Model Answer

1. “The classical viewpoint emphasises managing work and organisations efficiently.”

(Bartol et al., 1995). Compare and contrast the three main approaches that belong to this
perspective.
(25 Marks)
The classical viewpoint, which emerged as from the end of the nineteenth century, is the
oldest formal school of management thought. The three main approaches that belong to this
perspective are namely, scientific management, administrative management, and bureaucratic
management. The common thread in these approaches is that they focus on ways to manage
work and organisations more efficiently.

In the late 19th century, scientific management was introduced in an attempt to create a
mental revolution in the workplace. It can be defined as the systematic study of work
methods in order to improve efficiency. Frederick W. Taylor was its main proponent.
Scientific management has several major principles.

 It calls for the application of the scientific method to work in order to determine the
best method for accomplishing each task.

 It suggests that workers should be scientifically selected based on their qualifications

and trained to perform their jobs in an optimal manner.

 It advocates genuine cooperation between workers and management based on mutual

self-interest.

 It suggests that management should take complete responsibility for planning the
work while workers would just have to implement management's plans.

Other important characteristics of scientific management include the scientific development

of difficult but fair performance standards and the implementation of a pay-for-performance
incentive plan based on work standards.

Scientific management had a tremendous influence on management practice in the early

twentieth century. Although it does not represent a complete theory of management, it has
contributed to the study of management and organisations in many areas, including human
resource management and industrial engineering. Many of the tenets of scientific
management are still valid today.

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In contrast to scientific management, which deals largely with jobs and work at the individual
level of analysis, administrative management provides a more general theory of management,
viz. the process and principles of management. Henri Fayol, the major contributor to this
school of management thought, argued that management was a universal process consisting
of functions such as planning, organising, commanding, co-ordinating, and controlling.

Fayol also presented fourteen principles of management, which included the following:
 Division of Work - The intent of division of work is to produce more and better work
for the same effort. Specialisation is the most efficient way to use human effort.

 Authority and Responsibility -Authority is the right to give orders and obtain
obedience, and responsibility is a corollary of authority

 Discipline - Obedience to organisational rules and employment agreement is

necessary. The judicious application sanctions and penalties is considered as a key
element.

 Unity of Command - There should be one and only one boss for each individual
employee.

 Unity of Direction - All units in the organisation should be moving toward the same
objectives through coordinated and focused effort.

 Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest - The interests of the

organisation should take priority over the interests of any one individual employee.

 Remuneration of Employees - The overall pay and compensation for employees

should be fair to both employees and the organisation.

 Centralisation - There is a need to balance subordinate involvement through

decentralisation with managers’ retention of final authority through centralisation.

 Scalar Chain - Organisations should have a chain of authority and communication

that runs from the top to the bottom and should be followed by managers and
subordinates.

 Order - People and materials must be in suitable places at the appropriate time for
maximum efficiency.

 Equity - Good sense and experience are needed to ensure fairness to all employees,
who should be treated as equally as possible.

 Stability of Personnel - Employee turnover should be minimised to maintain

organisational efficiency.

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  Initiative - Workers should be encouraged to develop and carry out their plans for
improvements.

 Esprit de Corps - Management should promote a team spirit of unity and harmony
among employees.

Although administrative management has been criticised as being rigid and inflexible and the
validity of the functional approach to management has been questioned, this school of
thought still influences management theory and practice. The functional approach to
management is still the dominant way of organising management knowledge, and many of
Fayol's principles of management, when applied with the flexibility that he advocated, are
still considered relevant.

Bureaucratic management focuses on the ideal form of organisation. Based on observations,

Max Weber, the major proponent of this approach, concluded that many early organisations
were inefficiently managed, with decisions based on personal relationships and loyalty.
Bureaucracy, a form of organisation characterised by division of labour, hierarchy,
formalised rules, impersonality, and the selection and promotion of employees based on
ability, is believed to lead to more efficient management. Besides, Weber argued that the
managers' authority in an organisation should be based not on tradition or charisma but on his
position in the organisational hierarchy.

Bureaucracy has come to stand for inflexibility and waste, but Weber did not advocate or
favour the excesses found in many bureaucratic organisations today. Weber's ideas formed
the basis for modern organisation theory and are still descriptive of some organisations.

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