Rt Estimation

RT estimation

Notes

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© Schlumberger 1999-2001 1
 Rt Estimation Resistivity is resistance per unit length. We can often employ electrical
analogies when dealing with resistivity tools measuring in the formation.

Resistivity Theory This was the first type of measurement ever made and it is still the only
way to find and evaluate the hydrocarbons in a reservoir.

The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its

ability to impede the flow of electrical current.

Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation

determination.

Notes
Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not
indicate which fluid is occupying that pore space.

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 Rt Estimation
Resistivity Theory 2
Current can only pass through the water in the
formation, hence the resistivity depends on:
The flow of current can only be carried by ions in the formation. The ions
are only present in the pore space and only in the water. The more ions
(more water) the lower the resistivity. The higher the salinity (more ions)
the lower the resistivity.
The formation water has a resistivity of Rw. The formation containing
only water has a resistivity of Ro. This is a definition.

Resistivity of the formation water.

Amount of water present.
Pore structure.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation Most tools read in the invaded zone, hence only parameters here are
required. Resistivity tools have to measure both the invaded and virgin
zones. This means that the the parameters for both zones have to be
Resistivity Model defined. The borehole also contains components which are “seen” by the
tools.
These three zones have resistivities, Rm, Rmc, Rmf, Rw of the fluids
involved. There are also the resistivities of the formations, Rxo and Rt.
The water saturations of both zones also need to be defined as this
determines the resistivity, Sxo and Sw. Finally the diameter of the
invaded zone, di is needed to compute the contribution from this zone.
Some of these parameters are measured, others are calculated.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The simple electrical tool theory forms the basis of all electrical tools. The
tool has a current source which creates a series of equipotential spheres
centred on the source. The measure electrode measures the voltage at a
Old Tools distance from the source. This voltage is dependent on the spacing and the
resistivity of the formation between the two electrodes.

The voltage measured at M is proportional to the

formation resistivity.

This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.

The distance between the A and M electrodes.

The spacing determines the depth of investigation
and hence the resistivity being read.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation

Electrical Resistivity Tools

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The problem of a resistive bed with lower resistivity beds on either side is
that in the old tools the current takes the easiest path.

Laterolog Principle The solution is to focus the measure current into the formation. This is
done using a current emitted from electrodes above and below the
measure electrode.
This forces the current to flow in a sheet directly into the formation in
front of it with little deviation.

Notes

A current-emitting electrode, Ao, has guard

electrodes positioned symmetrically on either
side.
Guard electrodes emit current to keep the
potential difference between them and the
current electrode at zero.
This forces the measuring current to flow into the
formation of interest.
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 Rt Estimation The string of resistivities in series is all measured by the tool. The
objective is to minimise the unwanted Rm, Rmc and Rxo and read the
best possible Rt. Hence the need for salty muds which would give low
borehole effects Rm, Rmc and Rxo.
Rmc is neglected as its a small thickness compared to the beam width of
the tool.
Laterologs see the borehole environment as:
This type of tool reads best at the highest resistivities.

RLL = Rm + Rmc + Rxo + Rt

Rm Best measurement is in salt-saturated, low

Notes
resistivity mud. Worst readings obtained
in fresh mud. Measurements cannot be taken
in oil-based mud.

Rmc Usually neglected as very small.

Rxo Depends on Rmf, needs to be known.

Rt Parameter to be measured, the higher the

better. 8
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 Rt Estimation

RAB Correction

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The objective of this tool is twofold, firstly to better the vertical resolution
and secondly to look all around the borehole.

Azimuthal Laterolog principle This is achieved using a set of twelve electrodes much smaller than the
standard ones set in a ring around the tool. This means each electrode
looks at a 30Þ region.
As the tool can be run eccentred in the borehole each electrode will have a
different borehole correction. To be able to perform this correctly a very
shallow measurement is made giving an electrical radius of the hole in
front of every electrode. This is used to correct the raw readings. It can
also be used to provide a borehole profile.

Notes

The current emitting electrode is split into twelve

separate electrodes.

It has 12 electrodes set equally spaced around the

tool giving 12 azimuthal Laterolog readings.

These are focused to give a deep reading and a

very shallow reading of the tool stand-off. 10
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 Rt Estimation

Focused Currents

Notes

Conductive Bed

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 Rt Estimation Drilling in the late 1940s started to use oil based mud, which meant that
the traditional resistivity measurements were no longer of any use. The
objective of an induction type measurement was to measure in these
Induction history conditions. The evolution, as with many other tools, increased the
accuracy and resolution of the measurement.
The problem for the induction measurement as with the deep electrical log
The idea for the tool developed out of mine is that it has to be able to read through the invaded zone into the virgin
detector work done by Henri Doll during the zone.
Second World War.

The objective was to measure resistivity in fresh

or oil-based muds.

The first tools had 5 coils to focus the signal.

The next generation of tools employed 6 coils. Notes

Two measurement curves were eventually

developed, a medium and a deep paralleling the
Laterolog's shallow and deep readings.

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 Rt Estimation
Induction Principle
An Induction tool uses a high frequency
electromagnetic transmitter to induce a current
in a ground loop of formation.
This, in turn, induces an electrical field whose
magnitude is proportional to the formation
conductivity.
The tool frequency is around 20kHz. At this level the measured field is
proportional to the conductivity. The signal at the receiver coils is a
combination of the formation, R, signal and the direct coupled X signal.\
The R signal contains the information on the formation. The X has
information on how the signal has been affected in transit. Both are
measured in modern tools, with the X signal being used to correct the R.
The tool works best when the borehole fluid is an insulator such as oil-
based mud.
Pairs of coils are combined to obtain improved vertical and radial
characteristics, i.e. focusing in both directions.
The standard tool uses 6 coils to achieve the maximum effect.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation

Basic LWD Resistivity

Notes

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 Rt Estimation As the tool react to conductivity the formation effects are the opposite to
the electrical tools.

Borehole Effects The best readings of the conductivity of the virgin zone, Ct (or in
resistivity Rt) are obtained when the conductivities of the mud, Cm, mud
cake, Cmc and the invaded zone Cxo are as low as possible. This means
oil based mud is ideal hence the objective of the tool has been met.
Induction tools measure Conductivity.
The mud cake is once again taken as negligible.
Induction tools measure resistivity in Parallel.
Thus Induction tools see the borehole
environment as:

Cm - Best readings occur in high resistivity Notes

mud, oil-based is better, fresh mud is good, salt-
saturated mud is worst.

Cmc - Usually neglected as very small.

Cxo - Depends on Rmf - needs to be known.

Ct - Parameter to be measured, the higher the

better. 15
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 Rt Estimation
Array Induction principle
The tool measures 28 independent signals from 8
arrays. There is one transmitter operating at
three frequencies. The in-phase (R) and the
quadrature (X) signals are both measured.
The deep readings are insensitive to the near borehole environment the
shallow readings are high resolution but are affected by the environment.
The combination of all the measurements results in a log which is
precisely focused and has a high vertical resolution.
The highest vertical resolution output is more affected by sharp changes
in borehole size or in invasion. If the borehole is expected to be in bad
shape (or found to be after logging) the lower resolution four feet outputs
are used.

The conductivities are combined using radial and

depth functions.

These are software focused to give:

Notes
5 depths of investigation:10", 20", 30", 60" 90".

3 vertical resolutions: 1', 2' and 4'.

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 Rt Estimation The standard induction tool has a depth of investigation affected by the
conductivity of the invaded and virgin zones. The multiple spacings of
Array Induction depth of the Array Induction tool allows the depth of investigation to be computed
independent of the conductivities.
investigation The deepest reading of the older tool is around 60”, the new tool at 90
goes far beyond this value.
The AIT has set radial depths of investigation
which are not affected by changes in conductivity.

The values are taken as the point where half the

signal comes from shallower levels.

In comparison to the 10", 20", 30", 60" and 90"

of this tool, the medium and deep of the old tool
are around 30" and 60" respectively.
Notes

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 Rt Estimation This is the same example as the previous slide this time showing a
comparison between the Array Induction Tool and the older Dual
Induction tool.
Example The invasion profile as has been noted is very clear on the former tool, all
curves separating. The older tool is ambiguous with some separation, but
the same separation in the non-porous zone above this as well.

Cable tension (TENS)

10000.0 (LBF) 0.0 90 Inch investigation
SFL unaveraged (SFLU)
.2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 10 Inch investigation
Medium resistivity (ILM) .2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0
Deep resistivity (ILD) 20 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0
Notes
30 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
60 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000

The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read

correctly in this zone giving a hydrocarbon
profile.

The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL

(electrical log) longer reading shallow because
Rxo is less than Rt 18
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 Rt Estimation

ARC Measurement

Notes

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 Rt Estimation

Phase Shift Log

This log
shows a
resistivity
increase
around 7980ft.
This could be
an oil bearing
zone. All the
curves are
showing Notes
approx. the
same value
suggesting
low invasion.

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 Rt Estimation

Attenuation Log

This is the same

zone as the
previous slide but
this time using
the simultaneous
Attenuation
measurement.
This shows a
separation
between the Notes
curves. The
deeper curves
read lower.
This is consistent
with fresh mud
filtrate invasion
into a salt water
zone. No Oil.

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 Rt Estimation

CDR Corrections

Notes

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 Rt Estimation

Borehole Effects

Notes

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 Rt Estimation Except for the Microlog tool all the others were/are focused to pass
through the mud cake and read only the invaded zone. They are all
resistivity devices. All are pad tools pushed against the wall by a powered
Microresistivity Devices caliper device.

Shallow reading versions of resistivity tools;

always pad-mounted.

First was the Microlog which is still in use;

Second was the Micro Laterolog (MLL),
replaced by
Proximity (PL) tool, replaced by
MicroSpherically Focused Log (MSFL),
replaced by
Micro Cylindrical Focused Log(MCFL) Notes

Objective is to read Rxo (Invaded Zone

Resistivity) only.

Tools are focused to pass through the mud cake.

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 Rt Estimation This is the very oldest microresistivity device. It has been used for a
number of years to measure the “sand” zones i.e.. the permeable layers.
The absolute value of the resistivity is not of interest, only the separation
Microlog Uses between the two curves.
A number of synthetic micrologs have been devised using some of the
currents output by the more sophisticated tools.
Microlog is used to identify permeable zones.

2" Micronormal. (A -> M2)

1"x1" Microinverse. (A -> M1)
(Slightly different depths of
investigation).

Notes
If the zone of investigation is shale (no invasion),
both curves read the same.
If the zone is sand (with invasion), Microinverse
reads mud cake plus some of the formation and
Micronormal reads some mud cake plus the
formation (slightly higher).
We are only interested in the separation between
these curves and so scales are chosen to show this
and not the rest of the readings.
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 Rt Estimation A focusing current flowing between the A0 and A1 electrodes passes
mainly through the mud cake.

MSFL Principle In this way, the measuring current is constrained to the formation and
importantly to the invaded zone.
The exact depth investigated depends on the mud cake thickness and the
resistivities of the mud components. However, it is normally around 6
inches.

Notes

This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes which focus the

signal into the invaded zone just beyond the mud
cake.
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 Rt Estimation The mud cake thickness can be estimated from the bit size minus the
caliper or from the MSFL caliper minus the Density tool caliper (divided
by 2). This assumes that the MSFL caliper “floats” on top of the mud cake
MSFL Borehole Corrections while the other cuts through it. Unfortunately this measurement of a small
quantity is a the limit of the tools accuracy.
Note the MCFL gives Rxo as output and does not need correction.
In spite of its focusing, the tool still needs to be
corrected for the mud cake thickness and
resistivity.
The correction requires an input of mud cake
thickness which is not measured directly.

Notes

It also needs the mud cake resistivity which is

either measured or computed from charts.

The tool focusing has been set assuming there is

always some mud cake, hence the tool always
needs some correction.
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 Rt Estimation The measurement of Rxo is needed to compute the water saturation in the
invaded zone, Sxo.

Uses and Limits Knowing Rxo the deep measurements can be inverted to give the true
virgin formation resistivity Rt.
As with all pad type tools bad hole conditions will badly affect the
measurement quality.

Uses:
Rxo measurement in water- based
muds.
Correction for deep resistivity
tools.
Sxo determination.

Limits: Notes

Rugose hole.
Oil-based mud.
Heavy or thick mud cake.

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 Rt Estimation “Resistivity tools” come in two varieties complementing each other in the
possible environments.
*It is possible if some conditions are met:
Induction v Laterolog Hole is small and in gauge.
Resistivity is low (contrast Rt/Rm is low).
Laterolog Induction Tool position is well known.
OBM no yes **It is possible if the resistivity is high, i.e. the contrast Rt/Rm is high.
***If string correction applied.

Salt water mud yes possible in

small holes*

Fresh mud no** yes

High resistivity yes no

Notes

Air-filled hole no yes

Low resistivity possible*** yes

Rt < Rxo Induction

preferred
Rt > Rxo Laterolog
preferred
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 Rt Estimation This is the only valid chart. Others were used in the past but are for out-
of-date tools and are invalid for all current measurements.
The chart illustrates the obvious point that if the resistivity is high and/or
Induction v Laterolog the mud resistivity is low the Laterolog is the chosen tool. If the resistivity
is low and/or the mud resistivity is high the Induction is preferred.

This chart gives the recommended operating

domains for the AIT and DLL tools.

There are some regions where these will overlay,

and it is suggested that both tools are run for the
best answer.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation
Pseudo Geometrical Factor
Once corrected, the log can be evaluated to find
Rt.
Neglecting the mud and mud cake resistivities
(corrected log), the tool response equation is:
After correction for the borehole effects the apparent resistivity, Ra, seen
by the tool is composed of some signal coming from the invaded zone and
some from the virgin zone. The proportion depends on the diameter of
invasion, di.
This is taken into account in the fraction J, the pseudo-geometrical factor.
This describes how much of the signal comes from the invaded zone.
If J=1, the entire signal comes from the invaded zone, this is the case for
the very shallow reading tools. If J=0, all the reading comes from the
virgin zone. In practice even for the deep Laterolog J is never zero, but a
small number.

Ra = J(di)Rxo + (1-J(di))Rt

Where J(di) is the pseudo-geometrical factor Notes

which is a function of the invasion diameter, di.
For large di, J(di) is large reflecting the
important contribution of the invaded zone to the
measurement.

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 Rt Estimation Once corrections for the borehole readings have been made the reading of
the tools is a combination of the virgin and invaded zone resistivities. The
proportion of the measurement coming from each zone depends on the
Rt/Rxo determination geometrical or pseudo-geometrical factors.
The typical logs available are a deep, medium and very shallow reading
which in combination give enough data to find the true resistivities.
The Deep reading tools must be corrected for the
invaded zone effect.
Three measurements are usually available:

Very shallow From MCFL/MSFL.

Shallow From LLS or ILM.
Deep From LLD or ILD.

Deep log Medium log

Notes

Very Shallow
log

Invaded zone
Virgin Zone

Relative investigations

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 Rt Estimation The simplest invasion model supposes that the invading mud filtrate
enters the formation in a piston like movement. There is a definite
boundary between the invaded and virgin zones.
Invasion Model The depth of invasion is defined by the diameter of invasion di.
Hence there are three unknowns in this model.

Notes

Simple invasion model is used to combine the

measurements to solve for three unknowns;

Rxo Invaded zone resistivity.

Rt Virgin zone resistivity.
di Diameter of invasion.
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 Rt Estimation The invasion model in the previous slide is converted into this “step
profile”. The step being a resistivity change. Shown in this diagram is a
zone where the Rxo is greater than Rt.
Resistivity Step Profile

Notes

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 Rt Estimation If the geometrical factors for each measurement are known the
measurements can be “inverted” to give the required Rt, Rxo and di. The
procedure can be made using a computer or by charts. The charts are
Tornado charts called Tornado or butterfly charts.
The computerised method is much more accurate. It is possible with field
computers. A large number of charts exist depending on the tool
The simple invasion model is used to solve for the combinations that are being used.
three unknowns Rt, Rxo, di.

Three resistivity measurements are needed:

Deep ILD, IDPH, LLD

Medium ILM, IMPH, LLS, SFL
Shallow MSFL

The equations can be solved using Tornado Notes

charts.

Several charts exist: one for each possible

configuration of the resistivities. The correct one
must be chosen for each situation.
There are zones on each chart where the solution
is impossible, this is where the tool is being run
outside its specifications or the corrections have
not been properly applied.
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 Rt Estimation The chart shown is for a Laterolog - Rxo tool combination. Here the three
measurements are LLD, LLS and Rxo. (Note the corrected MSFL reading
is taken as Rxo.)
Example Tornado Chart Using the ratios of LLD/LLS and LLD/Rxo the chart is entered. In the
example shown the point lands on 3.3, 10. The next step is to read the
value of Rt/RLLD curve (the red lines). In this case it is very close to the
1.4 value, thus Rt is calculated. If the point lies between lies a manual
extrapolation is used. The diameter of invasion can be read of the blue
lines on the chart.
The region of the chart below the 1,1 point is the difficult zone for
Laterologs, Rt<Rxo. If the point falls here take Rt= RLLD.
The same will happen for inductions in the opposite condition (Rt>Rxo).
In this case the same rule is applied Rt=RIDPH.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The transition is a zone of diffusion between the two saline fluids present,
the mud filtrate and the connate water.

Invasion Revisited
Invasion is can be more complex than a simple
step model.
To make the picture more realistic two zones are
added:

Transition zone:
The cross-over between the invaded and
virgin zones.
The pattern can be shown as a ramp.
Notes

Annulus zone:
A mixed zone where the oil has been
moved but some formation water remains,
causing a drop in resistivity.

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 Rt Estimation The slide shows the two possible cases, Rxo>Rt and Rxo<Rt. The
transition zone in both is a gradual change from one value to the other.
The shape of this change is unknown but is probably a simple ramp
Invasion 2 between the two values.
This profile has 4 unknowns, Rt, Rxo, plus inner and outer diameters of
invasion. Hence there has to be four measurements to solve.

Radial Distribution of Resistivities in the Water

Zone (Rmf > Rw)
Oil Zone Notes

Distribution of resistivities in an Oil Zone. 38

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 Rt Estimation The Array Induction is able to compute the two radii, the beginning and
end of the transition zone, as it has five measurements of differing
investigation depths.
Example -Array Induction Not all formations exhibit this phenomena, some show a single radius as
in the lowermost zone.
This example shows in the uppermost zone the
two radii produced by the AIT inversion.
There is a ramp like invasion profile here.
In the lower high resistivity zone the invasion
shows the two radii having the same value. All the
curves read the same except for the AT10, the
shallowest.
The invasion in the zone exhibits the simplest
form with a single radius of invasion.

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The theory here is that in invading the filtrate pushes back oil and water.
If the formation water is saltier than the invasion water a zone with an
excess of formation water will exist and give an apparent low resistivity
Annulus Invasion region..

Notes

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 Rt Estimation The phenomena of “ irregular “ invasion was first noted by Henri Doll on
SP profiles in the 1950,s. The note describes how the profile changes
between two runs.
Gravity and Invasion The experiment to verify the theory was carried out using a CAT scanner
to measure the invasion progress. The process appears as follows,
invasion in a piston like manner, followed by a drop as the horizontal
layer forms. This in turn pulls fluid from the top zone to give the curved
layer.
The curved layer thickness is determined by the porosity , time since
circulation of the vertical permeability . Knowing the others the vertical
permeability can be computed.

Invasion is controlled by gravity. Notes

In this example the invading fluid is heavier than

that in the virgin zone, e.g., water invading an oil
zone.

Section is divided into 3 zones:

Vertical layer - middle.
Horizontal layer - bottom or top.
Curved section - top or bottom.
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 Rt Estimation In an oil zone invaded by water the water will go to the bottom to form
the horizontal layer there leaving a curved layer at the top.

Log Response The deep measuring resistivity tool will have no problem, it is reading the
virgin zone in any case so will not be affected by the horizontal layer. The
Resistivity
very shallow Rxo tool will react to the curved layer. trying to read Rt at
this point. The thickness of the curved layer can be found from this curve.

Shale

Curved
Layer

Measured
Rt

Porous bed Actual

with Hydrocarbon. Actual Rt
Invaded with Rxo
water.

Notes
Measured
Rxo

Shale

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 Rt Estimation The example shows the invasion of a lighter fluid (fresher filtrate) into a
salt water zone. The “ curved layer “ is found at the bottom. The shallow
reading MSFL curve reads the same as the deep curves at this point.
Example of Gravity Effect

MSFL

Notes

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 Rt Estimation

Vertical Permeability
The equation to derive the vertical permeability
from the curved layer thickness is;

hv µ filφ
kv =
t log g∆ρ
where,
hv = curved layer thickness Notes

µfil = viscosity of filtrate (poise)

tlog = time end of drilling to logging (days)
g = gravity, 980cm/sec/sec
φ = porosity
∆ρ = density difference, filtrate-form. fluid

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 Rt Estimation

Resume
The outputs of the full chain of resistivity will be:

Virgin zone resistivity, Rt.

Invaded zone resistivity, Rxo.
Diameter of invasion, di.

To achieve this the raw measurement has to go

through the following steps.

Borehole corrections to eliminate the influence of Notes

that cylinder of resistivity.

Shoulder bed correction to eliminate effects of

resistive or conductive layers.

Inversion to obtain the true formation

resistivities.

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