CHAPTER II (REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE)

A. Brief Discussion about the Current Problem (Waste Water Problem)

The United Nations stated that the uncontrolled, rapid population growth has contributed to
extreme poverty, environmental degradation, and pollution in the Philippines

B. Fats, Oils and Greases

Oil skimming is a simple, dependable and effective means of removing oil from
water. And unlike some other processes, it offers users the potential for major cost savings.
Organic toxic waste (oil and grease (O&G)) causes ecology damages for aquatic
organisms [1], plant, animal, and equally, mutagenic and carcinogenic for human being [2].
Fats, oils and grease are components that are in almost all food. “Grease” is usually used and
includes fats, oils, waxes and other components that are commonly found in wastewater.
These are solid products especially when the temperature is sufficiently lower than room
temperature, they are usually of animal or vegetable origin present in municipal or industrial
wastewaters [3].
The conventional techniques remove oil and grease using skimming tanks and oil and
grease traps in treatment plants but the main disadvantage of these methods is their low
efficiency of removal [4].
a. SOURCES OF FOG
Fats, Oils, and Grease (FOG) are a byproduct of food preparation,
cooking, and cleanup of dishes, pots and pans, utensils, moping of grease laden
floors, etc. FOG is derived from many organic non-polar compound food sources
[5]. It also includes butter, lard, margarine, and vegetable fats and oils, which are
commonly found in meats, cereals, seeds nuts and a few selection of fruits.
Liquids such as vegetable oils, mineral oils and light hydrocarbons are
referred to as “oils”. Petroleum and pitch derivatives like kerosene, lubricant and
road oils sometimes reach the gathering system in considerable volumes from
shops, garages and streets. Light oils are often discharged from machining
industries and pharmaceutical plants. Generally oils will float on the surface,
although a big portion can settle out by adsorbing onto settleable solids.
Untreated wastewater systems usually contain oil and grease that ranges from
50-150 mg/l. Levels of grease vary and can be much higher in food and
agricultural sectors than industrial sectors. [6]

b. NATURE AND EFFECTS OF FOG

Due to limited solubility, the degradation of fats and oils by micro organisms
is very tedious. Fats is considered as one of the most stable organic compounds and
are not easily decomposed by bacteria. It is presented as either free form particles or
coalesced with varying suspended solids. Their presence in sewage yields lowered
efficiency in biological treatment, especially in cases wherein it is not eliminated at
the pre treatment stage.
FOG tends to accumulate to the surface of drain and sewer pipes resulting in
clogging of pipes which limits the flow of sewage and may lead to sanitary sewer
overflows (SSOs). These cause unpleasant and pungent smell together with pest
infestation (i.e insect and rats), in addition the wastewater may enter into water
sources causing ground and surface water pollution. SSOs are unpleasant and
requires quick action from the authorities to clear the deposition to avoid public
concerns. FOG accumulation could also lead to corrosion of sewer lines under
anaerobic conditions, thus reducing the viability of the pipe and will demand earlier
repair or replacement of the system. [7]
Biological treatment of sewage systems with an increased concentration of
FOG suspended on the surface may delay by sticking of FOG to the pipes and
 clogging of the strainer and filters, thus affecting overall treatment procedures. The
last stage of wastewater treatment process, FOG is deposited in the sludge producing
viscous and waxy substance, thus decreasing the efficiency of sludge dewatering. [8]
c. Parameters
C. About Skimming
Oil skimming is the process of removing floating oil from the surface of water.
Oil skimmers are commonly installed on tanks, sumps or existing oil-water separators
where oil is freely floating on the surface of the water.
Oil skimmers commonly feature an oleophilic (oil-loving) element that is
introduced into the oily water. Oil adheres to the skimming element — for example, an
oil skimming free-floating collector tube — and then is scraped off by the skimmer and
collected. Alternatively, a weir-type skimmer works by allowing oil to overflow into it,
similar to using a spoon during cooking to remove the grease from the pot. 
Advantages of using an oil skimmer to remove FOG from water before the water
is filtered, treated, cooled or discharged include: 
- Improving efficiency of wastewater treatment processes, resulting in cleaner
wastewater and lower operational costs.
- Eliminating or reduces the need for water treatment chemicals.
- Preventing bacteria growth and foul odors and decreases the amount of sludge
produced since the surface is skimmed and FOG buildup is prevented.
- Creating new revenue opportunities through the recovery of used oil that can be sold
for a profit.
- Reducing maintenance and costly downtime by keeping treatment equipment free
from oil, clogs, coated sensors and blinded filters.
a. Tube-type oil skimmers
A tube-type oil skimmer uses a closed-loop, free-floating collector
tube that operates on the surface of the water, attracting the floating oil or
grease. Oil adheres to the outside of the collector tube, as it is continuously
driven across the water’s surface and through the skimmer where scrapers
remove the oil. One notable advantage of a tube skimmer is that the tube
floats freely on the surface, unaffected by debris that otherwise prevents oil
from reaching other types of skimmers that follow a fixed path. 
For example, one heavy equipment rental business relies on a tube-
type oil skimmer to keep hundreds of gallons of FOG from reaching the
local sewer each month. When machines are returned to their facility, they
are often loaded with mud, grease and oil. 
After washing the vehicles, oily wash water flows into a tank or
sump where a tube skimmer is installed. Each month, 465 gallons of
recyclable oil is recovered by the skimmer, keeping it from reaching the
local sewer system.
b. Oil-water separators
Fats, oils and grease have a lower specific gravity (weight) than
water. That is the reason why, when given the opportunity (such as time and
nonturbulent conditions), the lighter oil will naturally separate from heavier
water, rise and float on the water’s surface. An oil-water separator is a
device designed to provide this opportunity. 
Separators come in many styles and sizes — some with baffles and
coalescing media to regulate the water flow and promote oil separation using
less physical space. Many variables dictate the type and size of separator
needed, including the flow rate of the oily water mix, as well as its
temperature and volume, the density (specific gravity) of the oil and the
presence of solids.
 As oil rises and floats on the surface of water, it is advantageous to
remove the oil continuously to minimize maintenance and keep the separator
operating at optimal efficiency.
When oil is not removed on a continuous basis from the surface of
the water in an oil-water separator, a number of issues can arise, including:
• Visual inspection and ongoing maintenance of the separator and its
components can be difficult, if not impossible, to conduct.
• A surge in flow rate can exceed the capacity of the separator and wash out
the oil buildup, allowing oil to escape with the effluent.
• Oxygen is prevented from reaching the water, allowing anaerobic bacteria to
grow, which can cause health concerns, emit foul odors and drive up the
maintenance challenges of eliminating these conditions.
D. Types of flotation
The basic idea in the flotation process is the solid–liquid separation process using
bubbles. The bubbles are produced using any gas that is not highly soluble in liquid.
However, in actual practice, air is the gas most commonly used because it is easily accessible,
safe to use, and less expensive. The method of producing bubbles gives rise to different types
of flotation processes, namely, elec- trolytic flotation, dispersed air flotation, and dissolved air
flotation [18,19].

a. Electrofloatation
Electrolytic flotation is also known as electroflotation. The bubbles are
produced by passing a direct current between two electrodes and by generating
oxygen and hydrogen in a diluted aque- ous solution. Bubbles produced from
electrolytic flotation are smaller compared with those pro- duced from dispersed
air flotation and DAF. Thus, this process is favorable for the removal of low-
density fragile flocs. This process is suitable for effluent treatment [20], sludge
thickening, and water treatment installations of 10–20m3/h. Figure 5.1 shows a
typical arrangement of an electroflotation tank.

b. Dispersed Air Floatation

Dispersed air flotation has two different systems to generate bubbles,
namely, foam flotation and froth flotation. In the foam flotation system, bubbles are
generated by forcing air through a porous media made of ceramic, plastic, or sintered
metal [21]. Figure 5.2 shows a typical arrangement for bubble generation through a
medium or diffuser.
In the froth flotation system (shown in Figure 5.3), a high-speed impeller or
turbine blade rotating in the solution is used to produce air bubbles.
Dispersed air flotation normally produces large air bubbles measuring
>1mm in diameter [22]. It is used mainly for the separation of minerals and removal
of hydrophobic materials such as fat emulsions in selected wastewater treatment.
This process was assessed for potable water treatment but was found unsuitable [23].

c. Dissolved Air Flotation

The Dissolved Air Flotation system has proven to be very effective in
industrial wastewater pretreatment and has been used in various applications
within water, wastewater and desalination applications. To maximize removal of
suspended solids and colloidal particles and substances, a flocculator with chemical
dosing can be added in front of the DAF. This ensures the polluted water is
chemically pretreated before entering the DAF unit thereby providing maximum
removal rates (TSS and FOG in excess of 95% is common).
 Depending on the application and the clients requirements, a DAF system
can be fabricated in stainless steel, or for very large flows, in concrete construction.
Most common DAF treatment applications include:
- Pretreatment for TSS and FOG removal from Industrial wastewater
- Fats, oils and grease resource recovery
- Drinking water intake solids removal
- Water treatment pre-treatment to remove solids and algae blooms
- Wastewater biological treatment as activated or anaerobic sludge
flotation
- Wastewater tertiary treatment to remove phosphorus and nutrients
- Pretreatment for Desalination systems
- Process water production

i. Concept
The bubbles in DAF are produced by the reduction in pressure of a water
stream saturated with air. The three types of DAF are vacuum flotation,
microflotation, and pressure flotation, of which the pressure flotation is the most
important and widely used in water and wastewater treatments. In the pressure
flotation, the air is dissolved in water under high pressure and released at
atmospheric pressure through a needle valve or nozzle, which produces small air
bubbles.
- Full flow: The entire influent is pressurized and then released in the flotation tank,
where the bubbles are formed. This type of flotation is used for influents that do not
need floccula- tion but require large volumes of air bubbles (Figure 5.4).
- Spilt flow: A part of the influent is pressurized, and the remaining flows directly into
the flocculation or flotation tank. This type of flow is cost-effective compared with
full-flow pressure flotation, because the saturator and the feed pump handle only a
portion of the total flow, thus requiring a smaller saturator and feed pump. However,
split flow provides less air in the system. As a result, it has to be operated at high
pressure to provide the same amount of air. This type of flow is used for influents
containing suspended particles susceptible to the shearing effects of a pressure pump.
It is also suitable for influents con- taining suspended particles at low concentration,
due to low air requirement (Figure 5.5).
- Recycle flow: The influent flows into the flocculation or flotation tank if flocculation
process is not required. A portion of the treated influent is recycled, pressurized,
saturated with air, and released to the flotation tank. This type of flow is applied to
influents that need coagulation and flocculation. It is a common type of flow, and it
is used more often than other types (Figure 5.6).

ii. Principle
DAF system consists of air and water supply, saturator, and
flotation chamber or tank. There are types of flotation tanks: circular tank
and rectangular tank. Wastewater treatment and sludge thickening mostly
use circular tanks in the flotation process, which is carried out in small-size
flotation plants, and require no pre-flocculation prior to flotation. However,
there are large flotation plants that use circular flotation tanks and include
the flocculation process. Here, the flocculation and flotation processes are
contained within the same circular tank to achieve an even distribution of
bubbles and particles/flocs attachment. In contrast, the advantages of using
rectangular flotation tanks are its simple design that makes the introduction
of flocculated water into, and removal of the floated sludge from, the tank
easier; simple dimensional scale-up; and the smaller area than the circular
tank.
 To achieve a good solid–liquid separation using DAF for influents
containing particles and natural color, coagulation or flocculation is
necessary prior to the introduction of microbubbles to form bubble–floc
aggregates [19]. The main idea in DAF is to float the particles having
specific gravity more or less equal to the specific gravity of water. This
should be carried out using a low-density gas bubble, usually air. The air
bubbles adhere with the particles and reduce the specific gravity to <1.0,
aggregate the particles, and float them to the surface of the flotation tank
[28]. In DAF, there are three main processes for removal of particles: bubble
formation, bubble–particle attachment, and flotation of the bubble–particle
agglomerate [29].
iii. Effectivity and Application
DAF process is a physical process which has been used widely in
wastewater treatment. DAF is generally used as a combination process with
coagulation. The industries that implement DAF for their wastewater
treatment process are paper mill, chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP)
wastewa- ter, meat industry, personnel care product, and seafood industry
[5,92–95]. Oily wastewater or oil refineries wastewater also use DAF for
their wastewater treatment [90,97–101].
Zoubolis and Avranas applied coagulation and DAF process in
treating simulated oily waste- water (using octane) with an initial
concentration of 500 mg/L [96]. The coagulants used in this study were
anionic polyacrylamide, cationic (K-1384), and FeCl3. Sodium oleate
(NaOl) was used as a collector. It is a common anionic flotation collector
used to enhance the floatability of coagulated solids and emulsion droplets
(flotation collector). The DAF system was operated as a batch study using
DAF jar-test with a pressure of 4–5atm. and recycle ratio of 30%. Results
indicated that the use of polyacrylamide and cationic (K-1384) did not offer
a good solution. However, using FeCl3 to demulsify and increase the
droplets size improved the droplet–bubble adhesion and the overall DAF
performance. The best removal rate for oil removal was obtained at 100
mg/L Fe3+ with 50 mg/L NaOl at pH 6 and recycle ratio of 30%. The pH
was optimum at 6 because at this pH, with the addition of Fe3+, the zeta
potential of the hydrocarbon particle is nearly zero, and the electrostatic
barrier is greatly reduced, which thus improves the droplet– particle
attachment.
Al-Shamrani et al. carried out another study using DAF and
coagulation in treating oily waste- water [25]. The study was carried out in a
batch process. The sample was a solvent-refined petroleum distillate
manufactured from crude petroleum oil. Alum was used as a coagulant agent
at 100 mg/L with pH 8. The DAF system was equipped with a packed
saturator column with 90% efficiency, and the recycle ratio was set at 10%.
Two situations were observed in this study. First, at low concen- tration of
alum with high working pressure for the saturator (80psi) and high recycle
ratio (20%), only 72% of oil was removed. However, increasing the dosage
up to 100mg/L at pH 8 with the same working pressure (80 psi) but at lower
recycle ratio (8%), almost all the oil was removed. This finding shows that
the increase in alum concentration destroyed the protective action created by
the emulsifying agent (compound in oily wastewater). Simultaneously, the
repulsive effects of the electrical double layers (zeta potential) were reduced
as the concentration of alum increased. This results in the formation of larger
droplets or particles through coalescence.
 In 2003, Zouboulis et al. studied the removal of humic acid from
synthetic landfill leachates as a possible post-treatment stage after biological
treatment using coagulation and DAF [100]. This experiment used a column
flotation. Samples were prepared with humic acid concentration from 50 to
300 mg/L, with 30% humic acid accounted for in the COD value. It means
that after the biologi- cal treatment of the landfill leachate, the COD value
ranges from 500 to 1000 mg/L, in which humic acids account for around
30%. This compound is a very reluctant organic acid. The coagulation
process carried out prior to DAF used ethanol as frother and N-acetyl-
N,N,N-trimethylammonium- bromide (CTAB) as a collector. The frother
function is used to control the efficiency of bubble gen- eration and to
combine effectively with the collector. In the DAF system, the bubbles are
produced by injecting air from the bottom of the column through a
microporous frit at a flow rate of 200cm3/min. According to Zouboulis et
al., there are three main steps in the flotation mechanism:
- Surface modification of the specific “species” (concerned
compounds or contaminants) in the water or wastewater
using chemicals.
- Contact and adherence of hydrophobic species with
bubbles.
- Separation of particles.
In this study, 70mg/L of collector was used with 5min flotation time
resulting in 95% humic acid removal. As a result, this study proved that the
flotation process can be used as a post-treatment in the landfill leachate.
Besides, they discovered the parameters that control this process: (1) type
and dosage of frother, (2) dosage of collector, (3) pH solution, (4) ionic
strength (concentration of other salt), and (5) flotation time. Studies
conducted by other researchers dealt with all these parameters, except the
ionic strength. In the study conducted by Zouboulis et al., two different salts
were stud- ied, the Na2SO4 and NaCl [100]. Increasing the concentration of
these salts above 0.01 M decreases humic acids removal. This proves that
the ions (SO42− and Cl−) compete or interact with the cat- ionic collectors.
As a result, ions reduce the chances of humic acids to float. However,
comparing SO42− and Cl−, the Cl− effects are not significant and they
decrease the overall percentage removal of humic acids to 10% only. This
may be due to the charges carried by SO42−, which is double, thus reacting
more with the collector compared to Cl− with one charge.
Another important point in this work is the zeta potential
measurement at the optimum dosage. Results indicate that reduction in zeta
potential (from negative value to zero) increases in percentage the removal
of humic acids. However, beyond the optimum points, the results of zeta
potential show the opposite charge (positive). This proves that to obtain a
good agglomeration, the zeta potential of the concerned compound with
collector or coagulant agent should be low or near zero.
Another study by Hami et al. showed the ability of coagulation and
DAF in treating wastewater in refineries [98]. The sample was collected
from the effluent of the American Petroleum Institute (API) separator. The
coagulation process was carried out as a pre-treatment using a mixed coagu-
lant containing alum, polyelectrolyte, and powered activated carbon (PAC).
The suitable pH was in the range 6.5–8.0. The DAF process was carried out
in a laboratory as a pilot scale. Three different pressures (2, 3, and 5 atm.)
were chosen for this study, and the flow rate depended on the flow char-
acteristics of pumps. For the DAF and recycle unit, the flow rate was 1.0–
5.0L/h and 1.0–2.0L/h, respectively. In the first phase of the study, the DAF
process as a single treatment did not offer good COD and BOD removals.
Only 19%–64% and 27%–70% of COD and BOD removals were,
respectively, obtained using DAF alone. However, increase in percentage
removal was achieved by a combination of coagulation and DAF. The COD
and BOD removals were 72%–92.5% and 76%–94%, based on the initial
concentration of 198 and 95 mg/L, respectively. Alum was believed to
reduce the zeta potential of the particle in the influent, which thus provoked
the agglomeration process, while the polyelectrolyte worked as a flocculant
agent, and the PAC provided a site for the particles to absorb, and
subsequently the floc was removed by flotation. Another factor that was
addressed in this study was the flow rate through the nozzle in the flotation
tank. Hami et al. found that the increase in flow rate causes a decrease in
percentage removal because when high flow rate was applied, the resident
was reduced (the bubbles do not have enough time to float all the particles).
Owing to this, the amount of effluent with lower contaminant concentration
was reduced, which resulted in low recycle ratio. Subsequently, it reduced
the dispersed air bubbles due to lower gas holdup.
Tsai et al. utilized nano-bubble flotation to treat CMP wastewater
[92]. The experimental works were carried out using laboratory and pilot
scale experiments. The coagulants, also known as acti- vators, used in this
study were alum, ferric chloride, and PACL. The flocculant (collector) types
utilized after the coagulation process were CTAB and NaOl. In the DAF
system, a special equip- ment named NBG (nano-bubble generator) was
used to produce the nano-sized bubble. The recy- cled water was injected
into the flotation cell through NBG at pressure around 7.7atm. The bubble
size was around 30–5000nm. Based on an experiment using the laboratory
scale DAF unit, PACL performs better than alum. However, a combination
of FeCl3 with NaOl is superior to other com- binations. Conversely, a
combination of PACL–NaOl was used in the NBFT (nano-bubble flotation
technology) as a pilot scale due to some advantages of PACL in terms of
cost and chemical charac- teristics. Experimental results using the NBFT
process show that chemical cost was reduced four times that of the
conventional coagulation–sedimentation process. The addition of the
collector shows that it is able to absorb at the air–liquid interface and
enhance the resistance of the bubble to burst. The collectors provide an
electrical potential to the bubble–particle and enhance the flotation process.
Another advantage of adding a collector (NaOl in this study) is that it is able
to reduce the bubble size, thereby increasing the flotation process. Moreover,
the hydraulic retention time (HT), bubble size, bubble quantity, and saturator
pressure considerably influenced the NBFT process. Based on this study, the
optimum condition for NBFT process in treating the CMP wastewater was
50–60mg/L of PACL and 5–10mg/L of NaOl with 1h HT, and 10%–20%
recycle ratio. The pH was not adjusted, and the raw pH value was 9.4. More
than 95% of turbidity, total solids, and total silica were removed.
de Nardi et al. focused on treating slaughterhouse wastewater using
DAF process as laboratory and pilot plant scale experiments [93].
Coagulation process was carried out prior to DAF using PACL and anionic
polyacrylamide. In the pilot plant scale experiment, the coagulation process
used 24mg Al3+/L PACL with 1.5mg/L anionic polymer, followed by DAF
process using 100% influent pressurization at 300kPa. The lab-scale
experimental process was conducted with and without coagulation. The
concentration of the coagulant and flocculant was the same as that in the
 pilot scale experimental process. However, the pressure was higher
compared with the pilot scale, which was 450kPa. Another difference
between pilot and laboratory scale processes in this study was the recycle
ratio. In the laboratory scale experimental work, 40% recycle ratio was
applied. Results indicated that using the pilot-scale full pressurization, the
removal for Suspended solids (SS), oil and grease (O&G) was unsatisfactory
at 28%–58% and 41%–57%, respectively. However, in a lab-scale setup
with recycle ratio, the removal is higher than the pilot plant scale
experiment. This could be due to the recycle ratio and pressure. As
mentioned earlier, these two factors signifi- cantly affect the DAF efficiency
in terms of the bubble size and bubble concentration. Comparison of DAF
with and without coagulation in the lab-scale experimental setup showed
that the combina- tion of coagulation and DAF gave higher removal than
DAF as a single process. Around 54%–60% and 46%–74% removals of SS
and O&G, respectively, were obtained when using DAF as a single
treatment, while a combination treatment (coagulation/DAF) gave 74% and
99% removal in their respective order. This proves that chemical treatment
is very important for improving DAF perfor- mance. Recycle ratio is an
important factor for boosting the removal efficiency. Recycle ratio is also
efficient in controlling and varying the amount of air supplied.
de Sena et al. utilized coagulation/DAF as pre-treatment to treat the
wastewater from the meat industry [94]. Ferric chloride with 80mg/L Fe3+
was used during the coagulation process, and the DAF process was operated
at 4.0 bars, with 5 min saturation time and 20% recycle ratio. Application of
coagulation/DAF in this study gave 60.5% and 78% removal of BOD5 and
COD from the initial concentration of 1500 and 2900 mg/L, respectively.
This research work proves that this chemical or physical process can be used
as a pre-treatment process.
Another application of DAF was carried out in treating personnel
care product wastewater col- lected from Unilever Masheq Company, Egypt
[95]. Comparison was made between coagulation or precipitation and
coagulation/DAF. Three types of coagulants were tested. The coagulants
concen- tration was 600, 800, and 700 mg/L, while the optimum pH was
8.23, 9.1, and 6.9 for ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, and alum, respectively.
The DAF process was operated at 4.0 bars. The coagulation/ precipitation
process gave COD removal of around 75.8%, 77.5%, and 76.7% using ferric
chloride, ferric sulphate, and alum, respectively, and the BOD5 removals
were 78%, 78.7%, and 74%, respec- tively. The coagulation or DAF process
gives different outputs, such as differences in BOD removal. Using the three
types of coagulants is not significant. However, the COD removals were
71.5%, 67.7%, and 77.5% for ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, and alum,
respectively. This experimental study shows that the use of coagulation or
DAF offers lower investment and running cost compared with coagulation
or precipitation, around 27.3% and 23.7%, respectively. The application of
DAF is summarized in Table 5.6.

E. Yokogawa Waste Water Treatment

a. Background of Yokogawa Wastewater Treatment
Removal of free oil and grease from a wastewater stream reduces the
potential for equipment problems to occur further downstream. There are three
forms of oil encountered in wastewater treatment at a refinery. They are: 1. Free
Oil or floating oil is removed by either skimming the surface in the skim tank or
by gravity separation in the API separator. 2. Emulsified Oil is comprised of oil
 droplets in stable suspension within the wastewater. Removal requires chemical
addition to lower the pH followed by addition of dissolved oxygen or nitrogen to
remove the emulsified oils as they break free from the wastewater. 3. Dissolved
Oil is a true molecular solution within the water and can only be removed with
biological treatment. Figure 1 shows a typical biological wastewater treatment
schematic; however other treatment options do exist as well. Biological
treatment systems are commonly used for “normal” industrial oily wastewaters
streams, and can also be used to treat sanitary waste. A disadvantage is the
difficulty sustaining the biomass environment due to high swings in wastewater
concentrations, TDS and temperature.

b. Yokogawa Wastewater Principle

API Separators: API or American Petroleum Institute Separators are
normally the first and most important step in a refineries wastewater treatment. It
uses the differences in oil and water’s specific gravity to filter out the majority of
free oil within the mixture. The lighter oils will remain at the top of the liquid and
can be skimmed off, while the heavier oil will settle to the bottom. The above figure
shows a detail drawing of a typical API separator. A conventional oil-water separator
contains a conveyor to assist in the separation of the heavier oils and grease, a
scraper/skimmer and a baffle. pH is typically measured at the outlet as an indicator of
potential problems, such as flocculation, in the secondary treatment. It is important to
note that because emulsified oil is still present in the water mixture, coating will
occur causing a sluggish reading. At this point in the treatment process the emulsified
oil is still in soluble form. The removal of the emulsified oil requires either a
chemical addition to lower the pH or use of emulsion breakers. Dissolved/ Air
Flotation: Once treated, the wastewater often enters an air flotation unit to remove
the emulsified oil as it begins to break free from the wastewater, using dissolved
oxygen or nitrogen. Bioreactors (Activated sludge treatment): At this phase the
wastewater still contains dissolved oil in a true molecular form. The only way to
remove the remaining dissolved oil is thru biological treatment. This and the
remaining steps are the same as those found in a normal wastewater treatment
facility. Many components in the process must be in balance in order to obtain
complete synergy such as, biomass blends, air, return activated sludge (RAS), waste
activated sludge (WAS) and throughput. It is essential to monitor and control all
factors which influence the efficiency of the biological conditions in the basin; for
example: Temperature: Most biomass achieves optimum efficiency in a temperature
range between 10-40°C. Increasing or decreasing the temperature can result in the
increasing or decreasing the rate at which the bugs eat and reproduce. All chemical
reactions taking place are affected by the process temperature as well. pH: For most
systems the pH should be kept between 6.5 to 8.5 pH, when the pH is too high or too
low, the biomass loses the ability to convert the food to energy and raw materials. A
pH below 6.5 may cause growth of fungi and fungal bulking, and will have to be
adjusted using a caustic, lime or magnesium hydroxide. Low Nutrients: If nitrogen
and phosphorus are not present in sufficient amounts it can limit the growth rate of
the biomass. A sign of nutrient deficiency includes foam on the aeration basin.
Dissolved Oxygen: DO is a critical measurement and will be maintained between 1-3
mg/L. The concentration is an indication of the basin environment; whether it is in
denitrification (excess nitrate, NO3) or nitrification (excess ammonium, NH4)
environment. Essentially the DO measurement is used to minimize ammonium
breakthrough. It is not uncommon to see NH4 and DO measurements together.
Septicity/Toxicity: Septic wastes contain elevated amounts of sulfides and organic
acids (such as acetic acid).Other organic materials and heavy metals are also toxic to
the biomass, reducing their efficiency or even destroying them.
 F. Comparison on Air Floatation and other Methods of removal of FOG in
WASTEWATER
Grease removal is a liquid solid separation procedure while oil removal is a liquid/liquid
separation procedure. Flotation is the method used in the solids/liquid or liquid/liquid
separation process and is effective in removing particles whose density is lower than the
liquid medium. There are three types of flotation as follows: natural flotation where the
difference in density is naturally sufficient for separation of the solid from the liquid aided
flotation where external means are used to promote the separation of particles that are
naturally floatable.: and induced flotation where the density of the particle is originally higher
than that of liquid and is artificially lowered by the linking of the particle with gas (usually
air) bubbles to form particle gas' composites with a density less than that of the liquid in
which they occur. Ideally grease removal is desirable at source, prior to discharge to the
collection network. "At source" removal is recommended and sometimes compulsory at many
enterprises, restaurants. hotels, hospitals. garages and filling stations, guest houses. etc.
Standardised grease separators (or grease traps) are used and these devices are designed for a
retention time of 3 - 5 minutes and the design velocity is in the range of 2-6 m/hr. Gravity
grease traps are usually concrete tanks in series fitted with baffle walls in which grease floats
to the surface for manual or mechanical removal. Proprietary glass reinforced plastic (GRP)
sections are now available and these are easy to install and effective in the separation of
grease and oils (Fig. 5.1). If operated correctly they can retain up to about 80% of solidified
grease. Regular cleaning is essential and water temperature must be less than 30°C at the
outlet. Unfortunately, many grease traps are poorly maintained. When they become filled up
with grit and debris, they cease to he effecti\e and can result in discharge of effluent with high
grease concentrations to the collection network. In waste-waters from the ftod and
agricultural industry, such as slaughter houses, food processing and the dairy industry, which
contain high amounts of grease. it is advisable to have a separate grease separator installed to
remove grease and fat prior to discharge to the sewer. In industries where oils and
hydrocarbons are discharged. such as petroleum production and refining, edible oil mills, cold
rolling mills, and the storm water from refineries, storage heating condensers, oil fire stations
and hot rolling mills, it is necessary to have separate oil separators in place to remove the oils
prior to discharge to the sewer. This is also necessary for stormwater runoff at airports to
avoid hydrocarbon contamination of receiving waters If the contaminated flows are accepted
into the main sewer, oil and grease removal facilities must inevitably be on a much larger
scale, since the size of the facilities is determined by the hydraulic load (i.e.. the flow rate).
Primary settling tanks can provide some separation of grease which settles at the surface but,
in general. the removal efficiency is very poor. Grease collection on the surface can lead to
operational difficulties such as scums, and if these accumulate, they may carry-over into the
effluent. The accumulation of grease balls on the surface of aeration tanks is quite a common
phenomenon and, while it does not cause major operational difficulties, is unsightly and may
lead to odour problems. Grease removed with the sludge can accumulate in conveyors and
rising mains, causing obstruction and loss of efficiency. At municipal and industrial
wastewater treatment plants. where large quantities of grease and fat are to be removed, both
aided and induced flotation systems are used to separate the grease and fat from the sewage.
These systems involve the use of gas (normally air) bubbles to promote the separation of fat
and grease particles from the liquid medium in which they are carried. The rising velocity of
the gas bubble determines the efficiency of removal of grease and fat.
The types of grease and fat removal systems used at wastewater treatment plants are
dependent on the flow to the plant, the quantities of grease and fat in the influent. These are
described in the following sections. It should be restated that these processes are not normally
required in municipal wastewater treatment works. In general, oil, grease and fat problems
should be dealt with at source within the development (at waste outlet, etc), where possible.
5.4.1.1 Skimming Tanks A skimming tank is a chamber so arranged that floating matter rises
and remains on the surface of the waste water until removed, while the liquid flows out
continuously through deep outlets or under partitions, curtain walls or deep scum boards. This
may be accomplished in a separate tank or combined with primary sedimentation, depending
on the process and nature of the waste water. The design of skimming tanks is straightforward
only where they are arranged for downward or horizontal flow, the surface area then
depending on the minimum rising velocity of the impurities to be floated off. The simplest
efficient arrangement is a relatively long and shallow tank with inlets and outlets designed to
secure uniform horizontal through flow, with a minimum disturbance of the scum layer. Most
skimming tanks are rectangular or circular and provide for a detention period of 1 to 15
minutes. The outlet, which is submerged. is sited at the opposite end to the inlet, and at a
lower elevation to assist in flotation and to remove any solids that may settle. These simple
fat removal tanks are generally used on small installations such as the outlet sewer from
garages, service stations, canteens and similar oil and fat producing activities. 5.4.1.2 Circular
Grease Separator This type of separator recovers dispersed grease and oil from waste water
by means of flotation by the aeration of the liquid with very fine bubbles in an aeration
chamber of special design. The Pista Grease Separator is typical of this type (Fig. 5.2). The
grease separator is usually constructed in the form of a truncated cone having a maximum
capacity of 50 m3 and units in parallel are used for flows in excess of this. The effluent is
retained within the separator for a period varying between 5 - 20 minutes. depending on the
type and quantity of oil/grease present and also on the degree of removal required.
Aeration of the liquid is carried out by a turbo aerator and air is drawn through the body of
the aerator and dispelled towards the bottom of the central chamber as very fine bubbles.
Aeration takes place within a central chamber and rising currents are created from the
aeration causing circular flow throughout the separator tank. The outlet from the tank is
positioned near the base of the chamber and the extracted grease accumulates as a floating
scum on the top of the tank which is skimmed by a rotating surface scraper and transported to
a collection hopper. 5.4. 1.3 Circular Grit/Grease Separator In this type of unit both grease
and grit are removed. The principle for grease removal is similar to that implied in the pista
grease separator. The diameter of the unit is 3 - 8 m and its liquid depth at the centre is 3 -5
m. It is again equipped with a submerged turbo aerator which introduces very fine bubbles to
the liquid. Water is introduced tangentially into the central. submerged, cylindrical baffle
which surrounds the turbo aerator and it is removed through a submerged opening in the tank
wall. The lower tapered zone of the unit forms a hopper with an angle of approximately 450
in which settled grit accumulates in a similar fashion to a vortex grit separator. Settled grit
slides on the sloped surface towards the recovery point of the bottom of the unit. This
movement is aided by a sweeping velocity greater than 0.15 mIs produced by a mixer. Grit is
removed from the bottom of the hopper by means of air lift pumps. The floating grease on the
surface is removed by low speed rotating scraper assemblies or by a surface scraper to a
collection hopper. 5.4.1.4 Aerated Skimming Tanks Aerated skimming tanks are used in the
treatment of domestic and municipal sewage where the proportions of floating grease are
unusually high and removal of most of it before sedimentation could simplify the
arrangements for skimming the larger tanks. The aeration and skimming tank is an elongated
rectangular, trough shaped tank with a relatively large surface area (Fig. 5.3). Turbulence is
confined to an inner aeration zone from which the floating foam and scum pass through
adequate but not large openings to the stilling zones at either side where heavier solids are
freed and sink to the bottom. These leave the tank with the effluent of skimmed sewage which
is taken off from the bottom at the far end in such a way that all sludge and silt is scoured
through. Foam and scum are taken off manually or mechanically from the stilled zone to
small decanting tanks for ultimate disposal. Detention is about 3 minutes for peak flow for the
aeration tank and the air consumption is about 180 litres of air/rn3 of sewage. 5.4. 1.5
Rectangular Grit/Grease Separator The rectangular grit/grease separator is a tank in which
grease and grit removal is carried out and is similar in concept to the aerated grit channel in
which spiral flow conditions are produced by the injection of compressed air into the tank.
Units are about 4 m wide with a liquid depth of about 4 m and a maximum length of about 30
m. They are suitable for large flows and units can be arranged in series with modules of 4
metres width. The spiral flow in the tank is initiated by the incoming sewage entering
tangentially at the base of the tank and is maintained by the air lift effect of a row of diffusers
mounted close to the opposite longitudinal wall. This produces a slow horizontal forward
flow in the tank along with a transverse spiral flow. Water is recovered at the far end of the
tank through a wide submerged opening in the wall, passing through a downstream weir to
maintain the water level constant. Grit settles out and is carried into collecting hoppers below
the air diffusers. Grit is automatically extracted by either an air lift system extracting grit from
individual hoppers or by means of a reciprocating travelling bridge with a mounted air lift
pump. In each case the grit is deposited in a grit channel at the side of the unit for disposal or
classification. Flotation of the grease takes place in a calm zone separated from the aerated
zone by means of a scum baffle with slotted plates. The grease floating on the surface of this
calm zone is scraped towards the end of the unit by a chain scraper or a scraper fitted to the
travelling bridge. 5.4. 1.6 Dissolved Air Flotation In a dissolved air flotation (DAF) system
part of the effluent is recycled from downstream of the DAF unit. The recycle flow is retained
in a pressure vessel for a few minutes where mixing and saturation of this flow with air
occurs. The recycled effluent, saturated with air, is then reintroduced into the flotation tank.
As the pressure returns to atmospheric, the dissolved air comes out of solution in the form of
minute bubbles which become attached to particles of fat, etc.. and assist in floating it to the
surface. v here it is automaticall\ skimmed oft. The design upward flow velocit is generall in
the range of 4-6 iii per hour and the air to solid ratio is in the range 0(05 to 0.06 kg of air per
kg of solids removed. 5.4.1.7 Vacuum Flotation System The vacuum flotation system consists
of a preaerated stage followed by a basin where a vacuum is applied. Minute bubbles which
attach to the particles of fat, are released from the liquid and flow to the surface where they
are again automatically skimmed off. 5.4. 1.8 Electroflotation Electrotlotation is another
technique in which bubbles of hydrogen or oxygen are produced by electrolysis of waler
using appropriate electrodes. The anodes are highly sensitive to corrosion and the cathodes to
scaling by carbonation. There are high capital costs associated with this type of unit and the
annual cost of electrode replacement may also be prohibitively high. 5.4. 1.9 Oil Separators
Oil separators are normally only required for the treatment of industrial effluents where a
regular amount of oil is produced in the effluent and storm water systems.. The oils and
hydrocarbons can be present in the effluent in either the free state, as fine but unstable
mechanical emulsions. more or less absorbed on suspended solids or as chemical emulsions.
Oil separation can be achieved under pressure using closed separators and cyclones followed
by filtering of the effluent or in an open gravity system where preliminary separation is
carried out by longitudinal. lamellar or circular separators followed by mechanical flotation
units and dissolved air flotation units. The preliminary oil separators can cope with large and
irregular peaks of oil as well as large droplets. 5.4.2 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Notwithstanding that it may give rise to some operational problems. it is common practice in
Europe to add fat and grease to anaerobic digesters for ultimate treatment. This section
reviews options for biological removal at pretreatment stage. It should be stated that these
processes are rarely used in practice in Ireland. The biological methods used to remove grease
and fat from wastewater involve the use of a select mixture of bacteria specifically designed
to digest grease deposits. The bacteria are supplied in liquid, dry or gel cultures and the
process involves the addition of the bacterial medium to the wastewater flow at the location
where the grease problem is manifesting itself. The bacterial medium contains live bacteria in
a dormant state. When added to the wastewater containing grease or fats they secrete enzymes
which solubilise the solid fat and grease. This process can take place in the presence or
absence of oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, the fatty acids can be converted to carbon
dioxide and to the components needed for growth of the bacterial cell. The glycerol molecule
is used as an energy source and is metabolised by the bacteria. The bacterial medium is safe
to handle, non pathogenic and non toxic. It is normally stored in a cool dry place and
minimum safety precautions need to be taken by the operators handling the material. The
application of the bacterial medium depends on the type used. Liquid media can be applied at
controlled dose rates using dosing pumps or can be applied by the operators in one-off doses
by hand. The dry or gel media are normally applied at specific locations, e.g. a pump wet
sump, using a suitable tether which can be tied to any convenient point. In this way, with the
medium attached to the tether, it can be placed wherever treatment is needed. Over a period,
the medium will dissolve, constantly releasing the grease breaking bacteria and this is
replenished at intervals. The biological grease removal methods can be used in a number of
applications. In collection systems they are used with a high degree of success to dc-grease
gravity and rising main lines which have become clogged with grease and fat deposits. At
pumping station sites, they can be used to prevent the build up of grease and fat in the station
wet well. At waste water treatment plants, the bacterial medium can be used at specific
locations where fat and grease build up is problematic. The use of the bacterial medium can
also assist in the reduction of H2S odours and they can sometimes have a beneficial effect on
the settleability of solids. The rate of application of the bacterial medium is dependent on the
manifestation and severity of the grease problem. It normally involves the seeding of the area
with a high dose of bacteria and the subsequent continual dosing of the medium at lower dose
rates. The cost of dosing is dependent on the application rate, but a reduction in labour and
routine maintenance costs can be derived from the use of these biological grease removal
methods; 5.4.3 CHEMICAL REMOVAL METHODS Chemical grease, oil and fat removal is
sometimes used in industrial applications, but rarely used in municipal plants on a large scale
basis apart from at localised trouble spots. In the chemical treatment methods chemicals can
be used to either break down the fat or oil to a saponified state to relieve the build up of the
material or assist in the conglomeration of saponified oil and far prior to removal in a physical
grease removal system. Specific chemicals are used in industrial situations in discriminatory
reactions to coalesce fat particles prior to dissolved air flotation or aerated skimming tanks.
An example of this is the use of acid or alumino ferric compounds. Another example is
described in the next section where recovery and recycling of protein and oil is achieved.
Where grease, fat or oil build up is causing a localised problem chemicals can be used to
emulsify or saponify the material and disperse the problem. A variety of solvents are used as
is caustic soda, potassium hydroxide, etc. Generally, this removal method is locally successful
but further along the sewer or works the fat particles coalesce again and the problem is
transferred to another location. In addition the solvents and other chemicals can have a
harmful effect on the environment or biological system. 65 66 PRELIMINARY
TREATMENT Sludges from flotation plants, particularly when treating a meat waste may be
rendered to recover the valuable oil and protein content. Protein recovery from meat waste
can be achieved utilising chemical precipitation. e.g. the Alwatech process. Sodium ligno-
suiphonate will precipitate protein from solution at pH 3 which is normally achieved by the
addition of sulphuric acid. Dosage rates vary with the composition of the waste. This is
essentially a product recovery process rather than a wastewater treatment system. 5.4.4
DISPOSAL OF OIL, FAT AND GREASE SLUDGES. Grease and scum collected at
municipal waste water treatment plants generally cannot be reused. One possibility is to send
it to anaerobic digestion. but this arrangement usually increases the gas production and there
is a risk of a production of a scum layer in the anaerobic digester. It is preferable to store the
grease sludge in a container which could be equipped with an overflow outlet scum baffle and
then remove it periodically, for recycling, to landfill or for incineration with sludge or
screenings, if the furnace and handling conditions allow it.