KFUPM ENGINEERING

Department of Petroleum Engineering

PETE-313: Well Logging

Lecture [5]

Resistivity Measurements

Dr. Mohamed Mahmoud

Semester 221
Resistivity Devices Used To:

• Identify permeable zones

• Discriminate HC vs. water saturated zone

• Determine Sw

• Estimate moveable hydrocarbons

• Determine resistivity porosity

• Correlate strata
2
I yay

Sm
TIE
Electrical Measurements of Different Depths of
Investigation

MY
Titian
Transit

3
An induction log over a
section which might be
interpreted as a water
zone with
a hydrocarbon zone
above it

4
 high Separation Permeable flushes
zone
slow 11 Im Permeable No flusher
Zone

Rt is company to Rio

Rt Rx Oils or fresh Water

Rt Rto Salt Water

If three readings are same

No flushed Zone and no 7.2 Thus
it's impermeable formation

Maximum depth of investigation Could be

loft
Electrode we send I

Inductions we need EM to Create

Current
The objective of Induction an Electrode

is to send current

Electrode In water base mud

Induction In oil base mud
Resistivity
 Two families of resistivity devices
o Electrode tools
o Induction tools

 Resistivity devices Later Deed

o Latero/Guard logs Shall
o Spherically focused Lateto log Deed
Micro-resistivity
LL D K
o


o Resistivity at bit (MWD)
Induction
i i s
Laker les shallow

o Older dual induction

o Newer multi-frequency, signal enhanced devices
o EWR/CDR LWD
5
Fundamentals

 Formation resistivity evaluation depends on two basic physical

principles:
 Galvanic physics: in which current is focused into the formation to be
measured,
 Inductive physics: in which electromagnetic excitation of the formation
induces currents to flow

 Galvanic measurements have evolved into the laterolog family of

tools. These tools require a conductive borehole environment so that
the measured currents from the tool can traverse the borehole and
enter the formation.

6
Fundamentals

 Induction measurements have evolved into the array induction

family of tools.
 These tools can operate in a non-conductive borehole environment,
making them the only option for formation resistivity evaluation in
oil-based mud (OBM).
 Induction instruments respond to the conductivity of the formation
in which the tool response is induced. Recalling that the addition of
conductivities is equivalent to computing equivalent resistances in
parallel,
 Induction instruments can be regarded as being sensitive to the
resistivities of the formation regions in parallel. 7
Resistivity Log Uses

 Induction Logs
o Should be run in non-salt saturated mud where Rmf > 3 Rw
o Run where resistivity < 200 ohm-m
o Run with oil-based drilling mud

 Laterolog or Dual Laterologs

o Should be run in salt-saturated drilling mud where Rmf ~ Rw
o Run where resistivity > 200 ohm-m
o Run where thin beds are present

8
Induction logo
Run In oil base mud
in non salty mud
In Thick formation

Later log
in Salty mud Rmf 2 Ru
Can be Induced in thin formation
Resistivity Log Uses

9
Resistivity

Resistivity

• The voltage required to cause current of one

amp to pass through a cube having a face area
of one square meter

• Units are ohm-m /2m; usually ohm-m (.m)

1
Resistivit y 
Conductivi ty
10
Ohm’s Law

 Ohm’s Law states that the current I, that flows

through a conductor is equal to the voltage, V,
applied divided by the material’s resistance, r.

 Resistivity is the specific resistance of a substance

defined by the voltage required to cause 1 Amp to
pass through a cube of face area of 1 meter square.

11
Resistivity – definition of the Ohm-meter

12
 amp
Resistivity
Voltage Meeke to pass I amp of
current throng Cube has Volumes Im

Defretion d ohms l

R r
AEI's
R r

y
I R t
Resistivity is the needed am Value
of voltage to pass current with
Vala lamp through Cube

R Ohm Btm Ohm m

Resistance vs. Resistivity

 Why do we need resistivity vs. resistance?

 Resistance is not only a function of the resistivity
measured but also the shape of the body of
material on which the measurement is made
r f CR A L
 Resistance of wire stretching across ocean is high
because of distance however the resistivity of the
wire is very low

13
We Need Resistivity

 Measurement that characterizes the

rock is resistivity , not resistance.

R f Rock itself

14
Typical Resistivities

 0.5 -m to 1000 -m for typical

formations
 Soft formations i.e. shaly sands range
from 0.5 -m to about 50 -m
 Evaporates (salt, anhydrites) may have
several thousand -m because of
low 0 15
 I o O O
e

Swe ice SW Ice

0 207 D It 4 lot

Suh
FEE
I
FRIT
Rt.FR

F Rgu Fm

Thus the gear

when loot Sw
Rt Ro 9pm Rn

Rt t
Water Resistivities

 Formation water will range from 0.015 -m

(very salty brines)
Rt Q
 Several -m, fresh water reservoirs

 Sea water has a resistivity

Fa of 0.35 -m at 75 oF

Rw o o's R o 3 R 801
t
off
u 16

n
 Drilling Disturbs Formation

 Drilling and rock crushing

 Damage zone

 Mud systems and invasion Mudcake

 Oil-based mud
Damaged zone

 low conductivity mud

 Shallow invasion
 Thin mud cake
 Water-based mud Invading filtrate
 Moderate to very conductive mud
 Shallow to deep invasion
 Thin to thick mud cake
17
Effects of Drilling and Mud Filtrate Invasion

Rm
p.fm

18
 Mud Filtrate Invasion
Uninvaded
Zone
Rx (Rt)
Invaded
Zone (Rxo)

Wellbore

Uninvaded
Mud
(Rm)

Mud Cake
Er
Zone (Rmc)
(Rt)

Rt 19
 Mud

Rm
Adjacent bed

Rs

Symbols used Uninvaded

In log hmc Flushed
zone
zone

Zone of
Interpretation Rmc transition
or
Rt

(Bed dh annulus Rw
thickness)
Mudcake
Rxo
Sw
h Rmf

Sxo
Rs
di
dj
Adjacent bed

Resistivity of zone (Invasion diameters)

Resistivity of the water in the zone
Water saturation in the zone rj

dh
20
Hole
diameter
Borehole Effects
 The degree to which the borehole environment has an effect on the
response of the instruments is a function of the ratio of formation to
mud resistivity, borehole size, and position of the instrument in the
borehole as well as the physics of measurement of the instrument.
 In the limiting case of a nonconductive borehole (i.e., OBM), The
laterolog instruments will not work while induction instruments will be
almost unaffected by the borehole.
 At the other extreme, a large borehole with very salty water-based
mud. the borehole environment will have considerably less Influence
on the laterolog instrument than on the induction. The latter will be
strongly affected by the conductive borehole in parallel with the
formation
21
 Shoulder
7
o A resistivity tool is affected by
 The invasion of mud filtrate
 Mud in the borehole
 The resistivity of the shoulder
beds
 Mud cake

o All resistivity readings have to

be compensated for these effects

22
Common Terminology

 Borehole
o Rm : Borehole mud resistivity
o Rmc : Mud cake resistivity
 Invaded zone
Attie
o Rmf : Mud filtrate resistivity
o Rxo : Invaded zone resistivity
o Sxo : Invaded zone water saturation
 Uninvaded zone
o Rw : Interstitial water resistivity
o Rt : Uninvaded zone resistivity
o Sw : Uninvaded zone water saturation
23
Resistivity Tool Applications

 Well to well correlation to know the

Boundaries
 Sxo and Sw computation of Reservoir

 Presence and depth of hydrocarbons

 Estimate moveable hydrocarbon

 Invasion profile analysis

24
before drilling

T 2 True
flushed

Sort 1 Sox

So 1 Sw
so Sor movable oil
503 R F

soft
so
F T
Mg True

that

R measured By the tool

will not be equal to the
actual Resistivity
we need to correct Rmensmel
Geometrical Factors

25
 Hittin

am

I
Gmt EE tf tf
Geometrical Factors

26
 Resistivity Tool Families

 Electrode tools: electrical current sent by

electrodes into formation
- Requires water-base mud

 Induction tools: generate a magnetic field that

induces a current in the formation
- Oil-base, air, low salinity or fresh-water muds
27
Electrode Tools
 Wireline
 Dual Laterolog (LLD & LLS)
 Azimuthal tool (deep and shallow)
 Spherically-focused
 Micro-resistivity
 LWD
 Resistivity at bit (RAB)
 Side-scanning electrodes

Schlumberger
28
A schematic representation of the short normal. A16 in. spacing
is indicated between current electrode A and measure
electrode M

29
 electrodes will help to direct
current to specific direction

Eyes

E
more electrodes freed current
4 high Resolution
Electrode Tool Principle

 Electrode emits current, I

 Electrode A
 Green lines give current flow
 Electrodes sense voltage, V
 Electrodes M and N
 Red lines show equi-potentials
 Formation resistivity, R
 R = KV/I
 K is tool constant
 Simple model ignores
 Current flows up borehole
 Radial changes in R (invasion)

30
Normal Resistivity
Not Reliable
 AM = 16’’ for short normal devices

 AM = 64’’ for long normal devices

 R16’’ = Ri, R16’’ = f (Rm, dh, h, Rsh, di, Ri, Rt)

 R64’’ = f (Rm, dh, h, Rsh, di, Ri, Rt)

31
Normal Resistivity

 Limitations of Normal Measurements:

The normal devices cannot be used to determine

formation resistivity under the following
conditions:
 Borehole fluid in non-conductive

 Borehole is cased

 Bed thickness is equal to or less than the spacing

32
Response of Normal Log

 If the long and short normal readings were

the same, this means:

 There is no invasion

 The invasion is > 64 in.

33
Lateral Resistivity not Reliable
too
 Electrodes M, A, N are fixed
on the sonde in the hole, the
current induced between
electrodes A, B, and the potential
is measured between M, N.
 DOI = 18’ 8’’ Depth of
Functions:
investigation
 To overcome the effect of
invaded zone
 Yields good Rt value
 To get accurate Rt reading
the formation thickness
should be greater than AO 34
Dual Laterolog
Deep and Shallow Current Patterns

• Multiple currents
– Measure
– Bucking or guard
• Objectives - to
measure
– Rt - deep msmt LLD
– Rxo & Rt - shallow LLS
– Without borehole effect Rm
– Without shoulder effect
Adracent
Bed
35
 Resistivity tools

Induction on conductive
Flectraconductige
mud
focused

nonffuse

ateral Norman

shorts long

Lateral Non focused current

later focuse Current

LD
OF US
Glatertogghalloo

laterals Deep
 Recent Tool
Azimuthal Resistivity

Features
 Thin bed analysis:
VR < 1 ft
 Various depths of
investigation
 Azimuthal resistivity
 Applications
 Fracture detection
 Rt in dipping beds

36
 Resistivity lag may Indicate fractures

because it contain more fluid

flushed Zone could be 1ft

flushed t Transition 5ft

Pad
Type is use
4
to Remove effect
of Rm
Is large distance
6

mandrel the fool

Type is in
center

Pal Type attached to the

wall of well bone
Spherically Focused Resistivity Measurement

 SFL gives shallow

resistivity
 Usually run with
induction
 Good for thin-bed
detection
 Different order of
electrodes than
laterolog

SFI
No focused current
37
 Flushed Zone Measurements - 1

 Pad-type tools
 Pads reduce borehole effects
 Mud cake may still be
problem
 Very shallow resistivity
 2 to 5 cm typical
 Several types...

38
 Flushed Zone Measurements - 2

 Microlog
 Two, R1x1 and R2
 No current focusing
 Not for Rxo
 High resolution
 Mud cake detector
 R1x1 < R2
 Shows permeable zones

micro

No focused current
39
 Flushed Zone Measurements - 3

Important
 MicroSFL
tool
 RMSFL

 Current focusing

 Rxo

 Good resolution

 Small mud cake effect

S Fl
spherical focused log 40
Flushed Zone Measurements - 4

 Other types of focused Rxo

Ms aft
 Microlaterolog
 Microguard
 Proximity
 Electromagnetic propagation
 Uses EM waves
 Measures conductivity and propagation
 Ultra-high frequencies
 Borehole scanners
 Multi-pad
 Image of borehole wall 41
Types of tools
UD
Micro later lg LLS
Micro S f L

o Micro guard

proximity
Micro Resistivity Tools

o Have a very high vertical resolution (~ 2 in. )

o Have a very small depth of investigation (a few

inches)

o Mostly pad mounted

Bo Rxo
o
M
Measurements are in the invaded zone only

o Affected by mud cake on the borehole wall 42

Micro is affected By MC

it can be good indicator for

Permeability
Micro Resistivity Tools

The micro-resistivity
tool is the Short Guard
on this log.
Most micro-resistivity
logs are very spiky
because they have a
very high vertical
resolution (~ 2 in.)
Good for thin-bed
identification

43
Micro Resistivity
Tools
Micro-resistivity log is the
Micro SFL on this log
Micro-resistivity tools read
only flushed/invaded zones
with a depth of investigation of
a few inches
Note how the MSFL log
reading is nearly constant even
though the LLD and LLS logs
have a profile inversion
This due to the fact that the
MSFL reads only mud filtrate
saturated formation 44
 deep laterolog 9 Rt
In clean formation

R R
deep
b
z shallow
b
Rt Rxo
Brine fresh mud filtrate

If
Ro 7 Ryo
A C or fresh water
45
Induction Logs

 Induction log was originally developed to

measure formation resistivity in boreholes
containing oil-based muds
 Electrode devices (conventional electric logs)
do not work in non-conductive muds
 The induction log had many advantages; thus,
it is now run in OBM and fresh WBM wells

46
 Latero is Just in water bare
fresh water my
Induction in banon conductive
oil base

If ther is Separation In Resisting

LLD LLS indicator for K

Rt a

Oil
Deep Shallow

KE

ILD Rt
use Ryo
Induction Logs

 Induction logging devices are focused to

minimize influence of borehole and surrounding
formations
 Designed for deep investigation to determine Rt
 New induction log devices are being developed
using improved electronics, telemetry, and
computer processing

47
 Induction log

OPM Orl bae mad

fro fresh water Base met

fresh NRM

Electrode has better VR

b
Vertical
Resolution
Types
D Peep

Me meduim
ph Phasor
 Induction Logs

Several types med aim

Deery


 Dual Induction - ILD y

and ILM

 Phasor/High Resolution
Induction
 HRD, HRM (H) Phaser
 IDPH, IMPH (S)

 Dielectric induction

 Array Induction

 All have similar physical

principle... 48
Induction Principle

o Basic transformer
o Transmitter coils 3 eR
RECEIVER
COIL
 20 kHz fed to transmitter coil
HL
o Generates alternating magnetic
field that causes circular current
that flows in formation 2
UNIT
o creates magnetic field It
GROUND LOOP

o Induces voltage
o Receiver coils
 Induced voltage from
magnetic field HT
1
TRANSMITTER
IT
COIL
o Induced voltage proportional to
conductivity
49
 Induction Principle

 An electrical conductivity/resistivity well log based on

electromagnetic-induction principles.
 A high-frequency alternating current of constant intensity induces
current flow in the formation. The current flowing in the formation
ground loop causes an alternating magnetic field which produces a
current in a receiving coil.
 The receiving-coil current is nearly proportional to the conductivity
of the formation.
 Induction sondes may have several transmitting and receiving coils
to produce a highly focused log. An induction log can be recorded
where the borehole fluid is conductive or nonconductive, as in oil-
base muds or gas. A dual induction log measures different depths
of penetration 50
Induction Principle

• Voltage, eR, proportional to C

• Resistivity computed as
1000
Rohm  m 
C mmho m
• Similar to laterolog tools, induction tools are
focused
• Depth of measurement depends on
– Frequency
• Older tools, one freq – approx. 20 kHz
• Newer tools, multiple frequencies
51
– Number, position of coils
 active
i Msft is used with
sand
nonconductive
Because it has Pad No effect
of
mad

Depth of Induction tools depend on

frequency
Induction-Electrical Log
Presentation- Old Style

o Linear scales
o Conductivity track 3
o Resistivity track 2
o Short normal
 Unfocused shallow
 Bed definition
o Induction Rt

52
Dual induction Presentation
- newer style -

• Logarithmic scale

• Resistivity track

• Deep Induction Rt

• Med induction Rxo & Rt

53
 active

Msft is used with

sand
nonconduct
Because it has Pad No effect
of
mud
LLD Deep Rt 718
To'grelectade
Lls Shallow Race 3,4 Tyres

Msft Pad Type

IL D Deep Induction
Induction
HRD high Resolution peep
11M Medwin induction
Induction electrode
4 D
ILD
ILM LLS

HRD Msf
Oil base Water base
oil
A Msft can be use d in

or worker base mud

Induction Presentation-
newest style

• Logarithmic scale

• Five induction

• Allows for transition

zone

54
 different frequency gives different
Depth of Investigation

lo'd
l
I
p T true

effect of Rm must
be corrected

IE

É
Ryo 77kt because Rmf is
high CRxopl and
I low Ru CR
b
 At Depth 1290ft There's no

Reading Indication for impermeable

Rock Also I G R Indicate Presence
of Shale poor k

Multi frequency Induction is good

Indicator for
Wire line vs LWD Tools

 Wire line
 Borehole and formation
 Moderate to deep invasion
 Moderate to significant borehole effect
 Equipment
 Fiberglass/plastic tools
 Many electrodes
 Variable DOI (10-90 in.)
 Various frequencies
 Pad or mandrel
 Tool development
 Early LWD copied wire line
55

 Different environment required new designs

 Wal can be mandrel or
Pad Type

LWD cannot be as Pak type

Dual Laterolog
Deep and Shallow Current Patterns

• Multiple currents
– Measure
– Bucking or guard
• Objectives - to
measure
– Rt - deep t LLD
– Rxo & Rt - shallow LLS
– Without borehole effect
– Without shoulder effect

Gmp 56
Laterlolog vs. Induction Log

 When to Use Laterolog

 Seawater or brine mud is in hole Conductive

mud

 Rmf/Rw ratio less than 3 23 Rw

should be
low
 Formation resistivities > 200 ohm-m

 Bed thickness less than 10 ft 57

Catero log has better Resolution

 Resistivity Profiles

 Separation of deep and shallow resistivity curves suggests presence of a

permeable formation

 If the formation pore fluid is more resistive than the mud filtrate, then
Rdeep > Rshallow, irrespective of the type of tool (e.g., the profile in
hydrocarbon bearing layers, with a saline water-based mud in the
borehole)

 If the mud filtrate is more resistive, the Rshallow is greater than Rdeep (e.g.,
logging a fresh water bearing formation with an OBM in the wellbore)

 Across shale zones, there is no separation, because there is no

permeability and hence, no invasion. All resistivity readings STACK in
shales
58
Dual Induction Log
C Double
Here, the deep
resistivity reads
lower than the
shallow, indicating a
lower pore fluid
resistivity
Rw<Rmf
Also note a slight
separation between
the deep and
shallow profiles,
indicating invasion

59
 R deep 2 Rahal Indicates that deep
formation Contain brine

Separation between deep and Shallow

Indicates Invasion Permeable Zone

or
In Shale Mo Separation 7 Poor

Short guard is not induction tool

 Note separation between the
shallow and deep resistivity.
The deep resistivity is
mostly affected by the
virgin/uninvaded zone.
The shallow is affected most
by the flushed zone.
A separation between the
resistivity curves indicates
one invasion and hence shows

I
that the formation is
permeable.

Rb z Rxo brine
Rt 7 Rx hydrocarbons
60
At Depth 260 Rao Soffit
At Depth 221 Rte 20 Stat Sw

H C t Mf
Residual
Ryo

Mft f
water
thisbec uuethhydrccwhc.in
here is a gas Also
This is happens only If is
Gue
is too low which is the
case for gas

Rto flushed Zone

Sto s Residual H C

Mft Water
 Dual Latero Log Profile

Deep is reading higher than

the shallow laterolog.
Suggests the presence of
hydrocarbons ( or a more
resistive pore fluid as
compared to the mud filtrate)
fresh water

O/WC Here, deep resistivity reading

is lower than shallow
Laterolog or Micro SFL. This
is due to the mud filtrate
being more resistive than the
formation pore fluid.
61
Resistivity Corrections

62
Resistivity Corrections

Medaim
M

Keep

T
63
 I 9 III
from graph 61hm 0.5s
GIL D 0 2
ort o SS Gyo L
9
80
0

I É tape
to Depend on M F Resistivity

Case non conductive mad

Rto 20 Chm m

Rm I chm m
Ra 11 ohm m and the True Value
Was Rt 10ohm m

case Conduct.me MY
Rm o of oh m nm

Rnc I 0ham
Ra 3 6 ohm n an d The True Value
Was Rye to Ohm
And That's was why
conductive
Resistivity Corrections

64
Resistivity Corrections

The ILM and ILD should read the true formation resistivity
which is 10 .m. From the figure the geometrical factor for
ILM is 0.55 and for ILD is 0.2, the rest which is 0.25 will be
for the MSFL or Rxo.

Capparent (log)  GxoC xo  Gt Ct  GxoC xo  Gt Ct ILM  Gt Ct ILD

1 Gxo GILM GILD
  
Ra Rxo Rt Rt

The previous two examples explain the effect of mud salinity

on the induction log reading. 65
Determination of Mud Invasion
Tornado Chart

ga RS
FURILD

X
RIK
RIL D 66
 L
READ

Blue dash di
Invasion
diameter
Solid Blue
REI
Res
RI
RILD
RMS f L R
ILD are apparent
values
Rms.CL
EtmSRx RILD
feetimSRt
Laterals Doesn't to be corrected

We must correct Induction tod by

Tornado chart
Determination of Mud Invasion

Red
A known

blue solid
G 67
t i

68
 Red

Blue
Solid

D Blue dash 69
Typical resistivity profile, resistivity pore fluid > resistivity mud filtrate
Hrc or fresh w 70
Rm is low Conductive
mud

Rto Rt H C

Rt Rte water
The Effects of Invasion on Fluid Saturation

BOREHOLE
SHALE
100

Oil
Sxo
Filtrate
(Rmf)
Sw Formation Water (Rw)
0
Distance
Borehole
Wall SHALE
Difference between Sxo and Sw indicates movable hydrocarbons71
The Effects of Invasion on Fluid Saturation

Original After
Conditions Invasion
• Change in pore fluid
1.00 saturations after
invasion.
Residual Residual
Sxo = 70% • A difference in Sxo and
Oil Oil
Sw indicates movable
0.70 hydrocarbon.
Moveable (Sxo – Sw)= Mud
40% Filtrate
Oil
0.30
40% moveable HC
Connate Sw = 30%
Mud
Water Filtrate
0.0 72
 s.IT
Ei Sxo

Zct
Sor 3 of

Sor I Sto

movable oil
I
Sto f I Sw

Sto Sw movable oil

Summary
 Two families of resistivity devices
 Electrode tools
 Induction tools
 Resistivity devices
 Latero/Guard logs



Spherically focused
Micro-resistivity
Msft
 Resistivity at bit (MWD)
 Induction
 Older dual induction
 Newer multi-frequency, signal enhanced devices
73
Summary
Resistivity devices Used to
 Determine permeable zones
 Discriminate HC vs water saturated zones
 Determine Sw archi
 Estimate moveable hydrocarbons
 Determine resistivity porosity g no Sw
 Correlate strata
Induction Logs
 Should be run in non-salt saturated mud where Rmf > 3 Rw
 Run where resistivity < 200 ohm-m
 Run with oil-based drilling mud
Laterolog or Dual Laterologs
 Should be run in salt-saturated drilling mud where Rmf ~ Rw
 Run where resistivity > 200 ohm-m
 Run where thin beds are present
74
 R=4

 = 0.30
R = 0.4

Idealized
log set R=8  = 0.07

Shale

Sand R = 0.3
 = 0.35

75
Based on
lithe legs
3 Zones

Based on R a

Y Zones
B
Based on
4
3 Zones
30 t
It

Zoned ii.s.net

Salt water
Sw loot Rt Ro 0.3 A m

F RW Ro
Ru 10311 p 0.036700
ZoneBLSaltwahed
 0 0.3
Su
loot Ro Rt 0 4
F
You 11

Rin Am

7 Rn
RI b

Water at is the same

as

DERETsu FE
zoneD
FI
water in is the Same
as water in Thus
Rg Rg
Since we have we can compute
Ry Sy
so My F It on

3 t water 69 t A C

FB Ew
Ro Ro
D in

fc
E Some Ru different
FD Rog

Ro Ro
t
 Zone

Rt 8am Rg Rg

Sm
FF
FEII

Emily
Sw

Sw 0.96

him Resistivity at But

There's no

Conclusion
high Resistivity could be because
of presence of H C or because of
 Four Components of Sandstone
Geologist’s Classification
1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”
2. Matrix Engineering
3. Cement “matrix”
by geologists and engineers
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm 76
 Engineering prospective

Rock Pores matrix

Geology Prespective

Rock Ponest framework t cement t matrix

Ex
Panes frame work matrix
Raiding
pones column walls
cement
in Between
materials
Fluid Saturations

Grain & Matrix

Water Gas Oil

 Initially, water fills pores and wets

the rock surface

 Hydrocarbons migrate into the

reservoir rock, displacing some water

 Hydrocarbon distribution
determined by gravity and capillary
forces, and by wettability
Pete 206 77
Resistivity of Earth Materials

1
Resistivit y 
Conductivi ty

are
(1) Rock

Conductivity
Increasing
(2) Gas Ghosts
Increasing
Resistivity

(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water

78
Factor Affecting Resistivity
Rt
9 Rn
 Resistivity of water Rt
0M Jut
 Porosity of the formation,

 Pore geometry - tortuosity a

 Lithology of the formation

 Degree of cementation, and m

 Type and amount of clay in the rock

79
Electricity and Earth Materials - 1

 Conduction is by ions in water

 Na+ and Cl- are very common

 Other mono-valent ions K+ and OH-

 Common divalent ions: Ca++, Mg++

80
Electricity and Earth Materials - 2

 Water resistivity
controlled by
 Ion concentrations
 What type of ions
 What temperature
 Chart to convert to
NaCl equivalent
 Chart for Eni ki
temperature/resist
ivity for NaCl

81
ARP’S Formula

 For constant solution

 R1(T1 + 7) = R2(T2 + 7) (T in oF)
 R1(T1 + 21.5) = R2(T2 + 21.5) (T in oC)

 Example
 Rm = 0.32 ohm-m @ surface (25oC)
 What is Rm at 145 oC?
 R2 = R1(T1 + 21.5)/(T2 + 21.5)
 R2 = 0.32(25+21.5)/(145+21.5) = 0.089 ohm-m
 Check this on the chart!
82
 h
Archie’s First Equation Ru

 Relates rock resistivity to Rw

Roy Wtc

Ro = F Rw , where: Rt Wto t c

Ro = Resistivity of a rock that is 100% saturated with formation

water
Rw = Resistivity of formation water
F = Formation factor (formation resistivity factor)
(found to vary as porosity changes F = a-m
 As the salt water content increases, the formation resistivity will decrease.
 A rock containing oil or gas will have a higher resistivity than the same
rock completely saturated with salt water.
 As the shale content increases, the rock matrix will become more
conductive.
83
Rock containing pores saturated with water and hydrocarbons

Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated

with water having resistivity,
Rw
Rt Cube of water
= 20%
Sw = 20%
having resistivity,
SHC =80%
Ro Rw
= 20%
Sw = 100%

Rw
= 100%
Sw = 100%
(1) Rock
Conductivity
Increasing
Increasing
Resistivity

(2) Gas
(3) Oil
a
(4) Fresh Water F  Ro 
Rw m 84
(5) Salt Water
Formation Factor

The formation factor (F) depends on:

 Porosity of the formation;

 Pore geometry;

 Lithology of the formation;

 Degree of cementation; and m

 Type and amount of clay in the rock. high amant

85
of conductive Rock
Formation Factor

 For a clean formation (no shale), the formation factor can

usually be empirically correlated with porosity.

a
F
 m

a = constant  1.0 for most formations

m = cementation factor  2 for most formations
 Common values

 F = 0.8/2 (Tixier) or 0.62/2.15 (Humble) for sandstones

86
 F = 0.8/2 for carbonates
 Formation Resistivity Factor Versus Porosity

a
F  Ro  m
Rw 
• As  increases, more of
the rock volume is
comprised of pores
filled with conductive
fluid
• Therefore, Ro and F
decrease

87
Relation of formation factor to volumetric porosity

88
Resistivity factor to shaliness

 The formation factor (F) is constant for a clean sand; F decreases for
shaly sand as value of Rw increases.

Became
QShale contain
class class are condative
89
 For dean Sand

F
Rolf If Rw increase Ro increas
Thus F will Remain constant

F RYR
slfRnIncnees.Ro will decrees

because Shale contain days

and the days is conductive

This Fait F will decrease

F in the clean
Sun

2
FRI formation

I
R Ri
I In t
matrix

Ethno
 ro mathematically correct
But rC

in Case of rw to

Ro Rw

Resistivity is only function of

Saturation

 Amount of water per unit volume =  Sw

 Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume =  (1 - Sw)

 (1-Sw)
 Hydrocarbon
 Sw Water

1 Matrix

90
Archie’s Second Equation

 Relates Sw to Rt
 If Rt = R0, then the formation is 100% saturated
with formation water. However, if Rt > Ro, then
the formation contains oil or gas.

 General formula:
Ro F * Rw a * Rw
S n
   m
 Rt
w
Rt Rt
• For clean sands, n = 2 is common.
• Like “a” and m, n is measured in the lab. 91
Lab Evaluation of n

92
Sw
try
how can we set n

logcsw n
log Roky

Rt
logan n
leg Ro

t
 s
Determination of Pore Pressure from Resistivity Data

y y
lose e 9 Pore Pressure
Gradient

Lope
lag cap
tintercept
Fracture Gradient

i 93
F Ryan we need 3 Samples
with Same mineralogy
and different of
Determination of Pore Pressure from Resistivity Data

94
Determination of Pore Pressure from Resistivity Data

Cn trend

Co

95
Determination of Pore Pressure from Resistivity Data

96
Determination of Pore Pressure from Resistivity Data

97
 Example Problem

Gamma Ray, API Resistivity, .m Bulk Density, g/cc

98