[4:12 am, 21/02/2020] Shehara Eranial: TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentence: A sentence is a group of words which convey a sensible idea. It consists of one or more
clauses. Sentences are classified into simple, complex and compound.

• Simple Sentence: A simple sentence is one which has only one subject and one predicate. E.g. He has
gone to school.

• Complex Sentence: A complex sentence is one which has one principal clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.

E.g.: Life is what we make it while we try to enjoy it. It is feared that he will not come, even if a car is
sent.

• Compound sentence: A compound sentence contains two or more clauses of equal importance joined
by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So — FANBOYS, (Helpful
hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators.) E.g.: Mammootty is known for his acting, but Yesudas is
known for his singing.

• Conditional Sentence: It is a statement to agree to do a work on the fulfilment of a condition

mentioned in the statement.

E.g.: I shall do it if he asks me. Unless you work hard, you will fail

• Passive sentences: The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences
an action rather than the person or object that performs the action. In other words, the most important
thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.

E.g.: The story is written by him (passive) He wrote the story (active)
PARTS OF SPEECH

1. Noun: A Noun is a word used to denote a person, place or thing. They can be subjects or objects.

E.g. Bus, Aron, Wisdom, Computer, Rapport, Worry, walking etc. walking is a good habit

2. Pronoun: A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.

Personal pronouns: I, WE, YOU, HE, SHE, IT, THEY, ONE, SOMEONE etc. Sachin is absent, because he is ill.

3. Adjective: An Adjective is a word that describes a noun to qualify or explain it.

E.g.: tall, expensive, dead, handsome, good etc. He is a tall man. He is a talented and creative magician.
John is a good

4. Verb: A Verb is a word or phrase which denotes an action, state or possession. A verb is all about
doing being and having,

E.g.: is, has, have, go, eat, hit, shut, cut etc. The sun sets in the west. she has a car.

5. Adverb: An Adverb modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb.

E.g.: well, slowly, aggressively etc. Kavitha works slowly

6. Preposition: A Preposition is a word or a group of words placed before a noun or pronoun to show
place, position, time or method. As the word suggests, their position is before nouns
E.g.: at, by, for, from, in, of to, on, out, up, with, among etc. on the table, at 3.00 am

7. Conjunction: A Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or sentences. E.g.: if, and, that, but, or,
because, till, before, after, until etc. he is on leave because of fever

Conjunction Correlative: It is a conjunction having two parts. e.g. either ... or, neither ...nor, both ... and
etc.

Neither Arun nor Arvind was aware about the unforeseen effects of their action

8. Interjection: Interjection is a word or phrase which expresses a sudden feeling such as joy, surprise or
shock.

Oh.! My God, Alas.! It’s done, Hurray.!, Damn.!

OTHER MISCELLANEOUS

Auxiliary: Auxiliary verb is a word that helps a main verb to form tenses, moods, voices etc. There are 24
Auxiliary Verbs +4 additional ones. (BE), IS, WAS, ARE, WERE, AM, HAS, HAVE, HAD, DO, DOES, DID, CAN,
COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, MAY, MIGHT, MUST, NEED, OUGHT TO, DARE, USED TO. (+GET,
KEEP, MAKE, LET).

Articles: ‘A,' ‘an,’ and ‘the’ are called articles.

‘A’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles.

‘The’ is a definite article.

E.g.: A boy, An umbrella, The Quran, The sun, The UK, The Internet etc.

Subject: The word or phrase in a sentence indicating who or what does the action stated by the verb or a
word or phrase indicating the person(s) or thing(s) in a sentence about which something is stated or a
word or phrase in a passive sentence indicating who or what suffers or is affected by the action stated in
the verb.

E.g. We know little. Magician Samraj is an artiste. The building was destroyed in the storm.

Predicate: Predicate is a part of a statement that says something about the subject, that is, what a noun
is, what a noun does, what a noun possesses (has), and what is done to a noun.

E.g.: Mary went home. He knows nothing but English.

Persons: First person — I (singular), We (plural). Second person — You

(singular & plural). Third person — He, She, It (singular), They (plural).

Gerund: When a noun is made by adding’—ing’ to a verb, it is called verbal noun or gerund E.g.:
Gossiping is the hobby of the mean-minded. Walking every day is a good exercise.

Idiom: Idiom is a phrase or sentence whose meaning is different from the meaning of individual words of
the phrase or sentence. Idioms convey connotations different form denotations.

E.g.: To cry over spilt milk, to add fuel to the fire, keep your fingers crossed, to call it a day etc.

Phrase: A group of words without a Verb. e g. the green car, in the morning, etc
Punctuations: Punctuations are special marks used to make sentences perfectly clear: They are: Full stop
(.), Comma (,), Semicolon (;), Colon (:), Dash (-), Question mark (?), Brackets ( ), Quotation marks (“ ”),
Exclamation (!), Apostrophe (’), etc.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In English, the verb must agree with its subject in Number and in Person in a sentence.

E.g.: Everybody know English(incorrect)

Everybody knows English (correct)

This rule applies only in the Simple Present Tense. A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural
subject takes a plural verb.

Singular Subjects: Everybody, somebody, nobody, none, each, either neither every, one of my friends,
many a man, etc. are considered as singular subjects.

Singular subjects such as he, she, it, cow, Ashok, child, woman etc. should be used with the auxiliary
does.

E.g.: He does not smoke.

Has comes only with singular subjects.

E.g.: He has a bike., Has she got a car?.

As for transitive and intransitive verbs, ‘-s’or’-es’is added to the root word to form its singular.

E.g.: He knows English. Who knows the truth? One of my friends knows nothing but Sanskrit.

Kalpana as well as Urvasi knows how to mimic others. Magician Samraj dances well.

Plural Subjects - I, you (I and You are considered plural), they, Bobby & Baby, women, men, the poor, the
rich, the needy, children, police etc. are considered plural. With these subjects ’has’ and ’does’ cannot
be used. Plural subjects attract do and have. No ‘-s’ is added to verb, when the subject is plural.

In the simple past tense there is no distinction between ‘singular’ and ‘plural’subjects.

E.g.: He did it. She did it. They did it. Everybody did it. Nobody did it.

AUXILIARY VERBS OR HELPING VERBS

Auxiliary verbs help other verbs to form Tenses. They are used with a main verb to form ‘the Tense’ and
to form questions.

E.g.: ‘Do’ and ‘Has’ in Do you know him? and Has he gone to Bombay?

Main Verb: The principal word in a predicate is called a principal verb or a main verb.

E.g.: He has done the work. (Here done is the main verb and has is the helping verb to form its tense.)

There are 24 Auxiliary Verbs + 4 new ones. They are:

(BE) IS, WAS, ARE, WERE, AM, HAS, HAVE, HAD, DO, DOES, DID, CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, S,
MAY, MIGHT, MUST, NEED, OUGHT TO, DARE, USED TO + (GET, MEP, MAKE, LET)

Safe: Be, do, have, need, and dare are used both as main verbs and as auxiliaries.

E.g. He did his work. (Main Verb) When did you come? (Auxiliary verb) I have a bike. (M.V.) They have
taken my book. (A.V.)

He needs my help. (M.V.) You need not go there. (A.V.)

He dared me to jump. (M.V.) Nobody dares to criticize him. (A.V.)

BE: ’Be! has various forms namely am, is, are, was, were, been, being. E.g.: I am reading a novel. She is
singing a song.

They are playing cricket. They were dancing all night. She was attending the seminar.

HAVE: E.g.: I have a car. (M.V.) I have driven my car. (A.V.) He has a car. (M.V)

He has got a mobile (A.V.) I had a toy. (M.V) I have had my lunch. (A.V.) She has a necklace. (M.V.) The
flight had left, before I reached the airport (A.V)

DO: E.g.: She does her homework regularly. (M.V.) Do you know where I live? (A.V.) I did my work very
well. (M.V.) Does she like you? (A.V.)

I do shopping at weekends. (M.V.) Did you come yesterday? (A.V.)

SHALL is used (in conventional grammar) to show determination, suggestion, or command.

(i)Agreement: E.g. I shall write to you again later.

We shall invite them to dinner.

(ii) Suggestion: E.g. What shall we do this weekend? Shall we go for a movie?

(iii)Command: E.g. You shall not go there. You shall not steal.

(iv)Legal Terms: E.g. Employees shall be entitled to airfare only after 2 years of work.

WILL is used (in conventional grammar) for talking about the future to show determination, threat, and
promise.

(i)Determination: E g. I will do it. I will not let him go.

(ii)Threat: E.g. I will teach him a lesson. We will dismiss you from service.

(iii)Promise: E.g. I will do whatever I can do for you. I will try to take you there. _

Note: In Modem English ‘will’ is generally used instead of ‘shall’ by native speakers. Therefore, it is
better not to be worried over the minute differences between ‘will’& ’shall’. E.g.: I will come.’& ‘I shall
come. ‘convey the same meaning in Modern English. It is better we use ‘will’instead of ‘shall’on most
occasions. If you intend to convey your determination, it is better for you to add
’surely’,’definitely’,’certainly’, etc. E.g.: I will definitely come.
However, shall must be used in legal terms: E.g.: The criminal shall be punished.

Nobody shall be permitted to use loud speaker after 10 p.m.

Shall must be used for universal truth. E.g. Everybody shall die.

When we frame questions with & be. E.g. Shall we go now? Shall I come?

SHOULD is the past form of shall. (i) Used to show suppositions, possibilities and for commands.

E.g. The keys should be with the watchman. You should not drink here. (ü) Used for Command.

E.g. You should not use mobile phones in classrooms.

(iü) Used to express a condition (in place of if).

E.g. Should I be given a chance to work in your esteemed organisation, I shall be grateful. (Should it rain,
there will be no picnic today. (If it rains, there will be no picnic today.)

WO ULD is the past form of will (not just Past Tense) md is used in: (It has six applications)

(I)Indirect Speech: e.g. She told him that she would come the next day.

(ü) past habit: E g. I would smoke in my college days. (used to)

(îü) Politeness: E.g. Would you mind if I smoke?

Would you mind me smoking?

(iv) Phrase: €. g. I would like to inform you that.......

I would appreciate it if you grant me the loan.

(v) Preferences: E.g.: I would rather die than beg.

(vi) If-clause (conditional): E.g. If l were the PM, I would enact new laws.

If l were a bird, I would fly.

CAN is used to show ability. ‘

E.g.: Rekhta can speak four languages. He can run a mile in four minutes.

COULD is the past form of Can and it shows:

(i) An ability that existed in past.

E.g. Till last year I could read without specs. If l had money, I could buy that house.

(ü) Politeness: E.g.: Could you repeat it please? Could you tend me some money?
(iü) Possibility: E.g. You could succeed if you worked harder.

MAY is used to express:

(i) Permission: E.g. May I speak to Mr. Chandy? May I come in, sir?

(ii) Possibility: E.g. Well, it may rain today. He may be elected.

(iii) Wish: E.g. May God bless you! May his soul rest in peace!

(iv) Purpose: E.g. We eat that we may live. Work hard that you may win.

(v) Suggestion: E.g. You may run to get the train. You may try to solve the

MIGHT is the past form of May. lt is used:

(i) When we want to be extremely polite.

E.g. If I might make a suggestion, shall we go for the other movie? (ü) To express a more doubtful
possibility than may.

E.g.: He may come tomorrow. He might come tomorrow. (only a slim chance)

The patient may recover. The patient might recover. (only a slim chance)
(iii) Reported speech.

E.g. He said, “I may pass the exam”. He told me that he might pass the exam.

MUST shows a strong obligation or duty. (Must and ought to have a stronger sense of duty or obligation
than should). ‘Had to’ can be considered as the past form of must & ‘will have to’ can be used as its
future equivalent.

(i) Necessity or compulsion

E.g. You must be home by 7 o’clock. I must have my bike serviced tomorrow.

Will I have to do this? I had to reach home by 7O’c1ock.

(ii) Probability or likelihood

E.g. You must be kidding. She must be mad to say such a thing.

Oh, there is a knock at the door, it must be the postman.

OUGHT followed by an infinite verb with ‘to’ used to express duty, mora, ob1igation, necessity etc.

E.g. Children ought to obey their parents. (Moral Obligation) We ought to buy some furniture.
(Necessity)

NEED is used both as an Auxiliary and as a Main Verb.

E.g. You need not help me. (A.V.) Your hair needs cutting. (M.V.) You need not mention that in the class
(A.Y). I need a pen (M.V.)

DARE is used both as an Auxiliary Verb and as a Main Verb.

E.g. How dare you call me a fool? (A.V.) He dared to swim across the river(M.V.)

USED TO is a phrase which can be used only in the past tense

E.g. He used to smoke when he was in the Gulf. Gandhi used to fast, even in jails.

ARTICLES

There are two types of articles:

(i) The definite article generally points to a particular person or thing.

E.g. The M.L.A means a particular M.L.A.

(ii) But the Indefinite article points to an indefinite person or thing.

E.g. an apple, a student or an M.L.A. An M.L.A means any MLA.

’An’ is Used Before a Vowel Sound (Not before all vowels!!!) E.g.: an MLA (eMLA) an S.I.(eS.I), an ant, an
emergency, an ear (but a year), on organ, an Ex-MP, etc.
Silent ‘ft’: E.g.: nn (h)eir, an (h)onest man, an (h)onourab1e contract, on (h)our etc.

’A’ or ’An’ can be used only with countable nouns. E.g.: A year; A Hotel

(or an hotel), A Eur-opean, A useful item, A utensil, A University, etc. But we cannot say ’a water’, ’a
work’, etc.

TENSES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

A. Present Tense

1) Simple Present: (Root of the verb and its singular form. come-comes, go-goes etc.)

a) It is used to express a habitual action.

E.g.:I sleep at 9 pm. = I usually sleep at 9 pm.

I get up at 5 am. = I usually get up at 5 am.

I play badminton everyday= I am in the habit of playing badminton.

He prays to God=He is in the habit of praying.

b) It is used to express a General (Universal) truth.

E.g. The cow gives us milk. God knows the truth. The sun rises in the east.
c) It is used to express exclamatory sentences beginning with ‘Here’ and ‘There’.

E.g.: Here comes Sachin! There goes the bus! There lies the truth!

d) It is used to indicate a future event that is already planned.

E.g.: We go to DXB next week. The train comes at 5pm.

e) It is used to express an order or a request.

E.g.: Come early in the morning. Help me please. Give me a chance.

I) It is used to denote a fact.

E.g. They live in a hut. I know English. Mortal men know little.

2. Present Continuous: (mm, is, ‹me + verb + -ing):

a) It is used to express an action which is going on at the time of speaking.

E.g. My mother is cooking now. Who is shouting there? Itisraining.Itisb1owing.

b) It is used to express an action that is planned to take place in the near future.
E.g.: On the 4th of next month, we are going to see a Jacky Chan movie.

I am going for a wedding next week. We are leaving for Utopia tomorrow. Jen is resuming his course
only on Thursday.

one: The following verbs are not usually used in Continuous tenses. (-ing form):

wish, love, refuse, desire, see, hear, want, forgive, care, hate, owe, mind, forget, think, have, belong,
seem, appear, dislike like, smell, consist, contain, believe, realize, suppose, know, feel, think,
understand, remember etc.

E.g.: I love my son.

I wish I got the U.S. visa.

I see something strange there. I smell a rat in this issue.

He believes in God. We know everything but English.

3. Present Perfect (has + past participle, have + past participle)

(E.g.: have met, have gone, have passed etc.):

a) The conventional explanation about this tense is that it is to denote an action which is completed in
the recent past. It sounds rather strange when we analyze it logically. Let us Analyse the following:

E.g. I have met Bachchan. He has gone to NYC. I have passed the test.
I have killed a mosquito

I met Bachchan. He went to NYC. I passed the test.

I killed a mosquito

b) In both the above cases the actions are complete. These are two different ways of conveying the
same message. The sentences on the left are better and more academic if there is no time indication.
But with the latter (simple past}

we can indicate ‘time’ of action. ‘ ‘‘‘

E.g.: I met Bachchan yesterday. He went to New York last year.

c) However, ‘Present Perfect’ is used when there is no time indication of the past.

E.g. He has gone to NYC. They have gone to Dubai.

d) When we use just”, we use Present Perfect.

E.g.: They have just gone. He has come just now.

I) It is used Zn quote somebody.

E.g.: Buddha has said... Jesus has said... (Although it was in the remote past, it is correct)
Gandiji has stated ....

4. Present Perfect Continuous (has + been, have + been + ‘-ing’ form of the verb): It is used to express an
action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. E.g.: It has been raining since
yesterday morning.

I have been working in an MNC for the last ten years.

Note: If the subject is singular, we use ‘has’ and if the subject is plural, we use ‘have'.

B. Past Tense

i) Simple past: (simple past form of the root, go-went, come-came, etc.)

E.g.: I saw him at 4 o’clock.

a) It is used to denote an action which took place at a point of time in the past.

E.g.: Veerappan killed many mosquitoes last year. India defeated Pakistan.

b) When there is a time indication only simple past ran be used.

E.g.: He left for Dubai on 14 September. He came yesterday.

India got independence in 1947.

c) It is used to denote a past habit.

E.g.: He bought sarees whenever his wife wanted one. She always carried a vanity bag.

2) Past continuous: (was/were + verb + -ing)

a) It is used to denote an action in progress in the past.

E.g.: I was sleeping They were playing chess in the Royal Club.

b) It is used to denote persistent habits with always, continually etc.

E.g.: He was continually lying. The children were always playing.

c) It is used to denote an action that took place when another was in progress.

E.g.: He was reading a book when I met him.

The accident took place when the man was walking along the road.

3. Past perfect: (had + past participle)

a) It is used to express the earlier of past actions which is expressed with ’had + P.P.’
and the second in simple past.

E.g.: When they reached the airport, the flight had left for Dubai. (The departure of the flight took place
before their arrival.) The thief had escaped by the time the police came.

(The thief escaped before the police arrived.)

b) This tense is used in the reported speech.

E.g. Gandhiji told that lie had convinced the Viceroy about their independence. (Gandhiji said, “I have
convinced the Viceroy about our independence.”)

4. Past perfect continuous:(had+been+verb+ing) It is used to denote an action that had begun sometime
in the past and had been going on till some other action took place or between two extremes.

E.g. I had been working in the Gulf from 1996 to 2008. (Between two past time periods.) She told me
that she had been waiting for me since 10am.

B. Future Tense

1. Simple future: (Shall/Will + root of the verb)

It is used to denote an action that is going to take place in future.

E.g.: He will come. I shall do it. She may return next week. I will learn English. You will get it tomorrow. I
will tell you something. I shall see to it that discipline is maintained here.
Note: In conventional English, use shall with I and we, but use with (Third person singular) he, it,

they, Mammootty, India, etc; will is used to indicate pure future.

In Modern English, will can be used with I and we without any determination

or emphasis. Now, “I shall and I will” convey the same meaning. but “shall” should be used in ‘requests,
universal truths ’and in ‘legal aspects’ eg.1. Shall we have a cup of tea? 2. Everybody shall die.

3. The employee shall be getting airfare once a year.

E.g.: I will/shall write you a letter. I will/shall go for the party.

These are used without any difference in meaning. The difference between ‘will’ and ‘shall’ has become
insignificant. People now use ‘surely’, definitely’ etc. with ‘shall’ and ‘will’ to emphasize or to indicate
determination.

2. Future continuous: (will be/shall be + verb + -ing)

a) It is used to represent an action that will be continuing at some point of time in the future. E.g.: I will
be sleeping at that time. He will be meeting you this afternoon.

b) It is used to denote planned future events.

E.g.: I shall/will be waiting for you at 5 O’clock in the evening.

I shall be meeting you tomorrow.

3. Future Perfect Tense: (shall have/will have + past participle)

It is used to show that an action will have been completed by a certain period of time in the future.

E.g.: By next year this time, he will have completed his course.

I will have completed reading this novel by tomorrow evening

4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense: (shall have/will have + been + verb + -ing)

It shows an action which will be in progress over a period of time, and will continue uninterruptedly till a
certain point of time in future. (The duration and continuity of the action is important here.)

E.g.: I will have been doing my Masters in English for a period of2 yearn by June next year.

I will have been engaging in completing the task........

Note: Verbs that remain unchanged in all the three tense forms: cut, put, shut, bet, burst, cast, set,
shed, split, telecast, spread, sweat, thrust, we‹

With some changes: send, lend, bend, hang, lose, grant.

With changes: go, dig, draw, feed, fall, has, have, do, does, beat slay see, fly, flow, bear, tear, come, be,
run, become, draw know.
[4:12 am, 21/02/2020] Shehara Eranial:
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