Republic of the Philippines

SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY

Main Campus, Sogod, Southern Leyte
Website: www.slsuonline.edu.ph
Email: slsumaincampus@gmail.com /
op@slsuonline.edu.ph Telefax No.: (053) 382-3294

College of Hospitality and Tourism Management

Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management

Self – Paced Learning Plan

TM PE 202: Philippine Gastronomical Tourism
2nd Semester, AY 2019 – 2020
I. Gastronomy and Tourism
Osman ÇALIŞKAN* , Gökhan YILMAZ**
II. Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Define Gastronomy and Tourism
2. Analyze relationship of Gastronomy in Tourism Industry.
3. Do an Article Review

It is seen that in the last years gastronomy forges ahead towards becoming an academic discipline. For
instance, Hegarty (2009) stated that so many academic studies were put forward on gastronomy and culinary arts
between 1996-2007. In this context, the existence of academic journals (such as International Journal of
Gastronomy and Food Science, Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, Journal of Foodservice Business
Research, Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism) particular to Gastronomy and Food-Beverage Management field
and the increase in the number of scientific publications are seen as remarkable developments. On the other
hand, it is accepted that gastronomy is in close relationship with tourism. In this framework, it is possible to
encounter with lots of academic studies indicating that gastronomy is complement and a significant component
of tourism. In the light of all of these, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of
gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and
tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues.

The concept of gastronomy and its relation with tourism

The concept of “Gastronomy” composed with the integration of the Greek words “Gastro” and “Nomos”.
Gastro-relates to the stomach and, by extension, the whole digestive system, starting at the mouth, while nomos
means rule or regulation. Gastronomy therefore refers to rules or norms in respect of eating and drinking (Katz,
2003; Santich, 2004; 2007). In related literature it is seen that the gastronomy concept can be defined with its
guidance, process and cultural ways (Yılmaz, 2015). Santich (2004) considers gastronomy concept as rules and
regulations about eating–drinking and in this regard, depending on historical, cultural and environmental effects,
he defines gastonomy concept as offering proposals related to what, where, when, in which combination and
how to eat and drink and making guidance. Beşirli (2010) evaluates gastronomy in cultural frame and states that
the doings made during the process of producing, transporting, keeping and consuming of foods are related with
culture. Also, Hegarty and O'Mahony (2001) explain gastronomy within the framework of eating and drinking
culture as a concept containing elements and recipts used in preparing foods; preparing, cooking and presenting
methods of foods; the amount and variety of foods; liked and disliked tastes; customs, traditions and believes
about the presentation of foods; the equipments used. Richards (2002), Kivela and Crotts (2006) summarise
gastronomy concept as distinctive foods of a country or a region, preparing and cooking methods of foods,
presenting and consuming foods and emphasize on the relation with culture. On the other hand, Richards (2002),
Hegarty (2005; 2009) and Hegarty and Antun (2010) evaluate gastronomy as a process in their studies (Özdemir
and Çalışkan, 2011) and describe this process as producing, handling, gathering, preparing, presenting, consuming
of foods and getting pleasure. A significant discussion about gastronomy concept is carried out on its relation with
science and art concepts (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, gastronomy is also described as good food eating art and
science (Santich, 2004; 2007; Gillespie, 2006). Kivela and Crotts (2006) and Santich (2007) state that gastronomy
concept includes both the art of good eating and also the art of good cooking. Hegarty and Antun (2007) qualify
gastronomy as an art because of its trying to figure out the reality; as a science due to its relation with fields like
chemistry, physics and history. In this context, gastronomic products can be considered as art when they contain
subjectivity and esthetics factors; the informations produced in gastronomy field can be considered as science
when they contain subjectivity and rationality factors. In other words it is accepted that gastronomy is an art for it
requires mastership and ability; it is a science for kitchen is not different from a laboratory and for it can get
findings based on observation and experiment (Hegarty and Antun, 2010). And, Özdemir and Çalışkan (2011)
state that the informations about foods and beverages reveal the scientific aspect of gastronomy; preperation
and presentation of foods and beverages to appeal to the five senses of people reveal the artistic aspects of
gastronomy. In terms of academic, it is seen that gastronomy is a working field requiring a very disciplined
approach and being in relation with several working fields and sciences (Santich, 2007; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi
and Othman, 2009; Croce and Perri, 2010) like chemistry, literature, biology, geography, history, anthropology,
music, philosophy and sociology (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Hegarty, 2009). In this regard, it is possible to say that
gastronomy is both connected with social sciences and also physical sciences. For example, Santich (2007)
indicates that gastronomy is connected with other fields such as history, literature, medicine, politics, law, ethics,
business administration, religion, chemistry, philosophy, physics, communication, cookery, agriculture,
geography, economy, trade and technology and in this context he considers the relation of gastronomy with
other fields within the framework of production and consumption extents. In other words, while the fields such
as cuisine, agriculture, geography, economy, trade, technology constitute the production extent of gastronomy,
the fields such as religion, ethics, law, politics constitute the consumption extent of foods which are suitable or
allowed for people. Also, communication, history and literature help learning cultural structures, customs and
traditions of societies.
Similarly, Croce and Perri (2010) state that at the heart of gastronomy there are factors as nature, culture
and society and also it is in relation with the fields such as botanic, zoology, chemistry, physics, astronomy,
engineering, architecture, painting and geology. Hegarty and Antun (2010) indicate that the gathering, preparing
and cooking stages of foods are connected with physics and chemistry sciences. Also, This (2006a; 2006b; 2009)
expresses that gastronomy is in relation with nature science due to the classification of foodstuffs; with physics
due to the assessment of foodstuff’s quality and content; with chemistry due to the various analysis about the
content of foods; with cookery due to the gathering together a variety of foods in harmony and their artistic
presentation; with business administration due to getting materials on the cheapest and selling products
lucratively; with economy due to its national and international income-generating effects. Despite all these
assessments, according to the studies in related literature, it can be possible to say that the science which is in
the closest relationship with gastronomy is tourism and gastronomy is being analyzed in the context of this
relation.
The benefits of gastronomy to tourism
While researchers are conceptualising the interactions between gastronomy and tourism, they can
consider different factors. For instance, when Tikkanen (2007) evaluates the effects of gastronomy to tourism, he
puts forward 4 factors as being an attractiveness of food that can be used in destination’s advertising; being a
potential element on the development of local agriculture and economy; being a significant part of experiences
tourists are going to liveand being a contact of local culture. Henderson (2009) emphasizes the positive effects of
gastronomy in the relations between gastronomy and tourism and indicates that there are 4 factors ranging as
being a touristic products of food; being a factor that can be marketable to tourists; being a tool of gastronomy
tourism in the development of destination and providing diversification opportunities to the firms in destination.
Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012) explain the determiners of the relations between gastronomy and tourism as
foods’ being component of a touristic product or activity; the food consuming behaviours of tourists; the food
experiences of tourists and their being specially interested in different foods-beverages and activities related with
them. Kivela and Crotts (2009) evaluate the gastronomy or local foods as a travel motivation, a criterion being
effective on the decision of a destination, a factor that ensures to visit the destination again and an element that
contributes to the general satisfaction of tourists. Yılmaz (2015) summarizes the benefits of gastronomy to
tourism as follows:
 It forms a basis to the differentiation of destinations
 It plays significant role on marketing the destinations
 It is used as an important factor in promotion of destinations.
 It can be a travel motivation for tourists.
  It can be effective on chosing of destination for tourists.
 It can enable to visit a destination again for tourists.
 It can contribute to the satisfaction of tourists.
 It is beneficial to the economic development of destination.

When consider from economic angle, the expenses that tourists make for foods and eating out during
their travels show the importance of gastronomy in tourism industry. Hall and Sharples (2003) indicate that foods
are the second most important factor (28 %) after accomodation (36 %) in daily expenses of tourists. Other
researches show that the proportion of expenditures for food in total tourist spending can be between 25 % - 40
%. For instance, while Boyne, Williams and Hall (2002) state that food expenditures constitute 40 % of tourist
expenditures Hudman (1986), Ardabili and Rasouli (2011), Canizares and Guzman (2012) and Getz, Robinson,
Andersson and Vujicic (2014) state that this proportion is at a level of 25 %. Also Rimmington and Yüksel
(1998),Telfer and Wall (2000), Torres (2002) and MacLaurin, Blose and Mack (2007) indicate that food
expenditures constitute one third of tourists expenditures. For instance, it is stated that in South Africa, 8 % of
foreign tourists’ expenditures and 24 % of domestic tourists’ expenditures are food expenditures (Du Rand, Heath
and Alberts, 2003). According to the report of Turkish Statistical Institution it is indicated that 28,6 % of total
expenditures of tourists coming to Turkey between 2005-2007 is seperated to food and eating out activities
(Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Similarly, in Gastronomy Tourism Report published by the Association of Turkish
Travel Agencies, it is indicated that the expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey in 2014 are
at a level of 19 %. Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey are shown
by years in Table 1.

Apart from general touristexpenditures, the expenditures made by tourists travelling with the purpose of
gastronomy are being important factors contributing economically to local people (HavenTang and Jones, 2005).
For instance, it is stated that in 2013, 6.4 million people patricipated in Oktoberfest beer festivity celebrated
yearly in Munich Germany and 6.7 million litres beer were consumed (Spiegel Online, 2013). Besides, it is seen
that local food products including 549,899 pieces of chicken, 140 225 pair of local sausages, 44.320 kg of fish and
116 pieces of cow were used up (Oktoberfest.net, 2013). Similarly, it is indicated that millions of people visited
the Maine Lobster Festivity which has been organised since 1948 in America and it produced economic profit
about a billion dolar (TÜRSAB, 2014).

In another example, it is indicated that gastronomy tourists visiting Canada Ontario Region in 2010 spent
816 million Canadian Dollars (Richards, 2012). In this study, Schmantowsky (2008) states that the tourists
travelling in order to discover different local cuisines and taste local foods spend in average 1.194 dollars per
person; Green and Dougherty (2008) state they spend in average 1000 dollars per person. Such as to support this,
Noseworthy, Martin, Wade, Sabev and Csillag (2005) state that the average daily expenditures of gastronomy
tourists double the expenditures of typical tourists. For reaching to these spending levels, the payments tourists
made for gastronomic products and services have a great share. In fact, some tourists are eager to pay more in
order to be able to experience local foods (Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In this regard, in the research made with
1.440 English tourists by Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2001), it was concluded that the 67 % of tourists are
willing to pay more for local foods and drinkings. Westering (1999) states that tourists pay 425 pounds for two-
day France Loire Valley wine and mushroom tours and 3.999 pounds for seven-day Greece Odesa wine tour. Also
Hunter (2006) indicates that tourists pay 680-1000 dollars to 3-hour gastronomy tours including cookery courses,
accomodation, gourmet breakfasts and dinner.

Tourism creates value for its stakeholders. Gastronomy helps the development of the economic, social
and cultural values of tourism stakeholders (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). In a study made by Kivela and Crotts
(2006) in Hong Kong it was reached the end of which gastronomy tourism make various contributions to
producers, tourism industry, local people and tourists. Haven-Tang and Jones (2005) state that local foods and
drinks have various benefits to tourists, tourism establishments and local people. Quan and Wang (2004)
summarize the importance of gastronomy tourism on promoting, developing and marketting a destination as
creating alternative opportunities and providing added value for food producers who are in rural areas,
converting rich and various foods in the region and regional cuisine culture into festivals or activities about foods
and creating attraction centers to which tourists are able to come, diversifying tourism activities as a result of
presentation of foods seperately as touristic products and developing local people’s identities and cultures and
helping to the participation of several people.

In the light of all of these, the benefits of gastronomy tourism to tourists, producers, local people,
tourism industry and environment are as follows (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Yılmaz, 2015):
 Benefits to tourists
 Being a discovery tool of local culture
 Providing the opportunity of experiencing and purchasing different foods
 Providing the opportunity of participating in gastronomy focused activities
 Contributing to the tourists satisfaction
 Benefits to producers
 Developing agricultural activities
 Developing local husbandry
 Providing the increase of production and selling
 Improving the quality and diversity of products and services
 Ensuring the local producers’ being a part of tourism industry
 Benefits to local people
 Creating new business opportunities
 Strenghtening of local identity
 Increasing the intercultural interaction
 Development of local economy
 Benefits to tourism industry
 Increasing the number of tourists
 Extension of staying time
 Increasing of touristic expenditures 37
 Development of tourism types
 Presentation of alternative products
 Benefits to the environment
 Contributing to the development of local destination
 Helping to the keeping of local attractivenesses
 Developing the environment friendly infrastructure
 Helping to the ensuring sustainability

Gastronomy and tourism studies

 Researches made about gastronomy and tourism relation constitute a significant conceptional basis in
order to understand the gastronomy and tourism relation. In this regard, it is thought that explaining this issue in
the light of related literature will be beneficial. Nowadays, it can be said that academic studies made on
gastronomy and tourism relation get up to a certain level in quality and quantity and predominantly focus on
following issues:

 Destination and local cuisine relation (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Barkat & Vermignon, 2006; Guzman &
Canizares, 2011; Beer, Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2012; Yılmaz & Özdemir, 2015)
 Promotion (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010; Lan, Wu and Lee, 2012) and marketing (Du
Rand er al., 2003; Du Rand & Heath, 2006; Okumus, Okumus & McKercher, 2007; Horng & Tsai, 2012c) of
local cuisines
 The behaviours of tourists to local cuisines (Torres, 2002; Hjalager, 2004; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim, Eves
& Scarles, 2009; Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; 2011; Mak et al., 2012)
 The expectations and satisfactions of tourists about gastronomic experiences (Ryu & Jang, 2006; Correia,
Moital, da Costa & Peres, 2008)
 The classification of tourists according to their relations with gastronomy (Boyne, Hall & Williams, 2003;
Hjalager, 2004; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2009; Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald, 2011;
Canizares & Guzman, 2012) and the determination of them as a part of market (Kivela & Crotts, 2005;
MacLaurin et al., 2007; Mack, Blose & MacLaurin, 2009; McKercher, Okumus & Okumus, 2008)
 Gastronomic identity (Harrington, 2005; Fox, 2007; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010; Lin, Pearson & Cai,
2011; Çalışkan, 2013)
 Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism (Long, 1998; Hall and Mitchell,
2001; Hjalager, 2002; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis and Cambourne,
2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Tikkanen, 2007; Henderson, 2009)
 The sources (Deneault, 2002; Smith & Xiao, 2008; Silkes, 2012) and development strategies (Green &
Dougherty, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2012a; 2012b; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2013) of gastronomy tourism
 The usage of local foods in tourism (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Özdemir, Yılmaz, Çalışkan & Aydın, 2015;
Özdemir, Aydın, Çalışkan & Yılmaz, 2015)

Gastronomy tourism

Traveling of people for the purpose of experiencing local foods is accepted as a different tourism type
(Molz, 2007). In order to describe this tourism type, in related literature as shown in Image 1, the development of
several number of concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism, meal tourism, gastro
tourism or food and wine tourism and from time to time using these concepts interchangeably or seperation of
these concepts from each other are seen. Karim and Chi (2010) state that the concepts like gastronomy tourism,
culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism are used because, in the heart of concepts, there is traveling of
people to particular destinations in order to discover foods and drinks and in this context, indeed, the concepts
have the same meanings. Lin (2006) indicate that no matter which concept is used, the main aim is using foods
and drinks as important means in order to promote and develop tourism in a certain region. In spite of that,
Kivela and Crotts (2005) and Ignatov and Smith (2006) allege that there are some differencies between the
concepts of 38 culinary tourism and gastronomy tourism. According to this distinction, gastronomy tourism is
related to eating and including consumption, enjoying and quality factors. In other saying, the word
“gastronomy” in the gastronomy tourism concept emphasize mostly on its consumption extent (Ignatov and
Smith, 2006). And culinary tourism comprises foodstuff, the processes of food preperation and production,
activities about foods and motivations (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and handles the production and consumption
extents together (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Similarly, Ninemeier (2010) states that culinary tourism grounds on
the food preperation process and it is about cuisine. In wine tourism, experiencing wines and visiting wineries or
regions are main travelling motivations (Charters and AliKnight, 2002).
 Figure 1: The concepts about gastronomy tourism used in literature (Yılmaz, 2015).

According to related literature, the concept of gastronomy tourism was used firstly by Lucy Long in 1998
(Long, 1998; Kivela and Crotts, 2005; Karim and Chi, 2010; Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In this context, Long (1998)
describes gastronomy tourism as a tourism type developed in order to discover other cultures and civilisations
through activities about foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2005; 2006). Thus, Long (2003) emphasises the aim of
recognising different cultures along with consumption in gastronomy tourism. The basis of gastronomy tourism
bases on agriculture, culture and tourism (Westering, 1999; Cusack, 2000; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Everett
and Slocum, 2013). Agriculture is effective in providing products or foods to be consumed; culture is effective in
the history or authenticity of destinations. In terms of tourism, it is accepted that gastronomy tourism is one kind
of culture tourism. Because, local cuisine forms an inseparable part of destination’s or society’s culture (Horng
and Tsai, 2012c). With providing required background and services, agriculture, culture and tourism elements
gather under the gastronomy tourism roof (Du Rand and Heath, 2006).
 In the literature gastronomy toruism is defined as a new type of tourism (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Smith
and Costello, 2009; Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012b); special interest tourism (McKercher et al.,
2008) or a niche market segment (Stewart, Bramble and Ziraldo, 2008; Silkes, 2012; Forga and Valiente, 2012).
Some researchers take gastronomy tourism also as one of the fastest growing in tourism industry (Deneault,
2002; Mautner, 2009) and one of the most demanding tourism type (Beer, Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2012). At
the heart of gastronomy tourism, there are discovering local foods or cuisines (Horng and Tsai, 2012a), enjoying
(Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and experiencing unforgettable experiment (McKercher et al., 2008). Traveling to
different destinations provides tourists the opportunityof recognising new cultures, cuisines and local foods and
experiencing the sense of authenticity(Westering, 1999; Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999; Okumus et al., 2007).
Gastronomy tourism focuses on unique food, cuisine and culture (Yun et al., 2011). In this regard, the definitions
related to gastronomy tourism are presented in Table 2.

In this regard, it is possible to define gastronomy tourism as travels comprising “the production,
preperation, presentation and consumption processes of foods and eating-drinking patterns, being interested in
table manners and cuisine culture and participating in activities about foods organised in destinations (visiting
food-drink producers, wine and beer factories, farmer markets; meal experience in restaurants; participating in
festivals; gastronomy tours; taking part in cookery classes and wine tasting courses); made in order to enjoy,
learn and discover and whose main travel motivation are made up of local foods (Yılmaz, 2015). In gastronomy
tourism it is seen that during travels, the fact of travel for foods comes to the forefront rather than consuming
foods. As of both this definition as well as related literature addressed that the followings are among the
distinctive features of gastronomy tourism.

 Dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (Sparks, Bowen & Klag, 2003; Cohen &
Avieli, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009; Munjal & Sharma, 2013; Bessiere & Tibere,
2013)
  Tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food
(Deneault, 2002), culture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) and people (Fox, 2007; Kivela & Crotts,
2006; 2009)
 Culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human senses—sight,
sound, smell, taste, and touch (Long, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009; Chang et al., 2010; Mak
et al., 2012)
 There is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those
interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attraction (Hashimoto &
Telfer, 2006; Lang Research Inc., 2006; Fox, 2007; Vujicic, Getz & Robinson, 2013), Interest in cuisine
when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group (Kivela & Crotts, 2006)
 Unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day and in
any weather (Deneault, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Canizares & Guzman, 2012)
 More often than not, gastronomy tourists are explorers (Telfer & Wall, 2000; Heldke, 2003; Kivela &
Crotts, 2006; 2009).

Gastronomic tourism products

Gastronomic tourism products can be described as products that tourists can consume during their
travels or use for a while, include gastronomic factors (like foods-drinks) at its heart and services or factors
formed by the combination of these (Yılmaz, 2015). For instance, local restaurants, wineries and vineyards in
destinations are among the main gastronomic tourism products tourists can live an exhilarating experience
(Kivela and Crotts, 2006). If it is though more comprehensive, in studies in the related literature traditional or high
quality restaurants, food and wine festivals, cookery schools, wine trainings, local markets, cookery and meal
competitions or activities (Long, 1998), wineries and vineyards, vegetable and fruit harvesting fields, food and
wine routes (Yun et al., 2011), peddlers and farms (Karim and Chi, 2010) are considered among gastronomic
tourism products.
In order to develop gastronomic tourism products some resourches are required. There are resourchers
making comprehensive classification on this issue. For example, Ignatov and Smith (2006) and Smith and Xiao
(2008) classify the resources of gastronomic tourism products in four categories as facilities and opportunities,
activities, events and organizastions. This classification is shown in Table 3. Facilities comprise buildings, areas
and routes where the foods are produced, prepared and disseminated. These facilities are places which are open
to tourist visits and where tourists can buy and consume gastronomic products, see the production areas and
learn local culture. Among activities, there are eating in local restaurants, visiting wine and agricultural regions,
courses about cookery, wine tastement educations and taking part in contests. And within the scope of consumer
fairs and festivities, tourists can visit various food and beverage fairs and take part in local festivals.
Even if they are not considered directly in gastronomic tourism products, the organizations related to
gastronomy have great importance in terms of their functions. For example, the destinations willing to develop
gastronomy tourism need to make some arrangements about foods and wines. In this context, it is thought that
the arrangements to be made by institutions are going to become important determiners of food quality
(Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000). The institutions are expressed as systems or organisations which confirm,
document and assume control of local foods and wines quality (Smith and Xiao, 2008). The certification of foods
guarantees the products and increasing their quality (Horng and Tsai, 2010). For example, it is known that Hong
Kong Tourism Bureau started Quality Tourism Services (QTS) implementations in order to guarantee the quality of
services in restaurants and increase food standarts and customer security (Chang et al., 2011). This
implementation enable tourists to find reliable restaurants and thus to feel safe themselves (Horng and Tsai,
2012c).
It is possible to collocate main gastronomic tourism products as gastronomy tours, factories (wine, beer),
farms and farmer markets, cooking courses, festivals, museums and restaurants. Gastronomy tours can be events
performed on a specific route (like wine region, agricultural region) especially in order to discover different
culinary culture, foods and wines and including such activities as making food shopping in local markets (Kivela
and Crotts, 2006), participating in cooking and wine tasting classes (Hunter, 2006) and visiting local restaurants
(Hjalager, 2002; Ardabili and Rasouli, 2011). Especially local restaurants constitute one of the main gastronomic
tourism products (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008) and both gastronomy
tourists whose primary travel motivation is local foods and other tourists are willing to live food experience in
local restaurants in order to experience local foods (Du Rand et al., 2003; Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). For
example, Law, To and Goh (2008) state that in Hong Kong there are restaurants over 9000 where tourists can
experience local cuisine or east and west cuisines. Similarly, Au and Law (2002) express that tourists can live
unforgettable and unique experience in the restaurants in Hong Kong. On the other hand, in Canada, 8 day
gastronomy tours named West Coasts Cuisine are organised and tourists can learn how the local foods are
produced and prepared (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006). Farmers markets are indicated as places where the local
products, produced or prepared by local people, are presented directly to consumers (Smith and Xiao, 2008) and
fresh and organic foods can be bought (Henderson, 2009). Farmers markets offer informations to tourists about
local culture and life that they can not obtain from knowledge sources like internet and travel magazines (Chang,
Kivela and Mak, 2011). The visits made to factories where the local products like wine or beer are manifactured
have similar function. Museums like food, cheese, wine and culinary museums are described as areas where
various foods and equipments related to these foods are displayed (Bessiere, 1998). And farm visits enable
tourists to make contact with local producers and local products directly (Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). Meal
courses are explained as organised by restaurants (Green and Dougherty, 2008) or hotels (Henderson, 2009) and
as places where tourists can learn how the local foods are prepared (Bessiere, 1998) and can consume local foods
(Horng and Tsai, 2012c). Food festivals combiningeating-drinking culture and entertainment (Özdemir and
Çalışkan, 2011) are events in which local foods and products are main themes (Henderson, 2009), organised for
short-term as 1-3 days and periodically (Smith and Xiao, 2008). In Canada Ontario Region every year 73 food and
wine themed festivals are organised. In some situations, festivals can be comprehensive products in which a lot of
gastronomic tourism products are served together. For example, in 2-day Abergavenny Food Festival organised
every year, opportunities are given to participants like wine tasting, participating in cookery classes, serving and
tasting food, buying local foods from local producers, visiting fish market (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005).
Also many researches in related literature show the importance of gastronomic sources and gastronomic
tourism products both for destinations and tourists. Horng and Tsai (2012a) state that developing gastronomy
tourism multi directional is going to be possible with gastronomic sources such as food routes, food festivals,
consumer fairs, wine tours. In this context, many destinations are trying to show and familiarise the unique
gastronomic sources that they own (Cohen and Avieli, 2004).
For instance, Canada is trying to present so many and a large variety of gastronomic tourism products
such as local festivals, agritourism events, cookery schools, farm holidays, food festivals, dinner activities, vintage,
food, wine and beer routes, winery and brevery tours, cheese production centers, food museums, farmer
markets and special wine tasting tours (Deneault, 2002) and gourmet restaurants (Stewart et al., 2008).
Restaurants generally serving foods belonging to local cuisine and festivals about foods constitute the
gastronomic tourism products of Asian countries like Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). Similarly,
according to The World Tourism Association’s report cookery classes or courses, food museums, food events,
foods, food and beverage fairs, visits to the local food producers or food markets and food tours constitute the
main gastronomic sources.
In many researches in related literature some findings on the participation of tourists to these activities in
destinations are presented. In the study which was done with Taiwanese and Austrian tourists visiting Hong Kong
and Macau by Kivela and Crotts (2009), tourists’ participation in events about foods like visiting farms,
participating in cookery courses, fruit picking and visiting cheese makers was revealed. Similarly, Yun et al., (2011)
line the activities about gastronomy tourism to which tourists participate in as visiting markets selling local foods,
taking part in local fairs, participate in food and wine festivals, taking part in cookery and wine courses, eating in
the restaurants serving local foods or eating in luxury restaurants, participating in wineries and breweries tours,
visiting food and wine routes, visiting farms and food producing places. And, in the study done with 3.137
European tourists visiting Sweden by Vujicic et al., (2013), it was determined that the activities of tourists about
foods during their travels are experiencing local foods in local restaurants, visiting local food markets and
purchasing local products, living romantic dinner experiences, participating in the food festivals, visiting food
routes and taking cookery courses.
 Similarly, Bessiere and Tibere (2013) line the places where French tourists can discover local foods during
their travels as farms and production places, restaurants and local markets and the places where home cookings
are made. In the study donein Taiwan by Lin et al., (2011) with tourism officials and 83 people working as senior
executives (director, executive..), the activities to which tourists participate in are lined up as, in order of, food
festivals, gourmet tours and gourmet holidays. Besides, it is indicated that the most attractive factor about
tourists’ experience the cuisine of Taiwan is participating in local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. In the
study made with 42 people in South Africa by Du Rand et al., (2003), gastronomic tourism products are
determined as specificial restaurants (62 %), food products produced in local destinations, food routes, food
festivals, specific activities about foods and othes. In the research done by Lang Research Inc. (2006) it is
indicated that 22 % of Canadian tourists show participating in cookery and wine tasting courses, 17.4 % of them
show visiting vinery ans tasting wine, 11.9 % of them show food producing centers like cheese factory, 10.5 % of
them show visiting brewery and tasting beer and 3.3 % of them show taking part in all activities as the main travel
reasons. In a research made in America it is concluded that 17 % of tourists (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010)
and in a research made in Canada 74 % of tourists (Stewart et al., 2008) participate in the activities about food
and wine.

Gastronomic identity

Foods are in close relationship with culture and identity issues (Hall and Mitchell, 2000). Foods and
drinkings are seen as main components forming the identity of a destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005;
Munjal and Sharma, 2013). In this context, gastronomic identity is stated as an identity reflecting food culture of a
particular region or a community (Bessiere, 1998; Lin et al., 2011). And, in the studies about the subject, what are
the components of gastronomic identity and which factors are effective on its formation are explained. For
instance, Danhi (2003) indicates that there are 6 main factors determining a region’s gastronomic identity and
lines these factors as geography, history, ethnic diversity, culinary etiquettes, common tastes and local receipts.
Rao, Monin and Du Rand (2003) state that the identity movement in French cuisine during the transition process
from classical period to new period took place in 5 dimensions as cuisine expression, cooking rules, materials,
chefs and menu management.
Harrington (2005) classifies the factors that have impact on the formation of gastronomic identity in two
dimensions as culture and environment. While history, ethnical diversity, trial and error, innovations, skills,
traditions, believes and values constitute the culture category, geography, climates, microclimates, local products
and the harmony of new products constitute the environment category. In this context, with the effects of
environment and culture, a gastronomic identity is created comprising of taste profiles, etiquettes, receipts, the
entegration of materials or techniques, the harmonisation of wine and food, climatic zones and new world and
old world styles in winemaking. Thus, foods that are among the main components of gastronomic identity
become reflecting the social, cultural and natural features of a particular region (Lockie, 2001). According to
Harrington (2005), during the gastronomic identity formation process geography, climate, historical process and
ethnical diversity are the prominent factors. In historical process, migrations, battles, religional visits and
discoveries taking place in the region and ethnical diversity that is formed with getting together of the
communities from different cultures effect the gastronomic identity of region.
By being entegrated with local products, new and different foods and drinks that are brought from
remote regions with commercial activities lead to develop new preperation methods and to change the local
traditions. Innovations are able to be made with trial-and-error and thus it is possible to meet the growing
demands of consumers. Gastronomic identity takes form with the skills of local people apart from trial-and-error
and innovations. Environmental factors comprise of the elements that are related to how the foods grow.
Geographical and climatical changes such as soil diversities, precipitation, temperature, wind, humid and
altitudes effect the food diversity that are produced or grown in a region and eating habits of people. In this
regard, the emerging local products are foods and drinks having the characteristics of growing area and generally
being perceived as good quality.
In the world, it is possible to encounter with succesful samples about gastronomic identity in the world.
For example, Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) state Lyon city as the capital city of both France and the
worldwhich has local foods like 140 kind of cheese and Bresse chicken, 61 restaurants with Michelin star and
wineyards like Burgundy. Lin et al., (2011) utter that Taiwan has gastronomy destination identity with its various
and different local foods. Because the gastronomy culture of Hong Kong is influenced by the cultures of several
countries and ethnical groups, it is mentioned at present time as Gastronomy Paradise of Asia. Similarly, due to
the cuisine culture that Singapore has is influenced by various ethnical groups, it is known as the Gastronomy
Capital of Asia. This situation creates a gastronomic identity for Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai,
2012c).
In the study, Chang et al., (2011) state that due to several of animals such as sheep and lambs in
Australia, the gastronomic identity of the country includes sheep and lamb dishes. Within the framework of local
and ethnical elements it owns, French cuisine takes part in among the special cuisine in the world and thus
France is known with cuisine culture it has (Barkat and Vermignon, 2006). In the interview he gave to Newsweek
magazine in 1961, former President of France Charles de Gaulle utters the variety of his country has with the
sentence “who and how can manage a country that has 246 kinds of cheese?” (Nadeau and Barrow, 2005).
Indeed, it can be said that the word “cheese” is one of the most effective gastronomic identity elements
indicating the region’s climate, history, culture, geography and cuisine (Çalışkan, 2013).
Thus, gastronomic identity become usable for tourists in order to live unique and recollective
gastronomic experience (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). A strong gastronomic identity special to a particular
destination becomes an inseparable part of that destination’s success in tourism development (Fox, 2007).
Gastronomic identity can constitute one of the attractive factors for tourists in order to visit destinations. Tourists
are possibly want to experience local foods due to the destinations they travel have strong gastronomic identity
(Chang et al., 2011).
Grounding on these explanations, the possiblity of being so significant source of gastronomic identity for
destinations comes to mind. In this framework, Fox (2007) evaluates the contributions of destination’s
gastronomic identity to tourism destinations in five dimensions as differentiation, aestheticization,
authentication, symbolization and vitalisation. Differentiation indicates that foods are important signs of cultural
difference among regions and communities and by this way the destination is going to become different.
Aestheticization expresses making aesthetic of food and beverage experience with tourist experience.
Gastronomic identity that involves history, trade, transportation, technology and ethnic diversity, within the
framework of authentication, creates desire to live past on tourists. Symbolization expresses that gastronomic
identity can be presented with various gastronomic symbols and in this case it gives the symbolisation of Italian
gastronomy with pizza as a sample. He states that, via vitalisation, a new image can be gained to destination by
providing the use of old traditions and culinary heritage in tourism.
The variation of factors from region to region that have impact on the creation of gastronomic identity
causes to emerge different gastronomic identities and not to be able to imitate each gastronomic identity
(Çalışkan, 2013). Because of its features like being valuable, rare, unimitable and not being replaced, gastronomic
identity becomes a strategic source for destinations (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). In this regard, matching
of certain areas with certain foods and drinkings become possible with gastronomic identity special to destination
(Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Thus, food is strongly correlated with a particular region (Lin et al., 2011).
Champagne known as the most qualified sparkling wine of the World can only be produced in Champagne Region
of France. Therefore, champagne and Champagne Region matches and a gastronomic identity special to the
region emerges (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011). Similarly, matching cognac and Cognac region enables creating
unique gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, especially number of geographical indication
products contributes to gastronomic identityalso. For instance, in Turkey, there are 124 geographical indications
about foods. On the other hand, entering into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of the factors about
eating and drinking like “keşkek” oftraditional ceremony, mesir paste festival and Turkish coffee and tradition also
have importance in terms of gastronomic identity. Thus, with the integration of gastronomic identity and tourism
development of a destination, it is possible for that destination to gain competitive advantage in the fierce
competition environment in tourism market (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In order to do this, destinations are
required to create and present gastronomic tourism products based on their unique gastronomic identities.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and
tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations;
gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identity issues.

1. Do an article review based on the Article above and follow the guidelines below.

PART 1: Structure
Guide Questions:
1. What is the intention of the study?
 2. How does the author outline the intention early on, and how was it carried out?
3. What theories were used?

PART 2: Awareness of current debates

Guide Questions:
1. What existing debate in the field is the study addressing?
2. How was it expounded in the article?

PART 3: Methodology and Results

Guide Questions:
1. How appropriate was the methodology used in conducting the study?
2. What are the results that are worthy to be highlighted?
3. How are the results correlated to the theory used?

PART 4: Originality
Guide Questions:
1. What is the unique and/or valuable contribution of the study to the body of knowledge?
2. What are the possible management applications (esp. within your organization) of the findings?
3. What areas of further research does it suggest?

PART 5: Conclusion
Guide Questions:
1. How convincing is the researcher’s conclusion?
2. How would it compare with other academic work?

Prepared by:

KHRISTYL JOY M. FELICILDA

Name and Signature of Faculty