LABORATORY MANUAL

APPLIED PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

BACHELOR OF TELECOM, COMPUTER, ELECTRONIC

AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared

Dr. Rizwan Raza, Dr. Hafiz Ashfaq Ahmad, Dr. M. Ashraf Chaudary, Samia Aslam,
and Mahrukh Bokhari

Edited
Dr. M. Idrees, Dr. Aamir Razzaq, Dr. Jamil Ahmed, Dr. Dr. Majid Niaz Akhtar,
Dr. Addul Sattar, Dr. Nosheen Akbar and Dr. Ishrat Sultana

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Ali Akbar Road, Off Raiwind Road, Lahore ,54000, Pakistan
Phone: 111-001-007 Ext.295 Fax :0092-042-9920310

1
 CONTENTS

1. Lab safety rules

Section-I

2. Experiment No. 1 –To determine the resistivity and conductivity of Eureka wire
3. Experiment No.2 – To study the variation of photoelectric current with the intensity of light.
4. Experiment No.3- Determine the value of g by using Compound pendulum.
5. Experiment No.4- Determine the frequency of AC SUPPLY BY Meld‟s Method.
6. Experiment No. 5- To study characteristics of an RLC series (acceptor) circuit by plotting a
response curve .Determine the resonance frequency ,bandwidth and Q.factor of the circuit
7. Experiment No.6 -To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel (Rejecter) circuit by plotting a
response curve .Determine the resonance frequency, bandwidth and Q-factor of the circuit.
8. Experiment No. 7 -To determine the charge to mass ratio of an electron using Lorentz force
analyzer.
9. Experiment No.8 –To determine the ionization Potential of mercury.
10. Experiment No.9 – To determine the unknown small resistance by using the Cary Foster‟s bridge
11. Experiment No.10 –To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter of range0- 3V range.
12. Experiment No. 11 –To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter of range 0.1 Ampere.
13. Experiment No.12 - To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Newton‟s Rings
Section –II
14. Observations and Calculations
15. Viva Questions

2
 EXPERIMENT No.1

To determine the resistivity and conductivity of a eureka wire.

1.1 Apparatus
Variable Power supply (0-3V minimum), ammeter, voltmeter, eureka wire, screw gauge, meter rod and
connecting wires.

Eureka wire
Area
L
A A

+ - Circuit diagram
Fig.1.1.
1.2 Theory
Resistivity or specific resistance of a conducting material is defined as the resistance per unit length
of a material. In previous classes you have read that resistance R of a conductor varies directly with its
length L and inversely with its cross-sectional area A.

Mathematically:
L
R
A
L
Or R
A
here  is the constant of proportionality known as the specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor.
Its SI unit is Ohm-meter. Mathematically,
A
R
L
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity denoted by  .

3
 1 L
 
 RA
The SI unit of conductivity is ohm 1 m 1 .It is also known as Siemens. Ohmic materials or conductors
obeys Ohm‟s Law by expressing linear curve between applied potential difference and streaming current as
shown in figure below:

Fig.1.2 Graphical illustration of Ohm‟s Law

Eureka wire is alloy of Nickel (Ni) and Copper (Cu). The purpose to use Eureka wire in this experiment is
basically due to sensitivity limitation. As resistivity of Eureka wire is higher than pure copper wire
therefore it can easily calculate in our undergraduate Lab.

1.3 Observations and Calculations:

No of Voltage (V) Current(I) V
Resistance (R= )
obs. I
Volts A Ohms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

4
Mean Resistance R of the wire = _________ ohms

Length of the wire L = ___________ m

Diameter of the wire D = __________m

Radius of the wire r = __________

Area of the cross-section of the wire A = ________ m 2

A
Resistivity of the wire =   R = ______ohm-m
L
1.4 Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit according to the following circuit Diagram to find the resistance R of the
eureka wire.
2. Switch on the power supply and set the voltage value at 1V .Record the current in the circuit, by
ammeter.
3. Now increase the applied the voltage at regular intervals and record the corresponding current for
each value of the voltage.
4. Find the value of resistance R of the eureka wire for each set of current and voltage. Finally find
the mean resistance R of the wire.
5. Find the diameter D of the wire using screw gauge and length L of the wire using meter rod.
6. The area of cross section A of wire is r 2 where r is the radius of the wire.
7. Calculate  and  as per given Procedure.
1.5 Precautions
1. Provide small current to the wire for short time to avoid heating.
2. Take atleast ten readings of current for different value of voltages.
3. Switch off the power supply after each measurement.
4. Take several readings of diameter of the wire and get average diameter D.
5. Be sure that the current is turned off before making adjustments in the circuit.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 2
To study the variation of photo-electric current with the intensity of light
2.1. Objective:
To investigate how the photoelectric current depends on the intensity of incident light.

2.2. Apparatus:
Photoelectric cell, sensitive galvanometer preferably a ballistic one, rheostat, key, battery, electric lamp,
optical bench or some other arrangement to measure distance „d‟.

2.3. Theory:
When light shines on a clean metal surface, electrons may be ejected. This occurs only when the electrons
in the metal absorb a sufficient amount of energy from the light to escape from the metal. This energy is
called the binding energy or work function. The work function is different for each type of metal. Energy
absorbed in excess of this binding energy is carried off by the electron as kinetic energy. Some of this
kinetic energy may be transferred to other electrons or atoms in the metal so that the electrons will have a
range of kinetic energies leaving the metal. The mechanism of Photoelectric effect is governed by two
theories which are given as below:

Theory 1 -Classical Wave Theory of Electromagnetism

Classical wave Theory states that when light energy is absorbed by electrons, energy is transferred
continuously. After an electron has absorbed sufficient energy, it will leave the metal with a minimum of
kinetic energy. Increasing the light intensity (electromagnetic energy per second per unit area) causes
electrons to leave the metal at a greater rate and attain greater kinetic energy. Increasing the frequency
while maintaining light intensity does not change the rate of electron emission. Any frequency of light will
eject electrons if sufficient intensity and time is provided.

Theory 2 -Light as Quanta

Quantum Theory claims that the energy of light is concentrated into discrete bundles called photons. For a
given wavelength of light, each photon has the same energy
E = hf = hc - - - - - - - -(1)
where h is a constant, f is the frequency of the light, c is the speed of light. The intensity of light determines
the rate of electron emission from the metal provided that each photon has sufficient energy to eject an
electron. Light of sufficiently high frequency f ejects electrons even at very low intensities.
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Photo-electric cell
A photo-electric cell is a device that converts light into electricity. Two main types of photoelectric cell
are in use today: the phototube and the solid-state photo detector.
Phototube
The phototube is an electron tube in which electrons initiating an electric current originate through
photoelectric emission. In its simplest form the phototube is composed of a cathode coated with a
photosensitive material, and an anode. Light falling upon the cathode causes the liberation of electrons,
which are then attracted to the positively charged anode, resulting in a flow of electrons (i.e., current)
proportional to the intensity of the light. Phototubes may be highly evacuated, or filled with an inert gas at
low pressure to achieve greater sensitivity.

In a modification called the multiplier phototube, or photomultiplier, a series of metal plates are shaped
and arranged so that the photoelectric emission is amplified by secondary electron emission. The
multiplier phototube is capable of detecting radiation of extremely low intensity; it is an essential tool for
nuclear research, astronomy, and space guidance systems.
Solid-State Photo-detector
The second type of photoelectric cell, the solid-state photo-detector, has replaced the phototube for many
applications because it is small, inexpensive, and uses little power. Photo detector is further sub divided as
photoconductors, charged couple device, photodiodes.

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In a photocell, the number of photo-electrons is proportional to the intensity of the incident light of certain
frequency. In other words, the intensity (I) of the incident light is proportional to the deflection (θ)
produced in the galvanometer or ammeter.
I α θ - - - - - - (1)
But according to inverse square law of radiation, the intensity of light from a source is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (d) from the source i.e.,
I α 1/d2 - - - - - - (2)
On comparing (1) and (2) we get
θ α 1/d2 - - - - - - (3)
The above equation shows that the photo-electric current, which is measured by the deflection θ, is
directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. It means that if we plot a graph between θ and
1/d2, it should be a straight line.

2.4. Experimental design:

The schematic Diagram of photo electric effect is given below; light enters a vacuum tube and strikes a
metal surface E (cathode). Electrons are then emitted from the metal and strike collector plate C (anode).
The stream of electrons coming off E constitutes a current in the circuit, which can be detected and
measured by the ammeter A / galvanometer G. The potential between E and C can also be varied by
connecting a variable power supply between them. By keeping the potential between them constant, you
can vary the number of electrons that reach C and hence control the current of the circuit.

2.5. Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the Diagram. Connect the cathode of the photo-cell to the
negative terminal of a battery B or power supply through a rheostat, key K and galvanometer
G. Connect the anode of the photo-cell to the positive terminal of the battery. With the help
of rheostat, we can apply the required voltage to the electrodes of the photo-cell.

8
 2. Put a light source at some known distance from the cathode E and switch it on. When light
falls on the cathode E, it emits electrons. The cathode E, being negatively charged, repels the
electrons so emitted towards the anode C which attracts them and causes a photo-electric
current across the circuit. The cathode E is usually made concave to give a converging beam
of photo electrons for focusing purpose at the anode C.
3. Now displace the electric lamp towards the photo-cell in regular steps, decreasing distance
say, by 10 cm each time. Note down the d and corresponding deflection θ of the
galvanometer for each change of distance. Go on taking readings until the distance between
the photo-cell and electric bulb is 10cm.
4. Calculate 1/d2 for each observation.
5. Draw a graph between 1/d2 and θ which will be a straight light as shown in Diagram. The
graph shows that the photo-electric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

2.6. Observations and Calculations:

No. of Obs. Distance of photo-cell from the Deflection of 1/d2

source galvanometer
Cm θ
div
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

9
Inference
The graph between 1/d2 (intensity of light) and θ (photo-electric current) is a straight line,
therefore photo-electric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light, i.e.,
the greater the intensity (smaller the distance d), the larger the current.

2.6. Precautions:
1. A sensitive galvanometer, such as a ballistic galvanometer, should be used.
2. A hole should be used in front of the light source to make it a point source so that the intensity
of light from it should obey the inverse square law.
3. The distance of the light source should be changed linearly without changing the angle at
which the beam of light falls initially on the cathode of the photo-cell.
4. The voltage applied to the electrodes of the photo-cell should not be more than the rated value.
5. Photo-cell should not be exposed to light for undue long time.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 3
To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ using reversible compound pendulum

3.1. Objective: To study the physical properties of compound pendulum and calculate the free fall
acceleration by this device.

3.2. Apparatus:
Compound Pendulum, wedge, meter rod, stop watch
Diagram

Fig.3.1. A meter rod as a compound pendulum

3.3. Theory:

A simple pendulum consists of a small body sometimes called a “bob" attached to the end of a string the
length of which is large compared to the dimensions of the bob. Moreover, the mass of the string is
negligible in comparison with that of the bob. Under these conditions the mass of the bob may be regarded
as concentrated at its center of mass, and the length of the pendulum is the distance to this point from the
axis of suspension. When a simple pendulum swings through a small arc, it executes simple harmonic
motion of period T given by the equation

11
 l
T  2 (1)
g

Where g is the gravitational field strength and l is the distance from the suspension point to the center of
the bob. When the dimensions of the suspended body are not negligible compared to the distance from the
suspension axis to the center of mass, the pendulum is called a compound (or physical) pendulum. Any
object mounted on a horizontal axis so as to oscillate under the force of gravity is a compound pendulum,
e.g., meter stik. The expression for the period of a compound pendulum is

I
T  2 (2)
mgh
Where I is the rotational inertia of the pendulum about the axis of suspension, m is the pendulum's
mass, and h is the distance from the suspension point to the center of mass. The figure given
above illustrates a meter stick suspended about a rotation axis S. The inertia about the pivot point
I, is defined in terms of the inertia about the centre of gravity Icm and the distance h between the
centre of gravity and the pivot point as:

I cm  mR2 0 (3)

where Ro is the radius of gyration about an axis through C. For any regular body (such as a disk, sphere,
or rod) Ro can be computed by means of the appropriate formula for an irregular body, it must be
determined experimentally. For a uniform bar of length l and width w about an axis a distant h from the
centre of gravity the value of R0 can be determined by:

 l 2  w2  2
R0     h (4)
 12 
The rotational inertia about any axis parallel to the one through the center of mass is given by the parallel
axis theorem:
I  Icm  mh 2 (5)
Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq.(5), we get ,
I  mR 2 0  mh 2 (6)
Substitution of Eq. (6) in Eq. (2), yields

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 R02  h 2
T  2 (7)
gh
This equation expresses the period in terms of the geometry of the body. It shows that the period is
independent of the mass, but does depend on the distribution of the mass (as measured by Ro) and the
location of the axis of suspension (as specified by h). Because the radius of gyration of any given body is
constant, the period of any given pendulum is a function of h only.

3.3.1. Equivalent Simple Pendulum:

The actual form of a pendulum often consists of a long, light bar or a cord that serves as a support for a
small, massive bob. If we ideally take a long bar as a point mass on the end of a weightless rod of length L
, then this will become a simple pendulum. An actual pendulum is sometimes called a physical or
compound pendulum. An equivalent simple pendulum is a real pendulum which oscillates with a length
equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in a pendulum called center of oscillation(a point in an
object where when a perpendicular force is applied ,it will produce translational and rotational forces
which perfectly cancel each other so that the pivot will not be moving momentarily after the application of
an impulse force, The same point is called the center of oscillation if the object is a pendulum)This is
located below the center of mass at a distance equal to radius of gyration In 1673, it was proved by
Christian Huygens that the pivot point and the center of oscillation is are interchangeable. This means that
if any pendulum is turned upside down and swing from a pivot at the center, it will have the same period as

13
 before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point . The formula for time period will be
given as:

L
T  2 (8)
g
An equivalent simple pendulum is designed to measure g, the acceleration of gravity. It consists of
a body with two knife-edge supports on opposite sides of the center of mass (and with at least one
adjustable knife-edge) pendulum. The value for g follows from Eq. (8).

3.4. Observations and Calculations:

3.4.1. Results:
Sr. SIDE A SIDE B
No Time for 20 vibrations Time Time for 20 vibrations Time
Distance Time Time Mean Period Distance Time Time Mean Period
from C.G Time from C.G Time
(m) (s) (s) (s) T=t/20 M (s) (s) (s) T=t/20
(s) (s)

3.4.2. Graph:

14
3.4.2. Calculation of g from the graph:
Sr. No Length of equivalent Time period T2 g
simple pendulum Of equivalent
from graph simple
AD  BE pendulum (s2)
L
2 (s) (cm/s2)
(cm)

1.
2.
3.

Mean g= __________ cm/s 2

Literature value = _____________________

Experimental value = ______________________

Difference = ______________________

difference
% Error = x100 =
literature value

3.5: Procedure:
1. Balance the meter stick on the wedge and find the position of its C.G.
2. Label one end of the meter as side A and the other end as side B.
3. The pendulum has holes drilled every 2cm along its length .Measure the distance h of every hole
on side A and side B from the C.G of the pendulum with the help of a meter rod and record the
values in the observation table .
4. Suspend the pendulum from the knife edge in the uppermost hole on side A. Make sure that
pendulum hangs parallel to the wall.
5. Set the pendulum into vibration with small amplitude of about 6 inches and measure the time t for 20
vibrations with the help of an electronic stop watch.

15
 6. Repeat the observations for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th holes of side A.
7. Now hang the side B of the pendulum, with the knife edge in uppermost hole following subsequent
holes and record the time t for 20 vibrations.
8. Calculate the time period of the pendulum for each set of vibrations on side A and side B by using
t
the formula T  .
20
9. Take a graph paper, mark y-axis at the centre of the paper to represent time period .Represent the
distance from the centre of gravity along the x-axis such that the distance h on the side A is taken to
the right of origin and that origin and that of side B to the left of the origin. Draw smooth curves on
either side of Y-axis through the plotted points making sure that the two curves are exactly
symmetrical as shown in the figure.
10. Draw a straight line parallel to the x-axis and cutting the curves to the point A, B, D & E. and
determine the length of the equivalent simple pendulum using the relation:

AD  BE
L
2
11. Measuring the corresponding time period T of this equivalent simple pendulum from the OC
intercept of the graph.
12. Calculate g using equation (7).
13. Repeat steps 10, 11 and 12 three times and find the mean value of g. Compare it with experimental
value and calculate the percentage error .

3.6. Precautions:
1. The amplitude of the pendulum should be small.
2. The time period should be measured after the oscillations become regular.
3. The distances should be measured from the centre of hole to the centre of gravity/centre of mass of
the pendulum.
4. The graph drawn should be a free hand curve.

16
 EXPERIMENT No. 4
To determine the frequency of an A.C supply by Meld’s experiment

4.1 Apparatus
Step down transformer (220V-6V), rheostat of 15 ohms resistance, plug key,
Electro-magnet, steel strip 5” – 6” long fitted in a wooden block, thin cotton thread, scale pan and A.C.
mains, a weight box.

4.2 Theory
In Melde‟s experiment a uniform inelastic and thin string is used whose one end is fixed to electric
vibrator. The other end of the string passes over a frictionless pulley and attached to a scale pan. The
tension in the string can be varied by putting different weights in the pan. If the length of the string is
adjusted properly, stationary waves are produced on the string which can be made to vibrate in one or more
loops. This experiment can be performed with two arrangements (i) Longitudinal arrangement and (ii)
Transverse arrangement.

4.2.1 Longitudinal arrangement

In longitudinal arrangement the frequency of A.C supply is equal to the frequency of the vibrating segment
of the string.

4.2.2 Transverse arrangement

In transverse arrangement the frequency of A.C supply is equal to one half of the frequency of vibrating
segment of the string.

17
4.2.3 Applications of the AC supply
Most of the systems run either 50 or 60 hertz. Some countries have a mixture of 50 Hz and 60 Hz
supplies, notably electricity power transmission in Japan. A low frequency eases the design of
electric motors, particularly for hoisting, crushing and rolling applications, and commutator-
type traction motors for applications such as railways. However, low frequency also causes
noticeable flicker in arc lamps and incandescent light bulbs. The use of lower frequencies also
provided the advantage of lower impedance losses, which are proportional to frequency.

4.3 Experimental design

Melde‟s Apparatus is designed to show the effects of vibrations in a str etched cor d and
investigate the r elationship b etween fr equency, and tension. One end of a 2.5 mm diameter
steel r od is for med into a strong hook and the other end is fir mly clamped by a thumb scr ew
to a heavy metal base. The r od passes through the center of a solenoid and between the
poles of the p er manent magnet. When A.C power is supplied to the coil, the rod is
magnetized and it vibrates laterally between the magnets, wher eas the vibrating length of
the rod is set and locked to the corr ect resonant length . An A.C. ener gizing coil surrounds
the ar mature and a per manent magnet provides the necessary magnetic polarization.

One end of the cord is tied in a loop to attach to the hook at the end of the vibrator rod and the cord is then
passed over a vertical pulley clamped to the edge of the bench say 1 or 2 meters away. A weight carrier or
a scale pan is attached to the end of the cord to hang vertically. When the pan is loaded with weights
(known tension is applied to the cord), and as the rod vibrates, the taut cord can be seen to vibrate and
standing waves can easily be examined and measured at different cord tensions and lengths.

18
4.4. Procedure:
1. Connect a rheostat in series with a step-down transformer (220-6v) to maintain suitable
current through electromagnet.
2. Take a stout but thin cotton string nearly one meter long. Attach one end of the string to
the free end of the steel vibrator and pass it over the frictionless pulley clamped to an iron
stand. Suspend a light scale pan of known weight with the other end of the string.
3. Excite the steel vibrator by passing A.C current through the electromagnet.
4. Place suitable weights in the pan change slowly the length of the string by moving the
stand carrying the pulley, till maximum amplitude of vibrations in the thread is obtained
.The adjustment is done in small steps when the thread will be found to break up into a
number of segments forming well defined nodes n antinodes.
5. Note the tension T (weight of pan + weight added) and measure length „l‟ of the loop.
6. Count the number of loops (p) and measure the length (L) of the thread (from tuning fork
to pulley) with the help of meter scale. Find the value of
7. In each case measure the distance between extreme notes and divide this distance by the
number of complete loops to get length „l‟ of one loop.
8. Find the mass of 5 to 6 meter on thread to find its mass per unit length „m‟.
9. Use the relation f = 1/2l √T/m to work out the vibrating segment of string in each case.
10. Remember that for longitudinal arrangement the string completes only ½ vibrations for
one complete vibration of steel vibrator showing that the frequency of A.C supply is equal
to the frequency of the vibrating segment of the string.
Note: For transverse arrangement the frequency of the vibrating segment of the string is equal to the
frequency of the vibrator and hence halves the result to get the frequency of A.C. supply.

19
4.5 Observations and calculations
Mass of thread 5 meters in length M = _______
Mass of thread 1 cm in length m = _______
Weight of the scale pan w = _______

Sr. No. of Distance Length of Mass of the Tension in f= p/2×l √T/m

No. Loops Between each loop pan + mass dynes (N)
p extreme added to it T=W x 981
Nodes l = L/p W (g)
L
1.
2.
3.
4.

Result: Mean frequency of vibrating segment f = _________ vib/sec.

For Longitudinal Arrangement:

Frequency of A.C. mains = Frequency of vibrating segments = _ _ _ _ cycle/sec or hertz
For Transverse Arrangement:
Frequency of A.C. mains = ½ Frequency of vibrating segments = _ _ _ _ cycle/sec or hertz.
Actual value of A.C. frequency = _ _ _ _ _ _ cycles/sec or Hz.
Percentage error = _ _ _ _ _ _ %

4.6 Precautions
1. The thread used should be thin and uniform in diameter to get loops of equal length.
2. The scale pan should be light and small weights should be added.
3. To ensure free motion of the pulley, it should be oiled beforehand.
4. The steel vibrator should be properly arranged so as to avoid contact with the electromagnet
during vibrations.
5. A step-down transformer of range 220 V – 6V should be used.

20
 EXPERIMENT No. 5
To study characteristics of an RLC series and acceptor circuit by plotting a response curve.
Determine the resonance frequency, bandwidth and Q-factor of the circuit.

5.1. Apparatus:
Audio oscillator, suitable single resistance of the order of kilo or mega ohms, capacitor and inductors,
ammeter, connecting wires

Fig. 5.1. RLC Acceptor Circuit

5.2. Theory:
In any ac circuit containing the ohmic resistance, current and voltage are in phase and the power in the
circuit is volts times current. Also the input frequency remains same after passing through a resistor.
If only a capacitor is connected in the circuit, It responses to the input ac voltage as follows
(i) It passes the high frequency and current of the circuit is increased while it blocks the low
frequency and current in the circuit is decreased.
(ii) The voltage buildup across the capacitor is delayed and lags current by 90 0 . The resistance to
electron flow caused by capacitor is called capacitive reactance  c . It is measured in ohms and

is given by the relation:

 c  2fc
where f is the frequency and c is the capacitance.

When only inductance is present it responses to the input ac voltage as follows:

(i) It passes low frequency and current in the circuit is increased, while it blocks high frequency
and current of the circuit is decreased.

21
 (ii) The current across the circuit is delayed and lags the voltage by 90 0 . The resistance offered by
the inductor to the flow of current is called inductive reactance  L and is given by the relation

 L  2fL
In an ac RLC circuit the total resistance offered by the circuit is called impedance Z and according to ohm
law
V
z
I
In a series RLC circuit the relationship between R,  L ,  c represented by a vector Diagram as shown in

the figure:

Fig. 5.2. Vector representation of  L ,  c and R

If R is plotted along x-axis, then  L upward at 90° and  c downward at 90° from the end of the vector R.

The vector sum of  L and  c is  . The vector sum of R and  and Z is the impedance.

Z  R2   2
What is an acceptor circuit?
The angel  is called the phase angel and tells to what extent, the voltage and current are out of phase. If

 L   c ,   0 and voltage and current are in phase when this condition is achieved, the power in an ac
circuit is simply the product of current and voltage just as it is in a dc circuit. Under this condition a
maximum current flows in the circuit and such a circuit is called a series resonant circuit or most
commonly an “accepter circuit”. The resonant frequency of an accepter circuit can be obtained by using the
following relation:
 L  c
1
2fL 
2fc

22
 1
Or f  f r 
2 Lc
At resonance frequency, the current is maximum and depends only on the resistance of the circuit i.e.
independent of the reactance.

At any other frequency the current depends on the reactance and resistance of the circuit. When frequency
of the applied voltage is below the resonance frequency the net reactance of the circuit is capacitance and
the current leads the voltage if the frequency is above the resonant frequency, the net reactance is inductive

Quality factor
As discussed above RLC circuits can be used to respond selectively to signals of different frequencies. If
the response of the circuit is narrow around the chosen frequency, the circuit is said to have higher
"selectivity". A "quality factor" Q is a measure of that selectivity, and a circuit is said to have a "high Q" if
it has a narrower bandwidth of frequencies.

Following figure shows frequency response of two RLC circuits having same resonance frequency but a
different Q factor.

Fig. 5.3. frequency response of two RLC Fig. 5.4. Frequency response of Acceptor
circuits having same resonance frequency but a circuit with resonance frequency fr.
different Q factor

23
If f 1 and f 2 are the frequencies where the response falls to 0.707 of its own maximum value, the

bandwidth f of the circuit is f  f1  f 2 . The quality factor of the circuit can also be defined as:

resonancefrequency
Q. Factor =
bandwidth
fr
Or Q. Factor =
f

5.3. Observations and Calculations:

Resistance used = R= ____________ohms
Inductance used =L= _____________ohms
Capacitance used =C=____________ farad

No of Frequency Current in the circuit Log f

obs. from the oscillator I
f mA
Hz

24
From the graph:
Resonant frequency f r = _______Hz.
Lower half frequency f 1 =________Hz

Upper half frequency f 2  ________ Hz.

Bandwidth f  f1  f 2 = ________ Hz
fr
Q. Factor =
f

5.4. Procedure:
1. Select a suitable combination of R, L and C. Calculate the resonance frequency using the following
relation:
1
fr 
2 LC
Note down the values of selected R, L and C.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 5.1.
3. Set the oscillator output at a low suitable voltage.
4. Select the oscillator frequency equal to the calculated resonance frequency.
5. Switch on the oscillator and observe the current flowing in the circuit. If the oscillator frequency is
exactly equal to the resonance frequency, the current flowing in the circuit should be maximum. It
can be verified by slightly adjusting the oscillator frequency.
6. Bring the oscillator frequency to a value well below the resonance frequency .The current in the
circuit should fall to a very low value as compared to the current at resonance frequency.
7. Now start the experiment with a frequency from the oscillator well below the value of resonance
frequency as calculated above. Now vary the frequency f from the oscillator in suitable regular step
and note down the current I in the circuit for each frequency value. Keep on taking the readings till
the current falls to about the same value as it with the lowest frequency.
8. In case the frequency variation is very large then find log(f) for each value.
9. Draw the response curve for the circuit by plotting a graph between for f or log(f) and current I as
shown in the figure 5.4.

25
 10. Note down the resonance frequency fr for the maximum current or peak value current I0 from the
graph. Draw a line parallel to x-axis from the point where current has a value 0.707 timesI0 (Root
mean square value). This line will cut the response curve at two points corresponding to f1 and f2.
11. Calculate the bandwidth and Q Factor of the circuit according to the given formulae.

5.5. Precautions:
1. Suitable set of R, L and C should be selected and their values should be known.
2. The connections should be tight and clean.
3. Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regular small steps.
4. The naked wires should not be touched when the circuit is on.

26
 EXPERIMENT No.6

To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel or rejecter circuit by plotting a response curve.
Determine the resonance frequency, bandwidth and Q-factor of the circuit.

6.1. Apparatus:
Audio oscillator, resistor, capacitor, inductor, AC ammeter, connecting wires.

Fig.6.1. Rejecter circuit

6.2. Theory:
If the resistance, inductance and capacitance are connected in parallel and an ac voltage is applied across
them, it behaves quite opposite to the acceptor circuit i.e. current is minimum at the resonance .Such a
circuit is called a rejecter circuit. In a rejecter circuit, the potential difference is same In a rejecter circuit
the potential difference is same but the current flowing through R,L and C are different .The current
through resistance is in phase with the applied voltage but that through the capacitance leads the voltage by
90 0 .If I L , I c and I r be the currents through L,C and R respectively, the resultant current through the
circuit is the vector sum off all the currents .

I  (I c  I L ) 2  I r
2

At the resonance frequency I c & I L being equal and opposite, cancel each other, therefore the total current

V
in the circuit reduces to minimum. It means that the impedance z  of the parallel resonant circuit is
I
maximum, which is just opposite to that of the series resonator circuit.

27
 Fig.6.2. Frequency response of Acceptor circuit with resonance frequency fr.

If f1 and f2 are the frequencies where current rises to 1.414 times the minimum current, then the Bandwidth
fr
of the circuit is f  f1  f 2 and Q. Factor is .
f
6.3. Observations and Calculations:
Resistance used = R = ________ohms
Capacitance used = C = _______ μ f = ________ farad
Inductance = L =________ m H =_______ Henry

No of Frequency Current in the circuit Log f

obs. from the oscillator f (Hz) I (mA)

28
From the graph:
Resonant frequency f r = _______Hz.
Lower half frequency f 1 =________Hz
Upper half frequency f 2  ________ Hz.
Bandwidth f  f1  f 2 = ________ Hz

fr
Q. Factor =
f
6.4. Procedure:
1. Select a suitable set of an R, L & C
Take R in the range20kΩ---1mΩ
Take L in the range 100mh---500mh
Take C in the range 0.001 μ f----0.1 μ f

Calculate the resonance frequency using the relation:

1
fr 
2 Lc
Note down the value of the selected R, L & C.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 6.1.
3. Set the oscillator output to a moderate value of voltage.
4. Switch the oscillator and observe the current flowing in the circuit. If the frequency of the
oscillator is exactly equal to the resonance frequency of the circuit, the current in the circuit should
be minimum. It can be verified by slightly adjusting the oscillator frequency.
5. Bring the oscillator frequency to a value well below the resistance frequency .the current in the
circuit should rise. Adjust the frequency so that a suitable current (say 2 to 3mA) flows in the
circuit.
6. Now vary the frequency (f) in the suitable regular steps and note down the current for each
variation of the frequency. At resonant frequency the current in the circuit will fall to a minimum.
Go on noting the reading till the frequency is well above the resonant value. Find log(f) if
frequency variation is greater.
7 Make sure that the out put voltage of the oscillator remains same for all frequencies.

29
8 Plot a response curve for the circuit by plotting a graph between f or log(f) and current I. Note
down the resonance frequency (f), for the minimum value of the current I 0 from the graph. Draw

a line parallel to the x-axis from the point where the current has the value 1.4142 times I 0 . This

line will cut the response current at two points corresponding to f 1 and f 2 . Note down the values

of f 1 and f 2 . Calculate the bandwidth and Q-Factor of the circuit. According to the given
formulae.

6.5. Precautions:
1. Suitable set of R, L and C should be selected and their values should be known.
2. The connections should be tight and clean.
3. Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regular small steps.
4. The naked wires should not be touched when the circuit is on.

30
 EXPERIMENT No. 7
To determine the ionization potential of mercury

8.1. Apparatus:
A mercury diode with voltmeter and micro-ammeter, power supply, potentiometer

Fig.8.1. Experimental arrangement and structure of mercury lamp

The minimum grid voltage that just produces a current is called ionization potential
Fig.8.2. Curve between log Va & log Ia
8.2. Theory:
If an electron lying in the inner energy state (energy level) of an atom ,be supplied with energy equal to
the energy of that state itself, the electron will be raised to an orbit at n=  and will detach itself from the
atom. Such an atom is said to be ionized and it has net positive charge (positive ion). If the electron is
picked out of the atom from its ground state so that its kinetic energy is zero outside the atom, the energy
consumed is equal to ionization energy or ionization potential. For example hydrogen atom which has only
one electron in first energy state, has only one ionization potential, while other atoms having many
electrons in different states have a number of ionization potentials. if however the energy supplied to the
31
electron is such that the electron is lifted from its ground state to one of the higher allowed orbit, the atom
will be only excited an the energy supplied will be the excitation energy or excitation potentials. Hydrogen
with only one ionization potential has many excitation potentials. On way of producing ionization and
excitation of atoms is to bombard them with electrons accelerated by an electrostatic field. The energy of
the accelerated electrons could be at least equal to or more than the ionization potential of the atoms to be
ionized.

When a cathode is heated in a diode, the emitted electrons form a cloud around cathode surface. This cloud
of electrons is called a space charge which repels the additional electrons and derives them back to the
cathode. If the anode potential is made slightly positive with respect to the cathode, the anode current is
very small because it is controlled by the space charge which repels back many of the electrons .The
current is said to be space charge limited and the effect is known as space charge effect. The space charge
limited current does not depend upon the temperature of the cathode but it depends only upon the anode
potential .The relation between the space charge limited current I and anode potential V is given by Child
Longmuir‟s law or three halves-power law as
3
I a  AV a 2 (1)

where A is a constant .The law holds only if the plate potential is such that the anode current does not
attain its saturation value. On taking logarithm on both sides of equation-1 we get:
3
3
log I a  log( AV 2
a )  log A  log Va
2 (2)
3
log I a  log Va  cons tan t
2
2
Eq. (2) shows that the graph between log Va and log I a is a straight line of slope as long as the anode
3
current is space charge limited .

If the diode contains mercury vapors, the relation (1) holds only until the value of the anode potential is
below the ionization potential of mercury .if however, the anode potential is increased to the ionization
potential of the mercury ,electrons emitted from cathode attains sufficiently energy to ionize mercury
atoms .the positive ions thus formed because of their low mobility are very effective in neutralizing the
atoms. The positive ions, thus formed, because of their low mobility are very effective in neutralizing the
space charge around the cathode with the result that a large number of electrons flow towards the anode

32
showing an abrupt increase in the anode current. The Child-Langmuir law no longer holds and the graph
plotted between log Va and log I a depart from straightness at this value of anode potential shown in fig-

2 .The value of the ionization potential of mercury can thus be obtained from the point where the curve
deviates from linearity. The Child Langmuir‟s law can be verified by plotting the same graph.

8.3. Observations and Calculations:

Anode Voltage Anode Current log Va log I a
Set Sr. Va Ia
No Volts mA
1

Value of ionization potential from the graph:

First set =_________volts

33
Second set (if required) =________volts

Mean value = __________

8.4. Procedure:
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in fig-1 .Connect the mercury diode to the positive terminal of the
potential divider circuit through a microammeter or milliammeter. Connect a voltmeter in parallel
to note down anode voltage .Connect filament to a low tension battery through switch S,
potentiometer and ammeter. Connect a voltmeter in parallel to note down filament voltage.
2. Now switch on the circuit and and adjust the rated voltage to the filament(if required) and let the
tube be heated for few minutes so that mercury vapors are produced inside the tube .
3. Now apply a small voltage say 1 volt,to the Anode. Note down the corresponding anode voltage
V a and anode current I a from the readings of the voltmeter and milli/micro ammeter.
4. Increase the anode voltage in small and regular steps and note down the corresponding values of
plate current till the plate current rises suddenly. Take one or two more readings provided the
current does not exceed the full scale current of the micro ammeter.
5. Plot a graph between log Va and log I a taking the former along x-axis and the latter along y-

axis. The curve so obtained is a straight line with a sharp bend as shown in the figure above
6. Draw a normal from the point where the curve bends to the x-axis .Note down the value of
corresponding V a by taking antilog where the normal meets the x-axis.

7. If filament voltage is adjustable then take another set of readings by slightly decreasing the
filament voltage and calculate the ionization potential. Then take mean value of ionization
potential.

8.5. Precautions:
1. For the filament rating of the tube ,tube manual should be consulted.
2. Filament voltage should not exceed the rated value and it should exceed the rated value and it
should remain constant.
3. High impedance voltmeter should be used for measuring plate voltage.
4. Near ionization point, the plate voltage should be increased very slowly and care should be taken to
limit the plate current to maximum value that can be measured with the voltmeter used.

34
 EXPERIMENT No. 8

To determine the charge to mass ratio of an electron by using Lorenz Force Analyzer

7.1. Apparatus:

Daedalon Helmholtz coil with e/m glass tube, Meter stick

7.2. Theory:

In this experiment, you will measure e/m, the ratio of the electron‟s charge e to its mass m. Measuring
separately the electric charge (e) and the rest mass (m) of an electron is a difficult task because both
quantities are extremely small. Charge on an electron is: e = 1.60217733×10-19 coulombs while mass of an
electron is: m = 9.1093897×10-31 kilograms. Fortunately, the ratio of these two fundamental constants can
be determined easily and precisely from the radius of curvature of an electron beam traveling in a known
magnetic field. An electron beam of a specified energy, and therefore a specified speed, may be produced
conveniently in an e/m apparatus. The central piece of this apparatus is an evacuated electron-beam bulb
with a special anode. A known current flow through a pair of Helmholtz coils and produces a magnetic
field. The trajectory of the speeding electrons moving through the magnetic field is made visible by a
small amount of Neon.

If a particle carrying an electric charge q moves with a velocity v in a magnetic field B that is at a right
angle to the direction of motion, it will experience the Lorentz force:

F = qv × B (1)

Which, because of the vector product, is always perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the
direction of motion.

A constant force that is always perpendicular to the direction of motion will cause a particle to move in a
circle. We will use this fact to determine e/m of the electron by measuring the radius of that circle.

To this end we must:

 Produce a narrow beam of electrons of known energy,

35
  Produce a uniform magnetic field,
 Find a way to measure the radius r of the circular orbit of the electrons in that magnetic field,
And

 Find the relation between that radius and the ratio e/m.
We discuss these problems in order.

a) The Electron Beam

When one heats a piece of metal, say a wire, to 1,000 K or beyond, electrons will "boil off"
from its surface. If one surrounds the wire with a positively charged electrode, an anode, the electrons
will be attracted to it and move radially outward as indicated in Fig. 1.

On their way to the anode they will acquire a kinetic energy

(2)

where V is the potential difference, or voltage, between the heated filament, called the cathode, and the anode.
Most of the electrons will strike the anode. However, if one cuts a narrow slit into the anode, those electrons that
started ou t toward the slit will exit through it as a narrow beam

with a kinetic energy Ek.

Fig.7.1. Electron gun. Electrons are produced by the hot cathode at the center. A voltage V between the cathode
and anode accelerates the electron through a hole in the anode, so the electrons have kinetic energy eV.

36
b) The Magnetic Field

According to Ampere's law a wire carrying a current I is surrounded by a magnetic field B, as shown in Fig. 2.
If the wire is bent into a circle the field lines from all sides reinforce each other at the center, creating an axial field
(see Fig. 3). Usually one will not use a single loop of wire to create a f i e l d but a c o i l with many turns.

Fig.7.2. Magnetic field of a straight wire

Fig.7.3. Magnetic field of a wire loop.

If one uses two coaxial coils of radius R that are a distance d apart, as shown in Fig. 4, the field at the center point
between the coils will be nearly homogeneous. H. von Helmholtz (1821-1894) realized that there remains a free
parameter, namely the coil separation d, that can still be adjusted. He showed that when d = R, the result is a
particularly homogeneous field in the central region between the coils. Since that time, Helmholtz coils have been
used when there is a need for homogeneous magnetic fields.

37
Fig.7.4. Magnetic field B of a pair of Helmholtz coils. R is the radius of the coils and d is the spacing
between them.

One can show that the field in the center of a Helmholtz coil is given by

(3)

where I is the current flowing through both coils, R is their mean radius, N is the number of turns of wire in each
coil, and μ0 = 4π× 10-7 T·m/A is the permeability constant.

c) The Electron Orbit

The bulb surrounding the electron source is filled with either mercury (larger apparatus) or helium (smaller
apparatus) vapor. When the electrons collide with the atoms, the atoms emit light so that one can follow the path
of the electron beam. These collisions will diminish the accuracy of the experiment but it remains adequate for our
purposes. A particle moving in a circle of radius r must be held there by a centripetal force

(4)

In our case, that centripetal force is the Lorentz force, Eq. (1),

hence

(5)

This equation contains the velocity v, which we can eliminate by using

Eq. (2). Rewriting Eq. (2), we find

38
 (6)

and hence (7)

The uncertainty in e/m is determined by the uncertainty in V, B, and r. In Equations (7) V is the
voltage between cathode and anode and r is the mean radius of the circular electron orbit, both of
which can be measured, and B is the magnetic field through which the electrons pass. We
know the magnetic field at the center of the Helmholtz coil, which can be obtained, using Eq. (3),
from a measurement of the current through the coils, the dimension of the coils and the number of
turns. The magnetic field does not change very much away from the center of the coils.

By increasing the accelerating voltage radius of the ring increases while by increasing the coil
current the radius of the ring decreases. The radius of the ring can be controlled by accelerating
voltage and coil current.

Fig.7.5. Schematic of e/m Apparatus

39
The Helmholtz Coil Apparatus

A Helmholtz coil is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field.

Fig.7.6. Grid and Anode

7.3. Procedure:

1. Turn the main power on. There is a 10 minute warm-up time before you should start
measurements. You should now be able to see the filament (two wires that are orange due to
being heated).
2. Look in the center of the Helmholtz coils for the glass tube. This evacuated glass tube has
Neon vapor inside. The electrons will follow a circular orbit inside this tube.

3. There are three separate electrical circuits (see Fig. 6): 1) to heat the filament/cathode (over
which you have no control); 2) to apply a voltage between cathode and anode (denoted as
Accelerating Voltage on the unit); 3) to supply the current (denoted as Coil Current) for the
Helmholtz coils.

40
4. We will make measurements for the electrons moving in various circular orbits. You will
write down the diameter of the path by reading t h e i l l u m i n a t e d t u b e . You w i l l n e e d
t h e s e i n o r d er t o determine e/m of electron.
5. For the first set of the readings, fix the accelerating voltage (Va) and change the coil current (I)
such that you can see the circular path of moving electrons. Measure the radius of this circular
orbit. Repeat this step for at least three times and note three different readings of radius by
changing the coil current (keeping Va constant).
6. For the second set of readings, fix the coil current (I) and change the accelerating voltage (Va).
After observing the circular path of electrons, measure radius of the circular path, which will
increase by increasing the coil current.
7. Set the anode voltage to 150 V. Change the coil current until you can see the beam. This will be
the diameter, not the radius. Record the coil current and diameter. Increase the coil current in
turn to go through each 0.5 cm of the diameter
8. Turn the Current Adjust control up and observe the circular deflection of the beam. When the
current is high enough, the beam will form a circle. The diameter of the electron path in the
magnetic field can be measured using the scale.
9. Set the coil current to 1.7 A. Adjust the accelerating voltage while looking at the electron
beam path. Do not exceed 350 V. Proceed in turn to observe and record data for the other
accelerating voltages.

41
 7.5. O b s e r v a t i o n s a n d C a l c u l a t i o n s

Anode Coil Radius of

voltage Current electron path
e/m= Va / D2I2 x 9.88 x 106
Va I R
Sr.
No. (Volts) (Amp.) (cm)
(Coul/Kg)

Fix

Anode voltage

(Va)

Fix

Coil Current

Mean value of e/m = _ _ _ _ _ _ Coul/Kg

Actual value of e/m = 1.76 x 1011 Coul/Kg

Percentage error = _ _ _ _ _ _ %
42
7.4. Precautions:

1. The Lorentz force tube is shorter lifetime electronic device, in order to extend its lifetime, before
operation must set the accelerator voltage to minimum, after pre-warming 5 minutes, turn the
accelerator voltage to 100 V- 200 V, as soon as you see the orbit of the moving electrons. Bring
back accelerator voltage to zero and then switch to off the power.
2. Time of the experiment should not exceed one hour.

43
 EXPERIMENT No. 9

To determine the unknown small resistance by Carey Foster’s bridge

9.1. Apparatus:

Carey Foster Bridge, two equal resistances boxes (to serve as the ratio arms P and Q), thick copper strip,
fractional resistance box, galvanometer, unknown low resistance, one way key, connecting wires, cell
(Lechlanche or Daniel), jockey and sand paper.

9.2. Theory:

The Carey Foster Bridge is an electrical circuit that can be used to measure very small resistances. It
works on the same principle as Wheatstone‟s bridge. In fact this is the modified form of Meter Bridge in
which two additional gaps are provided to increase the effective length of the bridge wire with a view to
enhance the sensitivity of the arrangement.

The circuit diagram for the experiment is shown in the Figure above. There are four gaps in this
arrangement. The standard low resistances, P and Q, of equal magnitude are connected in the inner gaps 2
and 3. The known resistance, i.e., the fractional resistance box X and the unknown resistance Y whose
resistance is to be determined are connected in the outer gaps 1 and 4, respectively. A one meter long
resistance wire AB of uniform area of cross section is soldered to the ends of two copper strips. Since the
wire has uniform cross-sectional area, the resistance per unit length is the same along the wire. A

44
galvanometer G is connected between terminal D and the jockey C, which is a knife edge contact that can
be moved along the meter wire AB and pressed to make electrical contact with the wire. The position of
jockey C is adjusted to locate the position where there is no deflection of the galvanometer when the
jockey is pressed to make electrical contact with the wire; this position is called the balance point or null
point. The bridge has its highest sensitivity when all four of the resistances, P, Q, X and Y, have similar
magnitudes.

If the balance point is located at a distance l1 from A, then we can write the condition of balance as:

Where α and β are the end corrections at the left and right ends. These end corrections include the
resistances of the metal strips to which the wire is soldered, the contact resistances between the wire and
the strips, and they also allow for the non-coincidence of the ends of the wire with the zero and one
hundred division marks on the scale.

If the positions of X and Y are interchanged, i.e., X is put in gap 4 and Y in gap 1, and the balance point is
found at a distance l2 from E, then the balance condition becomes

–
(2)

Combining Equations 1 and 2, we obtain

Adding 1 on both sides and simplifying,

Since the numerators are equal, we can write

45
 – –

– –

–( – )

This relation shows that the difference between the known and unknown resistance is equal to the
resistance of the bridge wire between the two balance points. Once we know l1, l2, ρ and X, the unknown
resistance Y can be determined. Clearly balance points will only be possible if the difference between the
resistances, X – Y, is less than the total resistance of the one meter wire, (100 cm) ρ.

If Y = 0, then Equation (6) leads to:

Thus if Y is effectively a short circuit, then we can determine the resistance per unit length from
knowledge of X and the measured values of l1 and l2.

9.3. Procedure:

1. Make the circuit connections as shown in Figure. In this part of the experiment Y is a copper strip
that has negligible resistance and X is a fractional resistance box. You need to (a) ensure that the
wires and copper strips are clean and the terminals are screwed down tightly, (b) remove any
deposits from the battery terminals and (c) close tightly all of the plugs in the resistance box;
these precautions will minimize any contact resistance between the terminals and the connecting
wire.
2. Plug in the battery key so that a current flows through the bridge. Note that you should remove
the battery plug when you are not taking measurements so that the battery does not become
drained.
3. Press down the jockey so that the knife edge makes contact with the wire, and observe the
galvanometer deflection. Release the jockey.
4. Move the jockey to different positions along the wire and repeat step 3 at each place until you
locate the position of the null point, where there is no deflection of the galvanometer. This point
should be near the middle of the bridge wire. Take care that the jockey is pressed down gently to
avoid damaging the wire and distorting its cross section, and do not move the jockey while it is in
contact with the wire.
46
 5. Note the balancing length, l1, in your laboratory notebook, using a table with the layout shown in
Table 1.
6. Reverse the connections to the terminals of the battery and record the balancing length for
reverse current in the table in your notebook. By averaging readings with forward and reverse
currents, you will be able to eliminate the effect of any thermo emfs.
7. Take out the plug from the fractional resistance box that inserts a resistance of 0.1 and repeat
steps 3 – 5.
8. Increase resistance X in steps of 0.1ohms and repeat steps 3 – 5 each time.
9. Interchange the copper strip and fractional resistance box, and repeat steps 3 – 5 for the same set
of resistances. The corresponding balancing lengths, measured from the same end of the bridge
wire, should be recorded as l2 in your data table.

Determination of an unknown low resistance Y

1. Remove the copper strip and insert the unknown low resistance in one of the outer gaps of the
bridge.
2. Repeat the entire sequences of steps as described in the procedure for the first part of the
experiment. Record your measurements in your laboratory notebook. A suggested format is
shown in Table 2.
9.5. Precautions:

1. The ends of connecting wires, thick copper strips and leads for the resistance box may not be
clean, so there may be an additional contact resistance at the connections.
2. The plugs of the fractional resistance box may be loose, again introducing undesirable contact
resistance.
3. The bridge wire may get heated up due to continuous passage of current for a long time. This will
change its resistance.
4. If the jockey is not pressed gently or if it is kept pressed on to the wire while being shifted from
one point to another, that may alter the cross sectional area of the wire and make it non uniform.

47
 9.6. Observations and Calculations:

Table.1. Determination of ρ for Carey Foster bridge wire

Fractional
resistance
Ratio arms box Copper Balance point Shift in
strip with X (F.R.B) balance
Sr. X (F.R.B) point Resistance per
No. P Q Y left right cm
gap l1 gap l2 (l2-l1)
ρ = X/ (l2-l1)
ohm cm cm
ohm ohm ohm
cm
ohm/cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

Table.2. Determination of an unknown low resistance using a Carey Foster bridge.

Fractional
resistance
Ratio arms box Balance point with Shift in balance Unknown
X (F.R.B) point
Sr. X (F.R.B) resistance
No. P Q left gap right (l2-l1)
l1 gap l2 Y = X- (l2-l1)

ohm cm cm
ohm ohm cm
ohm

1.

2.

3.

4.

48
1. The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire ρ = …… . m-1.

2. The value of the unknown low resistance Y = ……….. .

Actual value (if known) = ………. .

% error =……….

49
 EXPERIMENT No. 10
To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter of range 0- 3V

10.1. Apparatus:
Galvanometer, high resistance box, voltmeter (0-3V range), battery (2-3 cells) resistance box, rheostat,
plug keys ,connecting wires.

10.2. Theory:
Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device used to measure potential difference between two points in a
circuit. It is always connected parallel to the circuit.
Symbol

V
As galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, it cannot directly measure high potential difference. In
order to convert a galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as "series resistance" is
connected in series with the galvanometer.
Calculation of series resistance
Let internal resistance of galvanometer is R g and a high resistance (Rx ) is connected in series to it. Then
combined resistance is equal to (R g + Rx).

If potential between two points is V and galvanometer gives full-scale deflection, when current "Ig"
passes through it. Then,

50
 Circuit Diagrams

10.3. Procedure:
1. Find the galvanometer resistance by half deflection method by following Procedure:
(i) Make connections as shown in the figure (a)
(ii) Remove a plug from high resistance box R, close the key K 1 and adjust the value of
R to get the maximum deflection but within scale.
(iii) Get deflection in even number of divisions. Note the deflection  and the value of
R.
(iv) Close the key K2 and adjust the shunt resistance S to reduce the deflection to one half

of its original value. Note this deflection and the shunt resistance S. The
2
galvanometer resistance is equal to the shunt resistance S and can be calculated by
using following formula:

2. Find figure of merit (or Current sensitivity of galvanometer) as follows:

(i) Determine the emf of the battery with a standard voltmeter.
(ii) Connect the galvanometer to the battery through the high resistance box.
(iii) Adjust the resistance from the resistance box to get a large deflection  and
resistance R.
(iv) Find the figure of merit by using the formula given above.

51
3. Calculation of Shunt:
(i) Determine the current for full scale deflection I g  nk ,where n is the number of

divisions on the galvanometer scale between the middle point and one extreme end.
(ii) Calculate the value of high resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer by the
V
relation R x   R g in ohms. Put the value of V =3V i.e range of conversion in this formula.
Ig

(iii) Connect the resistance R x in series with the galvanometer which converts it into

voltmeter of the desired range. The terminals of so obtained voltmeter are the free end of the
resistance box and the free end of the galvanometer. Each division of the converted galvanometer
reads volts.

4. Verification:
(i) Connect this converted galvanometer and standard voltmeter in parallel with a resistance
box through a key k as shown in the figure (b). Then connect them to a battery through a
rheostat.
(ii) Insert the key K to pass a current through the circuit and both voltmeters (i.e the standard
and the other converted). The potential difference indicated by the converted
galvanometer is volts which should be equal to the reading of the standard voltmeter.

(iii) Take a number of readings by moving the sliding contacts of the rheostat and compare
their readings to determine the difference. In case the difference is large, adjust the value
of external resistance in the resistance box placed in the series with the galvanometer till
the readings coincide.

10.4. Precautions:
1. Suitable resistance should be removed from the resistance box to produce large
deflections.
2. The positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to the positive terminal of
the battery.
3. A high resistance rheostat should be used in the circuit.

52
10.5. Observations and Calculations:

Galvanometer resistance by half deflection method:

No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half Galvanometer
R  resistance deflection,  Resistance
S 2

Ohms Ohms Div

Div. Ohms
1.
2.
3.
Mean
=___________ohms

Figure of merit:
emf of the battery = __________ volts
Resistance R = ______________ ohms
Deflection  = ______________ divs.
E 1
Figure of merit of the galvanometer= k  
( R  Rg ) 
Mean Resistance of the galvanometer by Half deflection method = __________ ohms
(Total No. of divisions of the galvanometer) = n=_________
Current for full scale deflection I g  nk = _______ Amp.

Conversion range of galvanometer = V= 3V

V
External resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer r = R x   R g = _______ohms
Ig

53
Verification:
3
Full scale divisions on the converted galvanometer: =_________ volts
n
Galvanometer Reading Voltmeter Difference
No. Deflection P.D in volts Reading
Of 
obs. Divs. Volts
Volts
Volts
1
2
3

54
 EXPERIMENT No. 11

To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter reading up to 0.1 Ampere

11.1 Apparatus:
Galvanometer, high resistance box, ammeter (of 0.1 Ampere range),battery(2-3 cells) resistance box
,rheostat, plug keys ,connecting wires, screw gauge ,meter rod, sand paper.
11.2. Theory:
Ammeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure electric current through the circuit.
It is always connected in series in the circuit. Since resistance of the galvanometer is very small, so it
cannot measure large values of current. In order to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a small
resistance known as shunt resistance is connected in parallel to the circuit. The value of shunt is so
adjusted that most of the current passes through the shunt and a small amount of the current passes
through the galvanometer.

Symbol:

Value of Shunt Resistance:

Let the resistance of the galvanometer be and I g be the current passing through it for which it gives

full scale deflection. Then

Vg  I g Rg

Let a shunt resistance R s is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. If total current in the circuit is I

then:
I s  (I  I g )
Potential difference across the shunt:
Vs  I s Rs

Vs  ( I  I g ) Rs

55
 As Vs  V g

So ( I  I g ) Rs  I g Rg

Ig
Rs  Rg
I  Ig

Circuit diagram

11.3. Procedure:
1. Find the galvanometer resistance by half deflection method by following Procedure:
a. Make connections as shown in the figure. (a)
b. Close the key K1. Remove a plug from high resistance box R, and adjust the value
of R to get the maximum deflection but within scale.
c. Get deflection in even number of divisions. Note the deflection  and the value of
R.
d. Close the key K2 and adjust the shunt resistance S to reduce the deflection to one

half of its original value. Note this deflection and the shunt resistance S .The
2
galvanometer resistance is equal to the shunt resistance S. The galvanometer
resistance is equal to the shunt resistance S and can be calculated by using
following formula:

2. Find figure of merit (Current sensitivity of galvanometer)as follows:

a. Determine the emf of the battery with a good voltmeter.

56
 b. Connect the galvanometer to the cell through the resistance box and plub as shown in the
figure b.
c. Adjust the resistance from the resistance box to get a large deflection  and resistance R.
d. Find the figure of merit by using the formula given above.

3. Calculation of Shunt
(i) Calculate th full scale current I g  nk ( where n is the number of divisions on the

galvanometer scale between the middle point and on extreme end)

(ii) Knowing the range of conversion i.e I=0.1 Ampere ,Calculate the value of shunt
Rg I g
resistance by the relation Rs  in ohms.
I  Ig
(iii) Take a wire and measure its diameter at about three different places and calculate its
mean radius.
(iv) Now calculate the required length l of wire whose resistance is equal to shunt

Rs r 2
resistance by the relation l  where  is the specific resistance of

the wire. The resistivity of copper wire is ohm-cm.
4. Verification
(i) Cut a length of the given wire 2cm more than the calculated length to account for
the portion of length to be wrapped round the terminals.
(ii) Connect the wire across the galvanometer terminals and complete the circuit shown
in the figure b Where A is an ammeter used to compare the readings given by the
galvanometer after conversion.
(iii) Put in the key k in position and adjust the resistance from the rheostat to obtain a
maximum deflection of the galvanometer. Read the galvanometer and also the
corresponding reading of the ammeter. Take three more readings and calculate the
difference.
11.4. Precautions:
(i) The battery should have a constant EMF
(ii) The wire used as shunt should be of convenient length.

57
 (iii) Large currents should be passed to produce large deflection when checking the
accuracy of the converted galvanometer .This reduces the percentage error in
observation.
(iv)
11.5. Observations and Calculations:

Galvanometer resistance by half deflection method:

No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half Galvanometer
R  resistance deflection,  Resistance
S 2

Ohms Ohms Div

Div. Ohms
1.
2.
3.
Mean
=____________________
Emf of the battery = __________ volts
Resistance R = ______________ ohms
Deflection  = ______________divs.
E 1
Figure of merit of the galvanometer= k  
( R  Rg ) 
Mean Resistance of the galvanometer by Half deflection method = __________ ohms
(Total No. of divisions of the galvanometer) = n=_________
Current for full scale deflection I g  nk = _______ Amp.

Range of conversion= 0.1 Ampere

Ig
Value of shunt resistance = Rs  R g = ________ ohms
I  Ig
Least count of the screw gauge = _______mm
Zero correction =  _________mm


Observed diameter = ___________________ (Take at least three readings at different points of the wires)
Mean observed diameter = _________mm
58
Corrected mean diameter = ________mm
Radius of the wire = r = _____________mm
Specific resistance of the wire =  =______ohm-cm

Rsr 2
Length of wire used as shunt = l  = _________cm

0.1
Value of one galvanometer scale division after conversion=  ____ Ampere
n
Verification
Galvanometer Reading Ammeter Difference
No. Deflection Current Reading
Of  0. 1

n
obs. Divs. Ampere
Ampere
Ampere
1
2
3

59
 EXPERIMENT No. 12

To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s rings

12.1. Apparatus:
Newton‟s rings Apparatus; Long focus plano-concave lens; Sodium lamp; Traveling microscope;
Spherometer; Convex lens of short focal length.

Diagram

12.2. Theory:
Interference occurs when adding fields from two or more light sources which are coherent i.e they
maintain a constant phase difference with each other and which have the same frequency (in other words
they must be the same color). If the optical path difference is the whole number of wavelength,
constructive interference takes place and if the path difference is an odd number of half wavelengths,
destructive interference occurs. Phase changes at surface must be taken into account .the resulting
interference pattern consists of a series of alternate bright and dark bands.

Newton Rings
Newton rings are the result of interference between two wave fronts, one of which is reflected from the
plane glass plate and the other is reflected from the bottom surface of the lens. To understand the
phenomenon let us consider the air film of a thickness„t‟ sandwiched between the plate and the lower
surface of the lens. Some of the incident light is reflected from the lens with no change in phase, while the
remainder passes straight through the plate where it is reflected and undergoes a phase change 180 o. The

60
two rays have net path difference of 2t, where„t‟ is the difference between the two surfaces .If the two
rays are in phase then a bright ring will be produced, and if they are out of phase by 180 o then a dark ring
will be produced .The path difference increases as we move from the centre of the lens to the edge
because it is increasing .Thus we observe a series of concentric rings. At the point of contact, between the
lens and the plate there is no path difference between the reflected rays. However a dark spot is observed
in the centre of the ring pattern because the ray that is reflected at the surface of the glass plate changes
phase by 180o.

Calculation of radius of bright and dark rings

Consider a plano-convex lens placed on a glass plate as shown in the figure .This is the necessary
arrangement for the formation of Newton rings. Let, R be the radius of curvature of the lens, t= AM=BN
be the thickness of air film and r = AD = BD be radius of a circular ring

From the figure: CO  CD  DO  R  CD  t

CD  R 2  r 2
Whereas,

R  R2  r 2  t

t  R  R2  r 2

1
 R  (R 2  r 2 ) 2

1
r2
t  R  R(1  2 ) 2
R
61
Using Binomial expansion and ignoring higher powers as r<<R we get:

1 r2
t  R  R[1     ]
2 R2

1 r2
Or t  R  Rx x 
2 R2

1 r2
t R
2 R2

r2
t
2R
For bright rings
(2m  1)
2t 
2

2r 2 (2m  1)

2R 2


r 2  R(2m  1)
2


r  R(2m  1)
2
For dark rings

r2
2t  m  2  m
2R
r 2  mR
r  mR

62
 Where m  1,2,3,......
12.3. Observations and Calculations:
Focal length of Plano convex lens (f) =________ cm
Refractive index of a glass = 1.5
1
Radius of curvature of lens (R) = R  ( ) f = __________ cm
n 1

No. Microscope Reading D 2 K 5  DK2

of Rings
K+0
K+1
K+2
K+3
-----
-----

K+10

Mean D 2 K 5  DK2 = __________

Wavelength of Sodium light:

D2k  5  D2k
 =_________cm =_________nm
45r

12.4. Procedure:
1. Plano convex lens of large focal length is usually provided with the Newton‟s ring Apparatus.
Measure the radius of curvature R by the following method.

63
 2. Use the Plano convex lens, to obtain a sharp image of a distance bright object such as bulb or sun
on a wall or paper sheet. Carefully measure the distance between the lens and the image. If the
bright object is at a great distance, then the distance measured is equal to the focal length of the
Plano convex lens (f). calculate the radius of curvature of the lens by the formula:
1
R( )f
n 1
Where n = refractive index of the glass with which the lens is made.
3. Place Plano convex lens L on the glass plate. Set the other glass plate g at 45° to the horizontal as
shown in Diagram.
4. Place a sodium lamp S at focus of a short focal length convex lens L1. the light rays after passing
through L1 become parallel and fall at an angel of 45° on the glass plate G. these rays are
reflected downward on the lens L. they are gain, reflected upwards into the microscope M which
is focused on the point of contact O of the lens and plate P. A set of concentric rings, alternately
dark and bright their thickness decreasing with an increase in their radii, Is seen.
5. The first few rings are usually hazy and not distinct, hence set the cross wire
of the microscope along the fires clear ring, say Kth. Take the reading of the vernier on the left
side and then bring the diameter of the same ring and again read the vernier. The distance gives
the diameter of the Kth ring.
6. Measure the diameter of some 10 consecutive rings. Calculate the difference of squares of
diameter of 5 rings by combining first with 6th, second with 7th and so on,
7. Determine the wavelength by using the relation:

D2k  5  D2k

4mr
Where m  n0 of rings for which the difference in diameter is calculated. Here it is 5. The wavelength

will be in cm. multiply it by 10 7 to get result in nanometers (nm)

12.5 Precautions:
1. A lens of large focal length should be used.
2. The thickness of the lens increases uniformly so that the thickness of the air film will be
increased uniformly.
3. Cross wires` intersecting point should be coinciding with O.
4. Light should be incident normally on the lens.

64
 Section II

Observations and Calculations

&

Viva Voce

65
 Experiment No.1

To determine the resistivity and conductivity of Eureka wire

Observations and Calculations

No of Voltage (V) Current(I) V

Resistance (R= )
obs. I
Volts A ohms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Mean Resistance R of the wire = _________ ohms

Length of the wire L = ___________ m

Diameter of the wire D = __________m

Radius of the wire r = __________

Area of the cross-section of the wire A = ________ m 2

A
Resistivity of the wire =   R = ______ohm-m
L
66
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is resistivity?

Q.2 What is conductivity?

Q.3 what is the difference between a screw gauge and a vernier caliper?

Q.4 What is the least count of a screw gauge?

Q.5 Can we use a copper wire instead of eureka wire in this experiment?

Q.6 What is eureka?

Q.7 Is eureka a better conductor than copper? Give your answer with reason.

Q.8 Is resistivity of a conductor temperature dependant? If yes, then on which temperature you have
calculated the specific resistance of eureka wire in this experiment? And will the resistivity change if the
temperature is changed?

67
 EXPERIMENT NO.2
To study the variation of photo-electric current with the intensity of light

Observations and Calculations

No. of Distance of Photo-cell from the Deflection of 1/d2

Obs. source galvanometer
cm θ
div

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Draw the graph:

68
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What are photo-electrons? Are they different from atomic electrons?

Q.2 Define intensity of light.

Q.3 What do you mean by threshold frequency?

Q.4 What is a photo-cell

Q.5 What is photo-electric effect?

Q.6 Write laws of photoelectric effect?

Q.7 Write some practical applications of a photo cell ?

69
Q.8 Which phenomenon is considered to be the inverse of photoelectric effect?

Q.9 What is the difference between frequency and wavelength of light?

Q.10 Write Einstien‟s photoelectric equation?

Q.11 MCQs:
1. The wavelength of a photon is 7 x10 -7 m. Calculate the frequency of the photon. Also calculate
the energy of the photon in Joules and eV.
a) 4.285 x 1015 Hertz, 2.84 x 10-19 Joules, 2.36 eV.
b) 4.285 x 1015 Hertz, 2.84 x 10-19 Joules, 1.77 eV
c) 3.236 x 1015 Hertz, 3.42 x 10-19 Joules, 2.36 eV
d) 3.236 x 1015 Hertz, 3.42 x 10-19 Joules, 1.77 eV

2. Which of the following statements is true about a photon? (Give reasons in support of your
answer).
a) A photon has zero mass and zero momentum.
b) A photon has finite mass and a finite value of momentum.

70
c) A photon has zero mass but finite value of momentum
d) A photon has finite mass but zero momentum.

3. A photon of wavelength 350nm and intensity 1.00W/m2 is directed at a Potassium surface

(Work Function = 2.2 eV).
i) Will photoelectrons be emitted from the surface? (Give reasons in support of your answer).
ii) If yes, then calculate the maximum Kinetic Energy (K.E. MAX) of the emitted
photoelectrons.
iii) If 50% of the incident photons produce photoelectrons, how many are emitted per sec if the
Potassium surface has an area of 1cm2.
iv) Calculate the Photoelectric Current generated.

4. The work function of Platinum is twice that of the work function of Calcium. If the minimum
photon energy required to emit photoelectrons from the surface of Platinum is E, then that for the
surface of Calcium would be
a) 2E b) 3E/2 c) E/2 d) Cannot be determined.

5. The work function of Sodium is greater than that of Potassium. If both the surfaces are
irradiated with photons of same wavelength, then the K.E. of the emitted photoelectrons in the
Sodium surface as compared to the K.E. of the photoelectrons in the Potassium surface will be
a) Same b) Less c) More d) Cannot be determined.

6. A metallic surface is first irradiated with Ultraviolet light and then with Infrared light. What
will be the change in the K.E. of the emitted photoelectrons? What will be the change in the
photoelectric current IP? (Give reasons in support of your answer).
a) K.E. will remain same. IP will remain same.
b) K.E. will increase. IP will increase.
c) K.E. will decrease. IP will decrease.
d) K.E. will increase. IP will remain same.
e) K.E. will decrease. IP will remain same.

71
7. The threshold frequency for photoelectric emission in Copper is 1.1x 10 15 Hz. Find the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted when light of frequency 1.5 x 10 15 Hz is
directed on a Copper surface.
a) 1.66e.V b) 1.32 e.V c) 2.40e.V d) 3.22e.V

8. The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission in Tungsten is 240nm. What wavelength
of light must be used in order that the emitted photoelectrons have a K.E. MAX of 1.2 e.V.
a) 200nm b) 230nm c) 350nm d) 195nm

9. Photoelectric effect can take place only when photons strike bound electrons or electrons
embedded in the metal surface, since it is impossible for a photon to give up all its energy and
momentum to a free electron. This is in accordance with
a) Law of conservation of Energy
b) Law of conservation of Mass
c) Law of conservation of Momentum
d) Law of conservation of both Energy and Momentum

10. Which of the following statements is true about photoelectric effect?

a) There is no time lag(time delay) between the arrival of light (photons) on the surface of a
metal, and the emission of photoelectrons (within limits of experimental accuracy ~10 -9sec).
b) There is always a specific time lag between the arrival of photons on the surface and emission
of photoelectrons.
c) There is a specific time lag only in some exceptional cases, particularly in some
specific metals.
d) There is a specific time lag only when the photon energy is very less.

11. The Stopping Potential (Extinction voltage) in a photoelectric chamber is 3V. The work
function, for the metal is 2.2e.V. Calculate the incident photon energy and frequency.
a) 8.33 x 10-19 Joules, 1.256 x 1015 Hz.
b) 4.42 x 10-19 Joules, 1.256 x 1015 Hz.

72
c) 8. 33 x 10-19 Joules, 2.343 x 1015 Hz.
d) 4.42 x 10-19 Joules, 2.343 x 1015 Hz.

12. Which of the following statements is true for photoelectric effect?

a) Photoelectric current is proportional to the frequency of the radiation used, for all retarding
voltages.
b) Photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of light used for all retarding voltages.
c )Photoelectric current is proportional to the wavelength of radiation used, for all retarding
voltages.
d) Photoelectric current is proportional to energy of the radiation used for all retarding voltages.

13. Which of the following statements is false for photoelectric effect?

a) The Stopping Potential (Extinction voltage) depends on the incident photon frequency
b) The Stopping Potential depends on the incident photon energy.
c) The Stopping Potential depends on the incident photon intensity.
d) The Stopping Potential depends on the incident photon wavelength.

14. What are the frequency, wavelength and energy of an X-ray photon whose momentum is 1.2
x 10-23 kg m/s?
a) 5.4 x 1018 Hz, 3.6 x 10-15 Joules, 555 Fermi
b) 5.4 x 1018 Hz, 3.6 x 10-15 Joules, 652 Fermi
c) 5.4 x 1018 Hz, 4.2 x 10-15 Joules, 555 Fermi
d) 2.4 x 1018 Hz, 3.6 x 10-15 Joules, 555 Fermi

15. If the energy of a photon is 4.2e.V, calculate its momentum.

a) 2.243 x 10-24 kg m /s
b) 2.243 x 10-27 kg m /s
c) 3.324 x 10-27 kg m /s
d) 3.324 x 10-24 kg m /s

73
 EXPERIMENT No. 3
To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ using reversible compound pendulum

Observations and Calculations

Sr. SIDE A SIDE B
No
Time for 20 vibrations Time Time for 20 vibrations Time
Distance Time Time Mean Period Distance Time Time Mean Period
from Time from Time
C.G (s) (s) (s) T=t/20 C.G (s) (s) (s) T=t/20
(m) (s) m (s)

74
Calculation of g from the graph:
Sr. No Length of equivalent Time period T2 g
simple pendulum Of equivalent
from graph simple
AD  BE pendulum
L
2

cm
s s2 cm/s2

1.

2.
3.

Mean g= __________ cm/s2

Literature value = _____________________

Experimental value = ______________________

Difference = ______________________

difference
% Error = x100 =
literature value

75
 VIVA VOCE

Q.1 What is a simple pendulum?

Q.2 Define „g‟.

Q.3 What is the effect of changing length or mass of the pendulum on the value of „g‟?

Q.4 What is a compound pendulum?

Q.5 Why a compound pendulum is called an equivalent simple pendulum?

76
Q.6 What will happen to the value of „g‟ the compound pendulum is taken nearer to the centre of the
earth?

Q.7 What is parallel axis theorem?

Q.8 Define moment of inertia?

Q.9 Explain briefly what happens to the energy of a compound pendulum when it is oscillating?

Q.10 Define centre of gravity and centre of mass.

77
Q.11 What do we mean by “Simple Harmonic Motion” (SHM)?

Q.12 Why did we use two masses with identical geometries for the simple pendulum experiment?

Q.13 What is the physical meaning of h (the distance between the centre of gravity and the pivot point)
being equal to zero? What is the corresponding period of oscillation?

Q.14 Why does the compound pendulum have the identity of possessing two values of h corresponding to
the same period of oscillation  ?

Q.15 Based on the equation of motion, what is the difference between the simple and compound
pendulums? How can we replace the compound pendulum with a simple pendulum having the same
period of oscillation?

78
 EXPERIMENT No. 4
To determine the Frequency of an A.C supply by Melde’s Experiment

Observations and Calculations

Mass of thread 5 meters in length M = _______

Mass of thread 1 cm in length m = _______

Mass of the scale pan w = _______

Distance
No. of Between Length of Mass of the Tension in
Loops extreme each loop pan+ mass dynes n= p/2l √T/m
Sr. No. p Nodes added to it T=W x 981
L l = L/p W (g)
1.

2.

3.

4.
Mean frequency of vibrating segment n = _________ vib/sec.

For Longitudinal Arrangement:

Frequency of A.C. mains = Frequency of vibrating segments = _ _ _ _ cycle/sec or hertz

For Transverse Arrangement:

Frequency of A.C. mains = ½ Frequency of vibrating segments = _ _ _ _ cycle/sec or hertz.

Actual value of A.C. frequency = _ _ _ _ _ _ cycles/sec or Hz.

Percentage error = _ _ _ _ _ _ %

79
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is the importance of Melde‟s experiment?

Q.2 What are stationary waves?

Q.3 What is a transformer? On which principle does it work? Can it work with DC ? What is an
electromagnet?

Q.4 What is the frequency of A.C. supply in Pakistan?

Q.5 What is the relation between frequency of A.C. supply and vibrating segment of the string in
longitudinal mode of vibrations?

Q.6 What is the relation between frequency of A.C. supply and vibrating segment of the string in
transverse mode of vibration?

Q.7 What are supersonics and infra-sonics?

80
Q.8 What is law of tension for transverse wave?

Q.9 Write two necessary conditions for producing stationary waves in a medium?

Q.10 Define the term „tension‟.

81
 EXPERIMENT No. 5
To study characteristics of an RLC series and acceptor circuit by plotting a response curve.
Determine the resonance frequency, bandwidth and Q. factor of the circuit.

Observations and Calculations

Resistance used = R= ____________ohms
Inductance used =L= _____________ohms
Capacitance used =C=____________ farad

No of Frequency Current in the circuit Log f

obs. from the oscillator I
f mA
Hz

From the graph:

Resonant frequency f r = _______Hz.

82
 Lower half frequency f 1 =________Hz

Upper half frequency f 2  ________ Hz.

Bandwidth f  f1  f 2 = ________ H Q. Factor =_________

GRAPH

83
 VIVA VOCE

Q.1 What is an acceptor circuit?

Q.2 The frequencies f1 and f2 are also called half power frequencies . Why they are called so?

Q.3 Give an application of acceptor circuit?

Q.4 Define root mean square value of ac current and voltage?

Q.5 What are the characteristics of a good acceptor circuit?

Q.6 What is meant by a frequency response curve of an acceprtor circuit?

84
Q.7 What is reactance of a capacitor and inductor?

Q.8 How do a capacitive reactance and inductive reactance are methamatically related to thefrequency of
input ac voltage?

Q.9What is a phasor?

Q.10 What is meant by attenuation of an ac signal?

Q.11 We can have five types of wave shapes for ac voltage and current. Give their names and draw their
waveforms?

85
 EXPERIMENT No. 6
To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel or Rejecter circuit by plotting a response curve.
Determine the resonance frequency, bandwidth and Q-factor of the circuit.

Observations and Calculations

Resistance used = R = ________ohms
Capacitance used = C = _______ μ f = ________ farad
Inductance = L =________ m H =_______ Henry

No of Frequency Current in the circuit Log f

obs. from the oscillator I
f mA
Hz

86
From the graph:
Resonant frequency f r = _______Hz.

Lower half frequency f 1 =________Hz

Upper half frequency f 2  ________ Hz.

Bandwidth f  f1  f 2 = ________ Hz

fr
Q. Factor =
f

GRAPH

87
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 Define a rejecter circuit?

Q.2 What is impedance of an acceptor/rejecter circuit? Give mathematical relation.

Q.3 What is meant by resonance frequency in an acceptor and rejecter circuit?

Q.4 A capacitor is used to store electric field across its plates what does an inductor store?

Q.5 What is difference between a choke, a solenoid, an inductor and a coil?

88
Q.6 What is an RC time constant? How many time constants are required to charge or discharge a
capacitor?

Q.7 A capacitor works on the principle of electrostatics. On which principle does an inductor work?

Q.8 How does a capacitor response to high and low input frequencies of ac voltage connected across its
plates?

Q.9 How does an inductor response to high and low input frequencies of ac voltage connected across its
plates?

Q.10 what is the difference between an oscillator, rectifier, and amplifier?

89
 EXPERIMENT No. 7
To determine the Ionization potential of mercury

Observations and Calculations

Anode Voltage Anode Current log Va log I a
Set Sr. Va Ia
No Volts mA
1

Value of ionization potential from the graph:

First set =_________volts

90
Second set (if required) =________volts

Mean value = __________

GRAPH

91
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 Define ionization potential and excitation potential?

Q.2 What is a soft valve?

Q.3 State Child Longmuir‟s law?

Q.4 What is space charge effect?

Q.5 What is directly and indirectly heated cathode?

Q.6 How many types of electron emissions occur in nature?

92
Q.7 What is the type of electron emission occurring in this experiment?

Q.8 Does the Child Longmuir‟s law hold when space charge broken in the discharge tube?

Q.9 What is the difference between ionization energy and ionization potential.

Q.10 Can an atom have more than one ionization potentials?

93
 EXPERIMENT No. 7
To determine the charge to mass ratio of an electron by using the magnetron method or deflection
method

Observations and Calculations

No. of per meter of the solenoid = n = _______

Diameter of the object = d1 = ____cm = ______

Diameter of the object = d2 = ____cm = ______

Permeability of free space = μ0 = 4π x 10-7 wb/Am

Anode Current Flux density Radius of

voltage through electron path e/m=2V/B2r2
Sr. V solenoid E=μ0nI R
No. I
(Volts) (Amp.) (Webers) (meters) (C/Kg)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean value of e/m = _ _ _ _ _ _ C/Kg

Actual value of e/m = 1.76 x 1011 C/Kg

Percentage error = _ _ _ _ _ _ %

94
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 Why the magnetron should be well inside the solenoid?

Q.2 Define flux density and its unit?

Q.3. Define Weber.

Q.4 What is magnetron?

Q.5 Explain the principle of working of magnetron?

95
 EXPERIMENT No. 9
To determine the unknown small resistance by using Carey Foster’s bridge

Observations and Calculations

Determination of ρ for Carey Foster bridge wire

Fractional
Ratio arms resistance Copper Balance point Shift in
Sr. box strip with X (F.R.B) balance Resistance per
No. P Q X (F.R.B) Y left right point cm
gap l1 gap l2 (l2-l1) ρ = X/ (l2-l1)
ohm ohm Ohm ohm cm cm
cm ohm/cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

96
 Table 2: Determination of an unknown low resistance using a Carey Foster bridge.

Fractional
Ratio arms resistance Balance point with Shift in balance Unknown
Sr. box X (F.R.B) point resistance
No. P Q X (F.R.B) left gap right gap (l2-l1) Y = X- (l2-l1)
l1 l2
ohm ohm Ohm cm cm cm ohm

1.

2.

3.

4.

1. The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire ρ = …… . m-1.

2. The value of the unknown low resistance Y = ……….. .

Actual value (if known) = ………. .

% error =……….

97
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is Wheatstone‟s bridge?

Q.2 When is the Wheatstone‟s bridge most sensitive?

Q.3 Which other instruments based on the principle of Wheatstone‟s bridge are used to determine
resistances?

Q.4 Why is fractional resistance box used in this experiment?

Q.5 What is the advantage of measuring resistance by null method?

Q.6 Why do you perform your experiment with direct as well as with reverse current?

98
Q.7 What is the end correction?

Q.8 Have you included “The end correction” in your calculation?

Q.9 Can we measure very low resistance accurately by this method?

Q.10 Is this method suitable for the measurement of very high resistance?

Q.11 Can a copper wire be used as a bridge wire?

99
 EXPERIMENT No. 10
To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter of range0- 3V

Observations and Calculations

Galvanometer resistance by half deflection method:

No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half
R  resistance deflection Galvanometer
Ohms S  Resistance
Ohms 2 G=S
1.
2.
3.

Figure of merit:
emf of the battery = __________ volts
Resistance R = ______________ ohms
Deflection  = ______________
E 1
Figure of merit of the galvanometer= k  x
( R  G) 
Mean resistance of the galvanometer by Half deflection method G= __________ ohms
(Total No. of divisions of the galvanometer) = n=_________

Current for full scale deflection I g  nk = _______ Amp.

Conversion range of galvanometer= V= 3V

External resistance to be placed in

V
series with the galvanometer= R x   G = _______ohms
I

100
Verification:
3
Full scale divisions on the converted galvanometer: =_________ volts
n
Galvanometer Reading Voltmeter
No. Deflection P.D in volts Reading Difference
 3

n Volts
1
2
3

101
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is the difference between galvanometer and voltmeter?

Q.2 Why should a voltmeter have a high resistance?

Q.3 Why a voltmeter should always be connected in parallel?

Q.4 What will happen if a voltmeter has a low shunt resistance instead of having high shunt resistance?

Q.5 What is the difference between EMF and potential difference?

102
Q.6 What is a rheostat?
Ans:

Q.7 A voltmeter is marked 100ohms per volt and another voltmeter is marked 1000ohms per volt. which
will prefer and why?

Q.8 What is the zero error of the galvanometer?

Q.9 Define the term current sensitivity?

Q.10 Give different types of galvanometer?

103
 EXPERIEMENT No.11
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter reading up to 0.1 Ampere

Observations and Calculations

Galvanometer resistance by half deflection method:

No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half Galvanometer
R  resistance deflection Resistance
Ohms S  G=S
Ohms 2
1.
2.
3.

Figure of merit:
emf of the battery = __________ volts
Resistance R = ______________ ohms
Deflection  = ______________
E 1
Figure of merit of the galvanometer= k  x
( R  G) 
Mean Resistance of the galvanometer by Half deflection method G= __________ ohms
(Total No. of divisions of the galvanometer) = n=_________
Current for full scale deflection I g  nk = _______ Amp.

Range of conversion= 0.1 Ampere

Ig
Value of shunt resistance = Rs  G = ________ ohms
I  Ig
Least count of the screw gauge = _______mm

Zero correction =  _________mm



Observed diameter= ___________________ (Take at least three readings at different points of the wires)

104
Mean observed diameter = _________mm

Corrected mean diameter= ________mm

radius of the wire= r= _____________mm

Specific resistance of the wire =  =______ohm cm

xr 2
Length of wire used as shunt = l  = _________cm

0.1
Value of one galvanometer scale division after conversion=  ____ Ampere
n
Verification

Galvanometer Reading Ammeter

No. Deflection Current in Reading Difference
 Ampere
0. 1 Ampere

n
1
2
3

105
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 On which principle does the galvanometer work?

Q.2 Why should an ammeter have a low shunt resistance?

Q.3 Why should an ammeter always be connected in series?‟

Q.4 What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?

Q.5 What is the difference between a short circuit , open circuit?

106
Q.6 What is a close circuit?

Q.7 What is a load?

Q.8 what is meant by load current?

Q.9 Does a practical ammeter when connected, affect the current of a circuit ?

Q.10. Define Ampere?

107
 EXPERIMENT-12
To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s Rings.

Observations and Calculations

Focal length of Plano convex lens (f) =________ cm

Refractive index of a glass = 1.5

1
Radius of curvature of lens (R) = R  ( ) f = __________ cm
n 1
No. Microscope Reading D 2 K 5  DK2
of Ring
K+0
K+1
K+2
K+3
-----
-----

K+10

Mean D 2 K 5  DK2 = __________

Wavelength of Sodium light:

D2k  5  D2k
 =_________cm=_________nm
45r

108
 VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is interference of light?

Q.2 what are Newton rings?

Q.3 Other than Newton rings , which famous experiment in history of physics demonstrates practically
phenomenon of interference?

Q.4 why do we always get a dark spot at the centre of the Newton rings?

Q.5 What is refractive index?

109
Q.6 How is the speed of light related to the refractive index of the medium?

Q.7 What is the practical application of interference phenomenon of light?/

Q.8 Why do the Newton rings get narrower as the radii increase?

Q.9 You have read about different light phenomenon e.g Interference ,diffraction and Photoelectric
effect .breifly describe which of these depend on wave nature and the other depend on particle nature of
light?

Q.10 What is the difference between a photon and a phonon?

Q.11 Write the condition of path difference necessary for bright fringes and dark fringes in an
interference phenomenon occurring in a laboratory?

Q.12 What is a monochromatic radiation?

110
Q.13 What is total internal reflection? Give a practical application of total internal reflection?

Q.14 What causes the brilliant colors when a thin layer of oil is spread on water?

Q.15 what is diffraction of light give a practical application of diffraction of light?

111