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Exercise 4.1
The following compression readings were obtained in an oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay
(Gs = 2.73):
Solution
Step 1:
The void ratio at the start of the test is: ∆
∆
∆ ∆
Remember that , which results in: ∆ 0.891. In general the relationship
∆
between e and H is: ∆ 1 0.0995∆ , which is then used to determine the plot e‐log’ (Fig.
4.1)
Step 2: With the Casagrande construction, the pre‐consolidation pressure is 325 kPa (Fig. 4.1).
∆
∆
Step 3: mv is defined as: where e0 is the void ratio at the beginning of the load increment
∆ ∆
. / .
For the step 100‐200: 2.01 ∙ 10
. / .
For the step 1000‐1500: 6.74 ∙ 10
∆ .
Step 4: the compression index Cc is defined as 0.31
∆
Note that Cc will be the same for any stress range on the linear part of the e‐log’ curve; mv will vary according
to the stress range, even for ranges on the linear part of the curve.
Exercise 4.2
The following compression readings were taken during an oedometer test on a saturated clay specimen (Gs
= 2.73) when the applied pressure was increased from 214 to 429 kN/m2:
Time (s) 0 15 30 60 135 240 540 960 1500
Gauge (mm) 5.00 4.67 4.62 4.53 4.41 4.28 4.01 3.75 3.49
Time (s) 2160 2940 3840 4860 6000 1200 24000 86400
Gauge (mm) 3.28 3.15 3.06 3.00 2.96 2.84 2.76 2.61
After 1440 min the thickness of the specimen was 13.60mm and the water content was 35.9%.
Determine:
1. the coefficient of consolidation cv
2. the values of mv, av, C, C
3. the value of the coefficient of permeability k.
Figure 4.2 Measurements of oedometer test of problem 4.2
Solution
0.196 /2 7.40 ∗ 10
⇒ 0.196 ∗ 0.45 /
12.5 / 60 ∗ 24 ∗ 365
Step 2:
.
∆ .
6.95 ∗ 10
∆
∆
In order to calculate we need the increment in void ratio e. The procedure is similar to the
∆
previous exercise: we first determine the final void ratio 0.359 ∗ 2.73 0.98, than we use the
∆ ∆ ∆
relationship from which it is derived ∆ 0.35 and 1.33 with ΔH=2.39 mm.
∆
. .
Now we can calculate 1.77 ∗ 10 .
The coefficients of secondary compressions represent the slope of the final linear part of the test. Let
consider two points of this line (Fig. 4.2): A(2.95mm; 60min) and B(2.61mm; 1440min). The latter corresponds
to the final conditions of the test, i.e. HB=13.60mm eB=0.98. Point A corresponds to HA=13.94mm and eA=1.03.
Now we can compute:
∆ 1.03 0.98
0.0359
∆ log 1440
log
60
∆ 13.94 13.60 /13.60
, 0.0181
∆ log 1440
log
60
Step 3: the permeability can be calculated as
.
6.95 10 9.91 ∗ 10 /
∗ ∗
Exercise 4.3
An 8m depth of sand overlies a 6m layer of clay, below which is an impermeable stratum (Figure 4.3); the
water table is 2m below the surface of the sand. A 3m depth of fill (unit weight 20 kN/m3) is to be dumped
on the surface over an extensive area. The saturated unit weight of the sand is 19 kN/m3 and that of the clay
is 20 kN/m3; above the water table the unit weight of the sand is 17 kN/m3. For the clay, the relationship
between void ratio and effective stress (units kN/m2) can be represented by the equation
′
0.88 0.32log
100
and the coefficient of consolidation is 1.26m2/year.
1. Calculate the final settlement of the area due to consolidation of the clay and the settlement after
a period of 3 years from the start of dumping.
2. After what time the degree of consolidation will be 95%?
3. If a very thin layer of sand, freely draining, existed 1.5m above the bottom of the clay layer, what
would be the values of the final and 3‐year settlements? How long does it take to reach a degree of
consolidation of 95%?
Figure 4.3 Stratigraphy relative to problem 4.3
Solution
Step 1:
Since the fill covers a wide area, the problem can be considered to be one‐dimensional. The consolidation
settlement will be calculated in terms of Cc, considering the clay layer as a whole, and therefore the initial
and final values of effective vertical stress at the centre of the clay layer are required:
6
′ 17 ∗ 2 19 ∗ 8 2 20 ∗ 10 ∗ 9 208 90 118
2
′ ′ ∆ 118 3 ∗ 20 178
The corresponding void ratios are:
118
0.88 0.32 log 0.857
100
178
0.88 0.32 log 0.800
100
∆ . .
The final settlement is: ∆ 6 0.184
.
The drainage length d of the layer is 6m; after 3 years the dimensionless time factor is
1.26 ∗ 0.105
It corresponds to a degree of consolidation 4/ 0.36.
The settlement after 3 years is: ∆ 0.184 ∗ 0.36 0.067
Step 2:
For U=95% the dimensionless time factor is T=1.13 the time is calculated as: 32.3
Step 3:
The final settlement does not change: it is 0.184m. Only the rate of settlement is affected by the presence of
the sand layer.
There is now an open layer of thickness 4.5m (d = 2.25 m) above a half‐closed layer of thickness 1.5m (d=1.5
m): these layers are numbered 1 and 2, respectively.
After 3 years the timeless factors T1 and T2 are
3
1.26 ∗ 0.75
2.25
3
1.26 ∗ 1.68
1.5
They corresponds to U1=0.87 and U2=0.985.
Now for each layer, Hi,3years=Ui*Hi which is proportional to UaverageH. Hence, if Uaverage is the overall
degree of consolidation for the two layers combined:
thus
0.87 ∗ 4.5 0.985 ∗ 1.5
0.9
6
the settlement is H=0.9*0.184=0.165m.
Exercise 4.4
Figure 4.4 description of problem 4.4
A 8m thick layer of clay lies between two layers of sand. The upper sand layer extends from ground level to
a depth of 4 m, the water table being at a depth of 2 m. The lower sand layer is under artesian pressure, the
piezometric level being 6m above ground level. For the clay mv =0.94m2/MN and cv = 1.4m2/year. As a result
of pumping from the artesian layer the piezometric level falls by 3m.
1. Calculate the settlement induced on the clay layer as a result of the reduced artesian pressure.
2. What is the settlement after 5 years?
3. How many years will it take to reach a degree of consolidation of 95%?
Solution
Step 1: In this case, consolidation is due only to the change in pore water pressure at the lower boundary of
the clay: there is no change in total vertical stress. The effective vertical stress remains unchanged at the top
of the clay layer but will be increased by 3w at the bottom of the layer due to the decrease in pore water
pressure in the adjacent artesian layer. The distribution of ’0 is shown in Figure 4.4.
In calculating the consolidation settlement it is necessary to consider only the value of ’ at the centre of
the layer.
At the centre of the clay layer the variation in effective stress is half of the change at the base of the layer,
’ =3*w/2 =14.7 kN/m2. The final consolidation settlement is given by:
8 ∗ 0.94 ∗ 10 ∗ 14.7 0.110
Step 2: The boundaries of the clay layer are permeable, therefore the drainage length is d=4m.
The dimensionless time factor corresponding to a time t equal to 5 years is:
1.4 ∗ 5
0.44
4
In addition to the simple case of constant distribution of excess pore pressure, the one‐dimensional
consolidation problem has been also solved analytically for the case of triangular distribution of excess pore
pressure, see Figure 4.4.
This problem considers the case of open layer, i.e. case (2) of Figure 4.4. From curve (2) of this figure a degree
of consolidation U=65% or 0.65 is derived for Tv=0.44.
The settlement after 5 years will be: s5years=0.110*0.65=0.07m.
Figure 4.4 Analytical solution of consolidation problem in case of (1) constant distribution of excess pore
pressure, (2) triangular distribution of excess pore pressure and permeable boundaries, (3) triangular
distribution of excess pore pressure with impermeable bottom.
Step 3: From figure 4.4 a time factor T=1.3 is derived for U=95%. The consolidation time is:
1.3 ∗ 4
14.85
1.4
Exercise 4.5
At a vertical stress of 200 kPa, the void ratio of a saturated soil sample tested in an oedomenter is 1.52 and
lies on the normal consolidation line. An increment of vertical stress of 150kPa compress the sample to a void
ratio of 1.43.
1. Determine the compression index Cc of the soil
2. The sample was unloaded to a vertical stress of 200 kPa and the void ratio increases to 1.45.
Determine the slope of the recompression index Cr. What is the overconsolidation ratio at this step?
3. If the soil were reloaded to a vertical stress of 500 kPa, what void ratio would be attained?
Solution
Step 1: Cc is the slope of the compression line, i.e. line AB in Figure 4.6, and is determined as:
∆ 1.52 1.43
0.37
∆ log 350
log
200
Step 2: Cr is the slope of the recompression line, i.e. line BC in Figure 4.6, and is determined as:
∆ 1.45 1.43
0.082
∆ log 350
log
200
At this step the overconsolidation ratio is 1.75
Step 3: The void ratio at 500kPa can be calculated using the equation of the normal compression line:
1.52 0.37 log 1.37
200
Note that this increment of void ratio e=0.08 composes of two parts: the increment along segment CB
represent the elastic reloading, the segment BD is the elastoplastic component. In general the void ratio
increment can be also recalculated as:
350 500
∆ log / ′ log / 0.082 log 0.37 log 0.02 0.06 0.08
200 350
This approach is more convenient when the equation of the normal compression line is unknown and only Cc
and Cr are given.
Figure 4.6 e‐log ’v plot for problem 4.6
Problem 4.1
In an oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay (Gs = 2.72) the applied pressure was increased from
107 to 214 kN/m2 and the following compression readings recorded:
Time (s) 0 15 30 60 135 240 540 960 1500
H (mm) 7.82 7.42 7.32 7.21 6.99 6.78 6.61 6.49 6.37
Time (s) 2160 2940 3840 4860 6000 1200 24000 86400
H (mm) 6.29 6.24 6.21 6.18 6.16 6.15 6.10 6.02
After 1440 min the thickness of the specimen was 15.30mm and the water content was 23.2%. Determine
the values of the coefficient of consolidation cv and the secondary compression indexes in terms of void ratio
C and volumetric strains C.
Determine the coefficient of permeability.
Problem 4.2
The following results were obtained from an oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay:
Load (kPa) 54 107 214 429 214 107 54 0
void ratio 1.243 1.217 1.144 1.068 0.994 1.001 1.012 1.024
A layer of this clay 8m thick lies below a 4m depth of sand, the water table being at the surface. The saturated
unit weight for both soils is 19kN/m3. A 4m depth of fill of unit weight 21 kN/m3 is placed on the sand over
an extensive area.
Determine the final settlement due to consolidation of the clay.
Consider a secondary compression index C=0.02; what is the secondary settlement after 100 years after
the end of primary consolidation? If the fill were to be removed some time after the completion of
consolidation, what heave would eventually take place due to swelling of the clay?
Problem 4.3
In an oedometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick reaches 50% consolidation in 20 min. How
long would it take a layer of this clay 5m thick to reach the same degree of consolidation under the same
stress and drainage conditions? How long would it take the layer to reach 30% consolidation?
Problem 4.4
A layer of saturated clay is 10m thick, the lower boundary being impermeable; an embankment is to be
constructed above the clay. The coefficient of consolidation is 9.6 m2/year. Determine the time required for
90% consolidation of the clay layer.
Problem 4.5
An oedometer test on a clay gave the following results: Cc=0.4, Cr=0.08, OCR=4.5. The existing vertical
effective stress in the field is 130kPa. A building foundation will increase the vertical stress at the center of
the clay by 150kPa. The thickness of the clay layer is 2m and its water content is 28%. Calculate the primary
consolidation settlement. What would be the difference in settlement if the OCR were 1.5 instead of 4.5?
Problem 4.6
The foundation supporting two columns of a building are shown in Figure 4.7. An extensive soil investigation
was not carried out and it was assumed in the design of the footing that the clay layer has uniform thickness
of 1.2m. Two years after construction a differential settlement of 10mm is observed. Walls of the building
began to crack. A subsequent soil investigation showed that the thickness of the clay layer was not uniform
but varies as shown in Figure 4.7. The owners would like to get an estimate of the expected total differential
settlement and how long it would take to occur. Assume, for simplicity, plain strain conditions and that the
stress increment at the centre of the clay layer under the foundation is equal to the stress directly transferred
to the ground by the footings, i.e. 780kN/(1.5*1.5 m2)=346kN. The coefficient of consolidation of the clay is
cv=0.036 m2/year.
Figure 4.7 Foundation system and stratigraphy of problem 4.6