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Solar distillation technologies in India: Past, present and future

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 Solar DistiUation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future
Shekhar Suman, M.S. Soni and Nikhil Gakkhar
Center for Renewable Energy and Environment Development, SITS Pilani, Raiasthan 333031

Abstract-The supply of freshwater is a key element for the society. Ground water and rainfall are not always sufficiently
available in India, so alternative sources to provide fresh water are gaining imporlance these days. India being a tropical
country has solar radiation of 4-7 kW /hr for 300 sunny days which can be utilized to provide alterative source for distillation
technologies. In the couple of decades, the traditional solar desalination processes such as Reverse osmosis (RO), Multi stage
flash (MSF), Multi effect distillation (MED) and Electro-dialysis (ED) have been evolved to a wider extent. This paper reviews
various active and passive solar distillation/desalination research activities that have been developed in India. Though solar
desalination technologies have not been commercialized yet in India, with current ongoing research they have huge potential
for future. Thisresearch paper tries to investigate the current trends and future scope of solar distillation technologies in Indian
context.

INTRODUCTION

The provision of fresh water is becoming an increasingly important issue in many areas of the world. In arid
areas potable water is very scarce and the establishment of a human habitat in these areas strongly depends on
how such water can be made available as it is very much essential for life. Water is one of the most abundant
resources on earth, covering three fourths of the planet's surface. About 97% of the earth's water is saline water
in the oceans and 3% (about 36 millionkm3of volume) is fresh water contained at the poles (in the form of ice),
ground water, lakes and rivers, which supply most of human and animal needs. Nearly, 70% of this 3% fresh
water is in the form of glaciers, snow cover, ice and permafrost. Thirty percent of all fresh water is available
deep underground. lakes and rivers together contain a little more than 0.25% of all fresh water; lakes contain
most of it. The sustainable use of this freshwater is main concern for human beings and animals.
India's rapidly rising population, growing economy and changing lifestyles account for continues increase in
demand for fresh water. Thisleads to scarcity of fresh water and decrease in water table in many parts of India.
This problem is mainly due to irrational use of this precious resource by human beings. Many parts of India faces
a huge water scarcity because of unplanned mechanism and pollution created by manmade activities. According
-
to the annual report on Ground Water Year Book India (201 2) by the Ministry of Wat.er Resources, the state of
Rajasthan faces maximum depth of ground water level among other states [1]. The lowest depth to water level
recorded in th~ state of Rajasthan during November 2012 is 113.53m below ground level in Bikaner district.
In many areas of Gujarat and Rajasthan, people are facing freshwater problems but fortunately these areas II
are getting more amount of solar energy, which can be used to provide sustainable, technology for fresh water t
supply. Certain regions of Haryana and Maharashtra have ground saline water in spite of high rain fall.
}
The sustainable solution to provide fresh water supply for.human needs can be the utilization from 97% of the
,

available saline water. In this context many conventional and non conventional techniques have been developed I
for water purification. Among these, solar assisted water 'purification techniques are promising among others.
India, being a tropical country, is blessed with plenty of sunshine. The average daily solar radiation varies
I
between 4 and 7 kWh per square meter for different part of the country [2]. There are on an average 250-300 I
clear sunny days a ye"r through which it receives about 5000 trillion kWh of solar energy in a year. The highest
\
annual global radiation is received in Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. Thus solar energy technology for water f
purification can prove to be sustainable solution for this issue. I
j
WATER PURIFICATIONFROM SOLAR ENERGY

The solar energy assisted water purification depends on the nature of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)in the water
content. TDS level of more than 35000 ppm is referred as saline water, while less th~n 10000 ppm as brackish
water. Permissible limit of TDS in fresh water is just 500 ppm. Desalination techniques, which are used for

80 . Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future

seawater can be direct or indirect depending upon the type of system. It can be through thermal processes, or
using electric power as shown in Fig.l. Distillation systems are mainly classified as passive solar still and active
solar still. It is a process of using a heat source to evaporate
the impurities. The distillation of impure water
water and then condense it to make it free from
is achieved by utilizing
ICORE201"4

a heat source which can be obtained

.. 2014
.......

from
a conventional fossil-fuel source like coal or from a renewable energy source like solar, biomass etc. with the
systems like MEF evaporators, solar stills etc. Solar Photovoltaic panels can be used to provide electricity for the
ROsystems,electrolysis etc.

Useof solar energy for distillation can be categorized into direct collection systems where solar energy is
usedto produce distillate directly in the solar collector, and indirect collection systems, where two sub-systems are
employed,one for solar energy collection and other for distillation. The solar still, which is widely used process
for solardistillation,works on direct collection principle. Butsolar stills require large area for the process and the
efficiencyof these systems are quite low [3]. The use of concentrating solar energy for distillation can prove to
be a suitable solution to the existing challenges [4].

Solar assisted water purification techniques

Solar
SOlar Distillation Desalination

Direct Indirect

Photo-Voltaic Solar Thermal

SolarStill Humidification I Systems Systems
Dehumidification

Active Reverse Osmosis Multi Stage Flash

Multi Effect
Passive Electro-dialysis Distillation

Thermal Vapor
Compressor

Memberane
Distillation

FIG.1. SOLAR-ASSISTED WATER DISTILLATION PURIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) uses direct sunlight and mirrors to boil water instead of a fossil fuel as a heat
sourcefor producing' steam and drive conventional steam turbines in case of power generation. At present, there
are four main CSPsystems which can be categorized by the way they focus the sun'srays and the technology used
to receivethe sun'senergy. These systems are classified by their focus geometry as either line-focus concentrators

Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future. 81

 ICORE2014

(Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC)and linear Fresnel collectors) or as point-focus concentrators (central receiver
systems, parabolic dishes and Scheffler systems). CSP has several advantages by having higher efficiencies,
lower investment costs, an inherent thermal storage capacity that enables steam generation during cloud cover
or after sunset and a better .hybrid operation capability with other fuels to meet base-load demand at night [5].

DESALINATION IN INDIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Desalination process has been used for hundreds of years to produce fresh water by the sailors during sea voyage.
The literature review showed wide range of researches on desalination technologies all over the world, but a very
few on distillationprocess in Indian context using CSP.A detailed review work on solar stillcoupled withactive
solar distillation system was done by Sampathkum<;lret al. [6]. The authors stated that the concentrator assisted
regenerative solar stillhad muchhigher thermal efficiencythan the flat plate collector assisted regenerative still
at all water depths and they inferred that there was less thermal loss in the concentrator compared to the flat
plate collector panel. They concluded that the direct stream generation parabolic trough is a promising technology
for solar assisted seawater desalination. Tiwari and Tiwari [7] had done an experimental performance analysis
and thermal modelling of single slope passive solar still for different inclination of condensing covers mainly 15°,
30° and 45°. Each experiment was conducted for about 24 h for New Delhi climatic conditions. They observed
that the 15° inclination of condensing cover gave maximum annual yield and distillation efficiency. Dwivedi and
Tiwari [8] had done energy and exergy analyses of single and double slope passive solar stills on the basis of
annual experimental data for water depth of 0.01,0.02 and 0.03 m.
Tripathi and Tiwari [9] extending work done by Tiwari and Tiwari [7] by conducting experiment to study the
effect of water depth on internal heat and mass transfer for active solar distillation systems. They conducted
experiments for 24 hours during winter months for different water depths in the basin (0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m)
for passive as well as active solar distillation systems. They studied the effect of different water depths in the
basin on the heat and mass transfer coefficients and observed that more yield was obtained during the off shine
hours as compared to daytime for higher water depths in solar still (0.10 m and 0.1 5 m) due to storage effect.
Later, Tiwari et a/. [10] studied the performance of an active solar distillation system and evaluated theoretical
yield from the active solar stills integrated with flat plate collector, concentrating collector and evacuated tube
collector (with and without heat pipe). In the month of December 2005, for hourly basis they evaluated fresh
water output, exergy efficiency, and overall thermal efficiency of active solar stills for 0.05 m water depth for
the climatic conditions of New Delhi. They found that the active solar still integrated with evacuated tube collector
with heat pipe has the maximum yield of 4.24 kg/m2'day.
. Tiwari et a/. [11] studied thermal.analysis of solar distillation to optimize the inclination of glass cover for
maximum yield. Further, the effect of inclination on the internal heat and mass transfer relations, the water and
glass cover temperature had. been studied. They observed that the yield increases with increase of inclinationin
winter and" vice-versa in summer and there was a significant reduction in evaporative heat transfer co-efficient
with increase of inclination in summer and winter. Bhagwan and Tiwari [12] published a paper in which the
effect of climate and design parameters on active solar desalination unit was studied. Based on steady state
conditions an analytical expression for hourly yield had been derived for a typical day of Delhi climatic cqndition.
They compared results with single effect active solar distillation unit and found significant improvement in the
performance for minimumflow rate of water in upper basin.
Tiwari & Sinha [13] carried out the 'analysis of an active regenerative solar still on the basis of energy
balances for its different components. They derived analytical expressions for w.ater and glass temperatures,
daily yield and thermal efficiency as a function of climatic as well as design parameters. They observed that
passive regenerative solar still has better thermal efficiency than that of active regenerative solar stills and
thermal efficiency also increases with increase in the water flow velocity.
Kumar and Bai [14] performed an. experiment on a basin type solar still (0.5 m2)with improved condensation
. technique using tap water, seawater and industry effluent as raw water source. They observed that the

82 . Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future

 ICORE2014
~
~
condensationoccurred due to the temperature difference not only on the glass surface but also on "the four
sidewallscooled by water circulation through tubes attached on the wall surface for efficiency enhancement. The
maximumproduction of the solar still was observed as 1.4l/m2.d with 30% efficiency. Arjunan et a/. [15] carried
outexperimental study in an attempt to store the excess solar radiation energy by putting the blue stones in the
hearth of the still and keeping the glass cover tilt at 10°, paralleled with a conventional still and observed an
increasein the productivity of the modified solar still by 5 % when using blue metal stones as a storage medium.
Theyalso observed that the maximumamount of heat loss occurred due to combined effect of radiation and
convectionheat transfer from glass to ambient.
Table 1 Research on Solar Distillation by some investigators on Indian scenario
Author(s},
Year Types of Experimental Remarks Reference
Testing Solar Still Specifications Results ,
Place
Solar area: Yield increases
Tiwari & Can be used
Preheated water 1mx1m on increasing the
1985 Garg, in utilization of [20]
active solar still Insulation inlet temperature
New Delhi waste heat
thickness:0.05m of water
The overall
Insulation thickness:
efficiency of
Regenerative 0.004m
Kumar and regenerative Regenerative
solar collector Flow rate:
1996 Sinha, parabolic increases the [21 ]
New Delhi with parabolic 0.05kgjs concentrator is
concentrator yield
Wind Speed:
higher than that
5mjs
of flat plate
Since there is
I Double effect Solar area: 1m2 Maintaining
Prasad and waste of heat
still coupled Collector area: 1m glass cover
11996 Tiwari, from upper basin [12]
I
with parabolic Flow rate: temperature is
New Delhi total yield per
concentrator 0.0027kgjs crucial factor
hour decreases
Average around It is difficult
Area: 1m2
Kumar and 7.51/ day of to maintain
Active double Still angle = 15°
Tiwari, distilled water uniform flow [22]
effect solar still Collector Angle: 45°
11996 New Delhi was obtained per rate at the
Flow rate: 40ml/ see
I day glass cover
I Solar Area: 1m2 Overall thermal
Produce hot
"Solar still coupled Mass of water in efficiency is and distilled
Tiwari, with evacuated
12007 the basin: 50kg 17.22% higher water simulta- [10]
New Delhi
tube collector Flow rate: than flat plate
I
collector neously
0.035kgjs
ShivKumar Active Solar still Higher capacity
Single still solar Investment is
2009 and Tiwari, couples with PVjT than passive solar [23]
still high
New Delhi system still
I

I Area = 1m x 1m Maximum
I Bestoption
2009 Velmurugan, Solar still coupled Still angle: 10° productivity of for industrial [24]
Madurai with solar pond Dimensionof Solar 80% is achieved
Pond: 0.9xO.3xO.3 m3 applications
I during this.

Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future. 83

 ICORE 2014

Table 2 Summary of prominent research on Solar Desalination over the world

Energy Desalination
Year Author Source Capacity Remarks
Details Technology Reference I

Expression For Thermal Efficiency and ,.

Cylindrical Active, Double :.
Sinha and Analysis of Concentrated Assisted solr
1992 Parabolic Slope Solar [6]
Tiwari still in terms of concentrator & Solar still
Conc (CPC) Still ,
parameters
Schwarzer Solar
2000 25 L/m2d [25]
et al. collector
Garcia- Active & . Performance is affected by design I
2002 Rodrigez Passive Solar Flat Plate parameters like water thickness, insulation [26]
et al. Stills etc.
Overview of recent improvements in I
I
2002 Bruggen seawater desalination using RO, MSF,MED [27]
and ED (Electro dialysis)
Solar This paper discusses the production of
0.33 m3 Salinity-
Leblanc et gradient potable water from seawater or brackish
2005 of fresh gradient solar [28]
al. potential, water by using a salinity gradient
water pond with MSF
MSF potential pond
Parabolic Developed a theoretical model to
Chaouchi Concentrating calculate the absorber average
2007 solar [29]
et al. Plate temperature as well as the distillate flow I
concentrator
rate as a function of solar irradiation ,
flat plate 1.04 to Vertical flash A mathematical model is developed to
2007 Nafey et solar 1.45 kg/ unit attached to calculate the productivity of the system [30]
al.
collector m2day a preheater under different operating conditions.
Scrivani et Solar through Through collector, Clean water production by processes
2007 extraction from such as solar distillation, atmospheric [31]
al. collector
air condensation & water processing
study is thermodynamic characterization
Blancoet PTCCoupled and an economic evaluation of different
' I
2013 PTC 3.5 m3/d with MED,MSF, [32]
al. ,configurations for coupling parabolic
RO I

through & desalination facilities I

Humidification Theoretical and experimental study of a

2013 Zhani & new generation of water desalination unit
Solar energy [33]
Dehufidiflcation by solar energy using the humidification
and dehumidification (HD)principle
This paper reviews the current solar
Liet al. desalination research activities followed
2013 [34]
by discussion of solar assisted desalination
processes.
Compared with the common'parabolic
V-trough Overall trough ,solar concentrators, the new
Riffat and
2013 solar efficiency CSP (Multiple) concentrator has two parabolic troughs [35]
Mayere concentrator 38% which form a V-shape with the focal line
at the bottom of the troughs

84 . Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future

 ICORE2014

Further research work on solar still as discussed in references [1 6-1 9] is summarized along with other
researchworks as presented in Table 1. Besides solar still prominent research work on solar desalination using
CSPtechnology,over the world, is tabulated in Table 2. It is important to mention here that a very little research
hasbeenfound related to solar desalination based on non solar still technology specially in Indian context.

CURRENTWORK ON DESALINATION IN INDIA

Asdiscussedin previous section, desalination technologies can be classified according to nature of technology used.
TheMSFis most common technique of distillation. MSF is currently the workhouse of the desalination technology
with a marketshare of around 60 % of the total world production capacity. Another desalination technique
suchas MED is also very popular. Membrane processes such as RO are currently fast growing desalination
techniquein world. The RO system depends on the properties of semi-permeable membranes, which, when used
to separatewater from a salt solution, allow freshwater to pass into the brine compartment under the influence of
osmoticpressure. If a pressure in excess of this value is applied to the salty solution, freshwater will pass from into
thewatercompartment. Theoretically, the only energy requirement is to pump the feedwater at a pressure above
osmoticpressure.The first country to use desalination on a large scale for municipal drinking water production
wasKuwait,in the Middle East [36] when the first industrial desalination plant opened in in 1960 [37]. In India
alsothe two major desalination plants in Tamil Nadu (Minjur and Nemmeli) are based on RO processes.
Minjur Seawater Desalination Plant
TheMinjur Desalination Plant is a reverse osmosis, water desalination plant at Kattupalli village, Chennai, India.
Locatedon the coast of the Bay of Bengal it provides fresh water to the city of Chennai. Built on a 60-acre site, it
isthe largest desalination plant in India with a capacity of 96000 m3/ day. The Minjur desalination plant consists
of 8600 seawater RO membranes, 248 pressure vessels, 23 pressure exchangers, five high-pressure pumps and
16 pressurefilter vessels which are electrically automated and controlled. The final water product from the RO
systemundergoes the post-treatment process and produces 100 mid of desalinated water from 273 million litres
of seawater.

Nemmeli Seawater Desalination Plant

TheNemmeliDesalination Plant is second desalination plant in India based on a reverse osmosis, and locateed
onthe coast of the Bay of Bengal to provide water supply to the city of Chennai. It is located about 35 km south
of the Chennai city. Built at a cost of f 5333.8 million, the plant is has a capacity to treat 100 million liters of
seawatera day (MLD).
, ,

Many other countries have begun to utilize desalination for drinking water production, but no other region of
theworld has implemented desalination on as large a scale as the M,iddle East [38]. Many researchers discussed
the desalination p~ocesswith RO [37,~9] for drinking water production, but a few researchers have done work
on groundwater distillation. The household RO units for groundwater distillation causes 75 to 85 percent of the
water rejection in northern part of India viz. Rajasthan. The commercial disadvantage of RO is its high power
and maintenance cost also the system is highly sensitive to membrane fouling [40]. The desalination with using
RO processhave been dealt ,by many researchers with the use of solar technologies [41-44]majority of the
experimental investigations focused on solar coupled thermally driven conventional desalination technologies
suchas Multi-Stage Flash (MSF.

FUTURESCOPE

In past few years, development of various desalination technologies in India is really apprecia~le. Chennai has
two desalination plants based on RO process. RO process may be a reliable technique to supply fresh water, but
it is far from being the most sustainable solution because of high rejection rate. Alternative,s such as use of solar
energycan be a better solution as it is sustainable in nature. India, being a tropical country, is blessed with plenty
of sunshine.The average daily solar radiation varies between 4 and 7 kWh per square meter for different part
of the country. There are on an average 300 clear sunny days a year. Thus,it receives about 5000 trillion kWh of
Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future. 85
.
~ ICORE2014

solar energy in a year. The highest annual global radiation is received in Rajasthan and northern Gujarat which
promises huge potential for solar desalination plant in these areas.
Another option can be Solar thermal energy coupled with MEDtechnology as such systems are more flexible,
less expensive and give better performance than MSF system [43]. RO system driven by solar photovoltaic works
for small standalone applications [45].
Over the past few decades lot of developments took place for seawater desalination processes. The various
areas of improvements may be the technical and economical aspects of various desalination processes; hybrid
systems such as MSF-RO, MED-RO and PV driven RO systems for desalination; material selection for plant
construction like flash chamber, membrane modules etc.; prevention and control of scale and corrosion in pipelines;
and environmental aspects of brine discharge.

CONCLUSION

Solar energy can be used to provide sustainable solution for fresh water supply. As per the liferature, the use of
solar energy in desalination process is one of the best applications of renewable energy all over the world. This
paper reviewed the development of various desalination technologies from simple passive solar still to various
active solar desalination technologies, in Indian context. Most of the work 'on water distillation and desalination
has been done using solar still. System modification to improved efficiency and output are proposed by many
researchers. The desalination using MSF technology, either standalone or integrated with power plant system are
attempted by few researchers for Indian conditions. There are two desalination plants in Chennai namely Minjur
and Nemmeli which are based on Reverse Osmosis (RO) process.
The desalination using solar energy has huge potential in coming future. Various areas of India such as
Rajasthan and Gujarat where there is plenty of solar radiation can be used for the Solar Desalination. Based
upon review and discussion it is important to pay attention to the environment, mainly to produce fresh and clean
water without causing harm to the environment.

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88 . Solar Distillation Technologies in India: Past, Present and Future

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