLRQDOPDWHULDOLVWKHSURSHUW\RI7HF4XLSPHQW3HUPLVVLRQJUDQWHGWRUHSURGXFHIRUQRQ

Operating Environment Indoor (laboratory)

Electrical Supply 90 VAC to 250 VAC 50 Hz to 60 Hz 0.4 A

External Connections Type RJ45 socket for VDAS

Servomotor Exciter Nominal Maximum Speed: 17 Hz or 1020 rev.min-1

Displacement sensor Distance from pivot = 0.5 m

Coiled Spring and Fixing Nominal Rate NVSULQJ: 3800 N.m-1

Beam Tool Steel

Damping Fluid 500 mL non-toxic silicone oil

Damper PGDPSHU (simply supported) = 0.4 kg

Calibration blocks Sensor zero - machined to 27 mm

Vibration Absorber Spring Steel (plated)

Symbol Details Units

$ Beam displacement amplitude m

F Viscous Damping Coefficient Ns.m-1 or kg.s-1

H An exponential function 2.718

( Young’s Modulus MPa or N/mm2

J Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m.s-2

Moment of Inertia (mass) kg.m2

,$ Total moment of inertia for a (as above)

N Spring rate N.m-1

T Forcing coefficient m.s-2

4 Force due to offset mass N

[Vand [G Spring or damper linear m

[ and [ Linear velocity and acceleration m.s-1 and m.s-2

\and \ and \ Linear displacement, velocity m, m.s-1 and m.s-2

D Phase Lag Degrees

I Phase angle Radians

J Decay coefficient s-1

Angular displacement, velocity rad.s-1 and rad.s-2

Symbol Details Units

7G Damped period Seconds

Z Angular Frequency radians per second (rad.s-1)

: Forced frequency radians per second (rad.s-1)

Constants Details Units

UandU Roots for 2nd -

2S (6.28) radians = 360 degrees = one revolution.

One radian = 57.29578 degrees.

1 rev.min-1 = 1/60 rev.s-1 (0.0166 rev.s-1) = 2S/60 rad.s-1 (0.1047 rad.s-1)

1 rev.min-1 = 1/60 rev.s-1 = 0.0166 Hertz

60 rev.min-1 = 1 rev.s-1 = 1 Hertz

One revolution = 360 degrees = 2S radians

One revolution per second = 2S rad.s-1 = 1 Hertz

7= 1/I = 2S/Z

$  - 3 ! " 4 5  + 0 6 0 # 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? :

8 9 : ; < = > ? : D @ : I M = > N O : G L P L ?

,$ , EHDP , H[FLWHU , VSULQJ (1)

, EHDP P EHDP O EHDP P EHDP O EHDP

, H[FLWHU P H[FLWHU O H[FLWHU

, VSULQJ § P VSULQJ P IL[LQJ· O VSULQJ

Using the small angle approximation

@ : I M = > N O : G L P L ? T 8 9 : ; < = > ? :

NO VSULQJ NO VSULQJ NO VSULQJ

Inserting this into the differential Equation 5 gives:

You can visualize this by looking at the oscillation:

Note that Z remains the same, as it is the natural frequency.

,$ , EHDP , VSULQJ , H[FLWHU , GDPSHU (9)

, GDPSHU P GDPSHU O GDPSHU

Inserting this into Equation 8 gives:

At this point, there are three cases:

1. Underdamped, where J  Z gives two complex roots.

2. Critically damped, where J £

Z gives a single root.

3. Overdamped, where J ! Z gives two real roots.

³7KLVHGXFDWLRQDOPDWHULDOLVWKHSURSHUW\RI7HF4XLSPHQW3HUPLVVLRQJUDQWHGWRUHSURGXFHIRUQRQ

UandU Roots for 2nd -

$ - 3 ! " 4 5 + 0 6 0 # 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? :

1. Underdamped, where J Z gives two complex roots.

Where & and & are constants based on initial conditions.

! " # $ % & ' ! ( ) * + , + "

% & ' ! ( ) * + , + " ? @ ! "