SPECIAL ADVANCED GRAMMAR

LANGUAGE

It is any means by which one person communicates his/her ideas to another."

For example:

Arabic, Pashto, Dari, English, French, Chinese…

Grammar French: “gremme/gramme”, Latin: “grammatica”, or Greek: “grammatikos”.

Definitions of Grammar:

 Grammar is the study of morphology, syntax, and semantics.

 The accurate knowledge and usage about a particular language is called grammar.
 Grammar is putting words on their right position in syntactic structures.
 Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly.
 Grammar is the scientific study of a language.
 The system that our language uses to put parts of speech together into sentences is known as grammar.

Letter

It is a written or printed symbol representing a special sound in a language.

There are twenty-six letters in English language.

For instance: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee…

Here, letter is dealt with in two classes:

① Structure analyzes simplicity and compounding. There are two kinds of letters according to structure.

1. Simple letter is a letter figuring one in its symbol. Ex: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd,…
2. Compound letters are ones figuring more than one and making a special sound together. Ex: ch, sh, gh, sion, tion, tia…

② Sound analyzes words' openness and obstruction. There are three kinds of letters according to sound.

1. Vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u) are ones creating sounds and syllables.

Ex: pat, pet, pit, pot, put…
2. Consonant letters (19) are ones making sounds when together with vowels and obstructed to have
pronounced.
Memo: Barring vowels the words are mute.
Ex: black & blck, young & yng …
3. Semi-vowel letters (w, y) are ones functioning both as consonants (usually when starting words) and vowels
(when used in the middle and/or end of words).
Ex:
yes, yet, young, yesterday, my, party, carry…
now, two, window, word, watch…

Word

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are
distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their _species_; the latter,
their figure.

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language; as, _harm, great, connect_.

A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language; as, _harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect,
unconnected_.

1 |P a g e
A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words; as, _watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less_.

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, _watchman, bookstore, watchtower,
nevertheless_.

Subject

① is the doer of an action. Ex: I study English language.

② is what or whom the sentence is about. Ex: Ali is my brother.

③ is a word starting a sentence. Ex: There is someone in this class.

Object

1) is a noun affected by the action of the subject. Ex: We read the books.
2) is the receiver of an action. Ex: They want an apple.

Object has 2 kinds: (Direct and Indirect object)

1: Direct object

1) is the first receiver of an action. Ex: I bought Ali a pen.

2: Indirect object

1) is the second receiver of an action. Ex: He sent us a gift.

Memo: Direct object is usually a thing and indirect a person.

Memo: Indirect object is usually used first, and direct object the second.

Ex: We brought him many books.

But possibly we change the order, as:

1. “d.o.” before “i.o.” Formula: S + V + d.o. + to/for + i.o.

Ex: They gave a pen to me.

2. “i.o” before “d.o.” Formula: S + V + i.o + d.o.

Ex: They gave me a pen.

Complement Is a word or more completing the meaning of a sentence after the verb.

Ex: They broke the chair. They saw us at school.

Memo: Every object is a complement but not vice versa.

Predicate Is whatever after the subject. Ex: We read these books last summer.

Phrase: Is a word set neither having subject and predicate nor showing a complete thought. Ex: at home, in the early morning,
on the way...

Memo: It can just give a particular idea.

Clause Is a word set having subject and predicate and can be meaningful or meaningless.

Ex:

I saw him. (meaningful)

If I saw him, (meaningless)

Sentence is a word set showing a complete thought. Ex: I study English.

Pangram is a sentence having all the 26 letters of the English alphabet.

2 |P a g e
For example:

 The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

 How quickly daft jumping zebras vex!

PARTS OF SPEECH

1) Division of words in a language is called parts of speech.

2) Parts of speech is the collection of grammatical words giving particular sense or meaning.
3) The term 'parts of speech' applies to what we call categories of words and lexemes.
4) Words are classed into seven, eight or nine categories according to their uses in a sentence.
5) Words are divided into different kinds or classes according to the purpose for which they are used, the different kinds of
words are called Parts of Speech.

For instance:

Int Adv V Pro Adv V Conj Art N Pro V Prep Art N V

What! Why did you not ask when the kids who went into that house returned?

Words are classed into nine categories according to their uses in a sentence.

i. Noun is name for a person, animal, thing, place, idea, and activity. Ali, cat, pen
ii. Pronoun is alternate name for a noun. he, she, it
iii. Adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. big, good, full
iv. Verb expresses action or existence. went, drink, is
v. Adverb modifies a verb, adverb, or adjective. quickly, enough, here
vi. Preposition precedes phrase that acts as a modifier or noun. in, for, at
vii. Conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses. and, or, but
viii. Interjection expresses emotion. Ouch! Pish! Yuck!
ix. Article limits a noun. a, an, the

NOUN

1. Noun

① is a word (set) which names a person, place, animal or thing.

② is a naming word.

③ is a referring expression.

④ is an expression naming things.

⑤ is a word or group of words which names a:

1. Person: Selma, boy, woman, man, Fatima, teacher, etc. e.g. Ali comes here.
2. Place: Afghanistan, New York, country, city, etc. e.g. We love Afghanistan.
3. Thing: sun, moon, book, pen, hair, etc. e.g. Whose pen is it?
4. Animal: cat, dog, cow, etc. e.g. Cats meow.
5. Idea: Capitalism, criticism, heroism, etc. e.g. Communism lets no private property owned.
6. Quantity: kilo, meter, foot, etc. e.g. There is two kilometers from here to the movies.

3 |P a g e
 Classification of Noun

 Kinds of Noun
 Cases or uses of Noun
 Gender of Noun

There are many different kinds of nouns, and it’s important to know the different way each type can be used in a sentence.
1. Proper Noun 2. Common Noun 3. Collective Noun 4. Material Noun 5. Abstract Noun

6. Concrete Noun 7. Compound Noun

 Proper nouns: Are those nouns which identify an absolutely unique person, place, or thing, and they are signified by
capital letters, no matter where they appear in a sentence.
For example:
 Go find Jeff and tell him dinner is ready.
 I lived in Zabul before I moved to Kabul.
 My parents still talk about how great Woodstock was in 1969.

 Common Noun: Those that identify general people, places, or things are called common nouns.
For example:
 He sat on the chair.
 I live in a city.
 We met some people.
 She went into politics.

 Collective nouns: It is a name which is singular in form but plural in meaning.

 The flock of birds flew south for the winter.

 The police are investigating the matter.
 The organization voted to cancel the rules that it had previously approved.
 The army are helping to clear up after the floods.
 This house isn’t big enough for a family of seven.
 Committee didn’t attend in the last meeting.
 Material nouns: Are the names of the substances which things are made of.
For example:
 I have a cricket bat in my closet.
 The bat is made of wood from a tree.
 My brother has a mobile phone.
 The phone is made of plastic and metal.
 The jug is on the table.
 Abstract nouns: It is a name which cannot be seen or touched.
Here are some examples of abstract nouns:
Love, Hate, Decency, Conversation, Emotion, Aspiration, Excitement…etc.
 Concrete nouns: Name people, places, animals, or things that can be seen or touched.
 For instance:
Rocks, lake, countries, people, child, air, water, bread, book…etc.
 A compound noun: Is a noun made from at least two words. There are three forms for compound nouns: (1) with
spaces, (2) without spaces, and (3) with hyphens.

Examples of Compound Nouns:

 With spaces: swimming pool, grey matter, fish tank…etc.
 With no spaces: shotgun, housework, eyelid…etc.
 With hyphens: baby-sitter, laughing-gas, daughter-in-law…etc.

4 |P a g e
 Cases of Noun

Case of the noun shows the place of the noun in a sentence.

There are six cases of noun.

1. Subjective Case
2. Objective Case
3. Subjective Complement Case
4. Possessive Case
5. Oblique Case
6. Vocative Case

Subjective Case: In this case a noun is used as the subject of a sentence.

For example:

 Ali broke the chair.

 Afghanistan is not a destroyed country.
 Fatima cooks the meat.

Objective Case: In this case the noun is used as an object of a sentence.

For example:

 They painted the room.

 He teaches English.
 Ali helps his parents

Subjective Complement Case: In this case a noun is used after “to be verbs” to complete the meaning of the sentence.

For example:

 You are students.

 He is a teacher.
 He is Hameed.

Possessive Case: In this case a noun is used with (‘s or s’) to show possession or relationship.

Usages of (‘s)
1. With singular noun:
For example:
 Ahmad’s bother, Basher is very sick.
 That is Ali’s hat.
 Those pleasant children are Mohammad Khan’s.

2. With singular and plural irregular nouns:

For example:
 child’s diaper
 children’s rights
 man’s duty
 men’s duty

Usages of (s’)
1. With regular plural nouns:
For example:
 teachers’ room

5 |P a g e
  girls’ college
 boys’ hostel
 girls’ hostel

2. With names of family:

For example;
 Afridis’ house
 Ahmadzais’ property

Oblique Case: In this case a noun is used after a preposition.

For example:

 She is at home.
 He went to school.
 The doctor is from India.
 Vocative case of a noun: Is used to address a reader or listener directly.
For example:
 Ali, I was wondering if you could help me with the dishes.
 I was wondering, Ali, if you could help me with the dishes.
 I was wondering if you could help me with the dishes, Ali.
Gender of Noun

The word (gender) has been taken from Latin word (genus) which means (sex).

Gender of a noun shows the sex of a noun in a sentence.

There are four gender of the noun.

1. Masculine Gender
2. Feminine Gender
3. Neuter Gender
4. Common Gender

Masculine Gender: It shows that a person or animal is male.

For example: (man, boy, father, brother, dog… etc.)

Feminine Gender: It shows that a person or animal is female.

For example: (woman, girl, sister, lioness…etc.)

Neuter Gender: It refers to neither male nor female.

For example: Chair, computer, mobile… etc.

Common Gender: it refers to both male and female.

For example: Student, teacher, driver, player, child…etc.

PRONOUN

Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns in a sentence.

There are ten kinds of pronouns.

1) Personal Pronouns
2) Relative Pronouns

6 |P a g e
 3) Demonstrative Pronouns
4) Interrogative Pronouns
5) Reflexive Pronouns
6) Intensive Pronouns
7) Indefinite Pronouns
8) Possessive Pronouns
9) Distributive Pronouns
10) Reciprocal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used instead of subject and object nouns.

Kinds of Personal Pronouns

1. Subject Pronouns
2. Object Pronouns

Subject Pronouns are those pronouns which are used as subject of sentences.

They are: (I, we, you, they, he, she and it)

For example:

 I study English.
 We are students.
 He is speaking right now.
 They are going to finish their class next week.
 You have done our job successfully.

Object Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used as the object of sentences.

They are: (me, you, them, us, him, her and it)

For example:

 She called me last night.

 I thought them very well.
 She guided us very well about how we teach class successfully.
 My friend told him not to bother older.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to show possession or relationship.

They are: (mine, yours, theirs, hers, his, its and ours)

 That car is his. (Possession)

 That teacher is ours. (Relationship)

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are those which refer to the person or animal that is the subject of the verb.

They are: (myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself and itself)

For example:

 Ahmad killed himself.

 They helped themselves.
 She has hurt herself.

7 |P a g e
 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
First Person (I, me) myself (We, us) ourselves
Second Person (You) yourself (You) yourselves
Third Person (He, him) himself (They, them) themselves
(she, her) herself
(It) itself

Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns: Are those pronouns which emphasize on performing of an action.

For instance:
 I checked over these documents myself.
 The president himself will be in attendance.
 I didn’t see the accident itself, but I heard the crash.
 He had trained the horse himself.
 We ourselves usually have a large lunch and a small evening meal.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which point out singular, plural, near and far noun(s).

The most common are this, that, these, and those.

1. This: is used for singular and near noun.

 This is an expensive car.
 This is an appropriate answer.
2. That: is used for singular and far noun.
 That is a very nice book.
 That was a good idea which she told us.
3. These: is used for plural and near noun(s).
 These are our students.
 These are their opinions which they shared with us.
4. Those: is used for plural and far noun(s).
 Those are students of Destination class.
 Those were good points about how teachers run their classes well.
 Those are their cars

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. There are five primary interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which,
and what.
For example
 Who is coming to the party tonight? (Subject)
 Whose are these jeans? (Subject)
 Do you know what we’re doing here? (Object)
 Whom did you meet last night? (Object)
 What did you do last summer? (Object)
 Which will be your car?

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns: Are those pronouns which refer to indefinite person(s), place(s) or thing(s).

They are formed by adding:

8 |P a g e
 some one

any body
to
no thing

every where

Person place thing

a) Someone(body) somewhere something

b) Anyone(body) anywhere anything
c) No one (body) nowhere nothing
d) Everyone(body) everywhere everything

Note: “Body” is not as formal as one is.

1. The pronouns beginning with (some) are usually used in positive and sometimes in question sentence if there is
offer.
e.g.
 He bought something last day.
 Would you like to drink something? (Offer).
2. The pronouns beginning with (any) are usually used in negative and interrogative sentences.
e.g.
 Did you see anyone in the car?
 I did not see anyone in the car.
3. The pronouns beginning with (no) are used in positive but the meaning is negative.
e.g.
 He went nowhere this week.
 I bought nothing.
4. The pronouns beginning with (every) are used in positive, negative and interrogative sentences.

For example:

 I teach everyone.
 I do not teach everyone.
 Do I teach everybody?

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to connect relative clauses to the main clause in a sentence.
They are:

1. Who; it is used for people or person in subjective case, it is also used in objective (informal) style.
2. Whom; it is used for people or person in objective case
3. Which; it is used for thing(s) both in subjective and objective cases
4. That; it is used for both person and thing in subjective as well as objective case.

Relative pronouns

Subjective case objective case

For example:

 I know the people. They live in that house. (unconnected)

 I know the people who live in that house. (subjective case)
 The teacher wasn’t blame. He expelled him. (unconnected)

9 |P a g e
  The teacher, whom he expelled, wasn’t blame. (objective case)
 The teacher who he expelled wasn’t blame. (objective case, Informal)
 He is a teacher. He taught us yesterday. (unconnected)
 He is a teacher who taught us yesterday. (subjective case)
 He is the teacher that taught me yesterday. (subjective case)
 I have sold that house. I built it in 2017. (unconnected)
 I have sold that house which I built in 2017. (Objective case)
 I like that computer. It works very fast. (unconnected)
 I like a computer which works very fast. (subjective case)
 She wants a car. It has red color. (unconnected)
 She wants a car that has red color. ( subjective case)

Distributive Pronouns

Distributive pronoun: Is a pronoun that describes members of a group separately not collectively.

They are: Each, every, either, neither, etc.

For example:
Here are some examples of these pronouns. These are in bold letters. Let’s have a look-
 Each of the girls draws a picture.
 She has given ten notebooks to every student.
 Either of these has that information.
 You can sit either side of the window.
 She may either agree to work for that company or reject the offer.
 Neither of the newspapers is English.
Reciprocal Pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is used to express a mutual action or relationship. There are two reciprocal pronouns:

 Each other
 One another

For example:
 We call each other every day.
 We call one another every day.

Using each other vs. one another

Here are some easy examples of the reciprocal pronoun each other. Use each other when there are two persons or things.

 Ali and Fatima hate each other.

(Note that Ali hates Fatima, and Fatima hates Ali. The action is reciprocated.)

ADJECTIVE

Adjective is a word which describes, modifies or gives information about a (pro)noun.

Root of Adjective

Cases of Adjective kinds of Adjective

Case of adjective shows the position of the adjective in a sentence.

There are three cases of the adjective.

1) Attributive Case

10 |P a g e
 2) Predicative Case
3) Postpositive Case

When an adjective is used before a noun, it is called attributive case.

e.g.

 He is a good boy.
 They bought an expensive car.
 She doesn’t like the used J7 pro model phone.
 You are using only the blue pen.

When an adjective is used after the linking verbs, it is called predicative case.

Note: Linking verbs are those verbs which connect the subject with complement of a sentence. (To be verbs, look, appears,
seem, feel, taste)

e.g.

 He is intelligent.
 She looks happy.
 They were busy.
 She looked very nice when I saw at once.
 They were very excited when they won the match.

Postpositive case: When an adjective is used after noun or pronoun, it is called postpositive case.

e.g.

 We need someone experienced.

 Book all the tickets available.
 It is the only solution possible.
 I would like to go somewhere quiet.
 I heard something interesting today.
 This well is sixty meters deep.

Kinds of Adjective

There are 11-kind of the adjectives.

1) Qualitative adjectives
2) Demonstrative Adjectives
3) Interrogative Adjectives
4) Possessive Adjectives
5) Numeral Adjectives
6) Quantitative Adjectives
7) Proper Adjectives
8) Distributive Adjectives
9) Collective Adjectives
10) Compound Adjectives
11) Participle Adjectives

1. Qualitative adjectives: Are those adjectives which show the quality of a person, place or thing.
Qualitative adjectives include: Opinion, shape, Condition, age, color, pattern, Origin, Material.
For example:
 They bought an expensive car.
 She is clever girl.
 He asked a difficult question.
 We bought a round table last week.
2. Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out particular nouns.

11 |P a g e
 There are four common demonstrative adjectives in English: this, that, these, and those.
Use this table to easily reference which demonstrative adjectives to use in different contexts:

Near Far
Singular This That
Plural These Those

1. This: is used for singular and near noun.

 This car is very old.
 This water is polluted for swimming.
2. That: is used for singular and far noun.
 That computer was broken about which you said to me.
 That class is very cold.
3. These: is used for plural and near noun(s).
 These students are really intelligent.
 These chairs aren’t comfortable for students who are writing.
4. Those: is used for plural and far noun(s).
 Those books were very useful for English learners.
 Those Taliban, who would like to bring peace to Afghanistan, are being killed.

3. Interrogative Adjectives: Are used before nouns to ask questions. English has three interrogative adjectives: what,
which, and whose.
For example:
 What book are you reading?
 Which shirt are you going to buy?
 Whose computer is this?
 Whose book is this?

4. Possessive Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used before nouns to show possession or relationship.
They are: (My, your, their, our, his, her, and its) + noun
For example:
 Her father is teacher. (Relationship).
 That is my class. (Possession).
 He is our teacher over there. (Relationship).
 It was my book about which you are talking. (Possession).

5. Numeral Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used before a noun to show definite or indefinite numbers of
person, place, or thing.

There are two kinds of numeral adjectives.

1) Definite Numeral Adjectives

2) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives

Definite Numeral adjectives: Are those adjectives which show the definite numbers of persons, places or things.

There are three kinds of definite adjectives:

1. Ordinal Numbers
2. Cardinal Numbers
3. Multiplicative Numbers

 Ordinal Numbers show the exact order or position. Such as, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth … etc.
 Cardinal Numbers are those numbers which show the exact number of something. Such as: one, two, three, four,
fifth … etc.
 Multiplicative Numbers are used when there is repetition of size.

12 |P a g e
 They are: (single, double, triple, four-fold, five-fold, six-fold … etc.)

Indefinite Numeral Adjectives: They do not show the definite numbers of persons, places or things.

For instance:

 There are many students in the class.

 There are few students in the class.
 He has several books to read.

6. Quantity Adjectives: Are those adjectives which show the quantity of liquids or uncountable nouns.
(Some, any, all, few, little, no, enough…etc.)

e.g.

 He bought some rice yesterday.

 She does not drink any milk in the morning.
 They drank little water even though they were thirsty.

7. Proper Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are made of proper nouns.

Proper Nouns Proper Adjective

 Afghanistan Afghan
 America American
 India Indian
 China Chinese
 Pakistan Pakistani

Note: The first letter of a proper adjective should be written in uppercase.

Those foreign forces, who were killed in large number in Helmad province were from New York.

8. Distributive Adjectives: Those adjectives which are used before nouns to refer to each member of a group.
They include: (each, every, either and neither). They are normally used with singular nouns.

For example:

 Each book in New American Streamline has series has two levels.
 Every participant was asked to complete a survey.
 Neither person in the relationship seems to understand the dilemma.
 Either of these movies would be interesting to me.
 Either title is age-appropriate, but I suggest the former.

Collective Adjectives: Are used to refer to a group of people based on a common typical. They are: the rich, the poor, the
innocent, the French, the Greek, the Americans, the Dutch…etc.

For example:
• The rich should help the poor.
• The Greek were known the smartest at medicines.

9. Compound Adjectives: Are created by two or more words that work together to modify the same noun.
For example:

• She had bright, blue-green eyes.

• His orange-yellow skin looked very unhealthy.
• Look in the top-right corner of the screen.
• I can only find part-time work at the moment.
13 |P a g e
 • The dog is a short-hair kind.
• I know this is a last-minute suggestion, but hear me out.

10. Participle Adjectives:

Participle: “Participle” is the form of a verb that functions as an adjective and usually ends in “ing or ed”.

For instance:

 I picked up the broken bottle.

 She soothed the crying baby.

Participles can be used after “to be verbs” or other “linking verb verbs” or as adjectives before “nouns”.

For instance:

 The children were excited.

 He looked tired.
 Barking dogs seldom bite.
 Which baby? The crying baby.
 Which arm? The broken one.
 Which knee? The bleeding one.

English has two participle Adjectives:

1. Present participle
2. Past participle

Past participle Adjectives: We usually use the past participle to talk about how someone feels. The past participle usually ends in
“ed or en”.

For instance:

 I was really bored during the flight.

 He is interested in history.
 Hamid is frightened of spiders.

Present participle Adjectives: We usually use the present participle to talk about the cause of feeling. The present participle
usually ends in “ing”.

For instance:

 My math's teacher at school was really frightening.

 I read a really interesting book about history.
 I was talking to such a boring guy at the party.

Note: These participle adjectives make their comparative form by using “more” not “er” and their superlative by using “most” not
“est”.

For instance:

 I was more frightened of dogs than spiders when I was a child.

 That book is more boring than this one.
 It was the most frightening film that he'd ever seen.
 I think today’s lesson was the most interesting.

VERB

Verb is a word which shows action or state.

Categories of Verb

14 |P a g e
Verb according verbs according
to form to meaning

There are five types verbs according to form

Base form Singular form Second form Past participle/ Present Full infinitive
third form participle form form
Example Example Example Example Example Example
Go Goes Went gone Going To go
Speak Speaks Spoke Spoken Speaking To speak
See Sees Saw Seen Seeing To see

Verb according to meaning:

There are 2-types of verb according to meaning.

1. Main/lexical verbs
2. Auxiliary verbs

Main/ lexical verbs: Are those verbs which show state or action.

Main verbs are divided into four types.

1) Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which need an object.

2) Intransitive Verbs: Are those verbs which do not need any object.
3) Linking Verbs: Are those verbs which connect the subject with the complement.
4) Stative Verbs: Are those verbs which show state rather than action.

Transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by an object.

Transitive verbs are divided into three types according to object.

1. Mono-transitive Transitive verbs

2. Di-transitive Transitive verbs
3. Complex Transitive verbs

Mono-transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by one object.

For example:

• They drove the car.

• She is cooking food.

Di-transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by two objects (direct and indirect objects).

For instance:

• I bought a computer to Ahmad.

• He brought a flower for me.

In the above example, computer is direct object, and Ahmad is indirect object.

Direct object: Is an object which receives the action first, and it is usually a thing.

Indirect object: Is an object which receives the action second, and it is usually a person.

Formulas:

 Subject + verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object (informal style).

For example: I bought a pen for Ahmad.

15 |P a g e
  Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object (formal style).

For example: I bought Ahmad a pen.

Complex transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by an object and a complement.

Note: Its complement can be a noun or an adjective.

For example:

 They selected Ashraf Ghani the president.

 I always make my mother happy.

Intransitive verbs: Are those verbs which are not followed by an object but followed by complement.

For example:

 They are going to school right away.

 We have been coming here since 2018.
 They are happy now.
 He is a teacher.

Linking Verbs: Are those verbs which connect the subject with its complement.

Linking verb tells us what the subject is, not what the subject is doing.

They are: to be verbs, appear, look, seem, taste, smile, become, feel and … etc.

 Ali is thirsty.
 It always seems impossible until it’s done.
 He felt sick when he felt the heat.
 They become tall while they are exercising continuously.

State verbs: Are those verbs which show state.

There are five kinds of state verbs:

01 Mental state: think, remember, forget, believe…

02 Emotion: love, hate, like, dislike, enjoy….
03 Sense: see, hear, smell, touch, taste…
04 Possession: have, has, had, own, posses, belong…
05 Existence/state of being: be verbs, look, appear…

Auxiliary or helping Verbs:

Auxiliary verbs are those verbs which help the main verb to make a positive, negative or interrogative sentence, and it also can
change the tense.

For example:

 They do not work hard. (Negative sentence)

 Do they work hard? (interrogative sentence)
 They are writing a letter. (positive sentence)
 They were writing a letter. (Changed the tense)

Kinds of Auxiliary Verbs:

1. Principle/ Primary Auxiliary Verb

2. Semi-modal auxiliary verbs: used to, dare, and need
3. Modal Auxiliary

16 |P a g e
The primary helping verbs in English grammar are the verbs (be, have, and do) – all three of which can function as either main
verbs or auxiliary verbs.

For example:

 To Be
 Mohammad Ali is a brilliant student. (lexical verb)
 Mohammad Ali is applying to Kandahar University. (auxiliary verb)
 To Have
 Khalid has a good job. (Lexical verb)
 He has just returned from a business trip. (Auxiliary verb)
 To Do
 Khalid does the crossword puzzle in the Sunday paper. (Lexical verb)
 Khalid doesn’t go out much anymore. (auxiliary verb)

Semi-Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

What are semi-modal auxiliary verbs?

Semi-modal auxiliary verbs, often simply called semi-modal verbs, are verbs that sometimes behave like modal auxiliary verbs.

They are dare, need, and used to.

Dare

When dare is used as a semi-modal verb, it means “to be brave, reckless, or rude enough to do or try something.” Remember,
when functioning modally, it does not conjugate for person or tense

 I dare say that you are blame.

 I dare not press the issue any further.
 How dare she talk to me like that?
 Dare he interfere with the laws of nature?
 They daren’t give him a reason to be angry.
Note: The use of dare as a modal verb has become rare in modern English.

As a main verb

Dare can also be used as an intransitive main verb with the same meaning as the modal form. When it functions as a main verb,
however, it is able to conjugate for person and tense, and it can be followed by a verb in either its base or infinitive form.
For example:

 I can’t believe he dared to stand up to the boss.

 No one dares to question my authority!

Need

Need as a semi-modal verb is almost always used in negative sentences to express a lack of obligation or necessity.
For example:

 No one need know about this.

 He needn’t have called; I told him I would be late.
 You needn’t worry about my grades.
 Nothing need change simply because my father is no longer here.
It can also be used to form interrogative sentences by inverting with the subject, as in:

 Need we be concerned?
 Need I go to the market later?

17 |P a g e
As a main verb

Need is much more common as a main verb. This means it conjugates for person or tense, and it uses auxiliary do to form
negatives and questions.

 He needs that report by tomorrow.

 Does she need to know where the house is?
 You have plenty of time, so you don’t need to rush.
 He needed a place to stay, so I offered him one.

Used to

When we speak about a past habit, condition, or fact that is no longer the case.

For example:

 I used to get up early when I lived in New York.

 She used to live in Ireland.
 We used to be in a band together.
 This watch used to belong to my father.
Uniquely among the modal and semi-modal verbs, we form the question and negative of used to the same way as for main verbs
in the past tense—that is, by using the auxiliary did for the question and did not for the negative.

Example:

 Did you use to live in Helmand?

 I didn’t use to like coffee.
 She didn’t use to go to the gym every day.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Model auxiliary verbs are used to the mood of the subject, or they are used to show ability, possibility, responsibility, authority,
power, obligation, request, suggestion…etc.

They are:

Can, could, May, might, Will, would, shall, Should, must, and ought to.

These below points should be observed while they are being used in a sentence.

1) Model auxiliary verbs are used before the base form of the verb.
2) We must not use (second, third, ing form of the verb) after model auxiliary verbs.
3) We must not put (s, es) the model auxiliary verbs when the subject is singular third person.
4) When we change them into question, we bring them at the beginning of a sentence.
5) We must not use another auxiliary verbs with them.

Can

We use it before base form of the verb to show:

1) Present ability. Ex. He can swim in the river.

2) Authority: ex. I can expel him.
3) Power: ex. He can defeat them easily.
4) To ask permission: ex. can I leave the class?
5) To give permission: ex. you can leave the class.
6) To make an informal polite request: ex. can you close the door?

18 |P a g e
 Could

We use it before base form of the verb to show:

1. Past ability. Ex. He could swim when he was three years.

2. Present possibility. Ex. where is Ali? He could be at home.
3. To ask permission. Ex. could I use your computer?
4. To make formal polite request. Ex. could you call him?

Differences between can and could:

“Can” shows present ability and it is informal. “Could” shows past ability and it is formal.

May/Might:

We use them before base form of the verb to show:

1. Future possibility. Ex. he may go to USA next day.

2. Present possibility. Ex. where is Ahmad? He might be at home.
3. Pray: ex. May have a safe and sound journey. May Allah bring lasting peace into being for Afghanistan!
4. To ask permission: ex. May I come in? Might we join in your group?
5. To give permission: ex. They may/might join and sit here.
6. To make polite request: ex. May you give me some money?

Differences between May and Might:

“May” is stronger and formal; whereas, “might” is stronger when it shows possibility.

Would

We use it before base form of the verb to show:

1. Past habitual and regular activities. For example. He used to come late. He would come late.
2. Polite request: for example. Would you bring a cup of tea?
3. Imaginary situation: for example: we would have a nice graduation ceremony and we would be sitting in front of the
large number people.

Should/ ought to

We them before base form of the verb to show:

1. Advisability: ex. you should go to doctor. You ought to go to the doctor.

2. Responsibility: ex. we should finish the book. They ought to finish the book.
3. Obligation: examples. You should study hard. You ought to study hard. They ought not to play cricket on the grass.

Differences between should and ought to:

“Should” is used commonly and is weaker. “Ought to” is not used commonly and is stronger than “should”.

Must

We use it before base form of verb to show:

1. Strong advisability: ex. you must not smoke inside the plane.
2. Strong responsibility: example. You must finish internship program.
3. Strong obligation: example. We must obey all command of Allah (S.W.T).

Will/Shall

1) We use (shall) with (I, we) to talk about the future. Example. I shall write report tonight.
2) We use shall for suggestion. Example. Shall we watch TV instead of sitting here?
3) Will
4) We use it to predict about the future: For example. Tomorrow it will rain in Kabul.
5) We use it to show willingness or unwillingness: For example. I will call you. I will not call you.
6) We use it for invitation: example. Will you come to the party tonight?
7) We use it to make an informal polite request. For example. Will you help me?
19 |P a g e
Causative Verbs
 Causative Verbs are those verbs which cause someone to do/not to do something.

Standardized, we have five kinds of causative verbs. (make, let, get, help, and have)

General formula for causative verbs.

Subject + Helping verb + causative Verb + Object + bare/Full infinitive + Object/Complement.

Causer receiver doer

Make Get
let + Bare infinitive Help + Full infinitive Help + bare/full infinitive
Have

1) Make: It means to force someone to do/not to do something.

2) Let: It means to permit someone to do/not to do something.
3) Have: It means to choose someone to do/not to do something.
4) Get: It means to encourage someone to do/not to do something.
5) Help: It means to assist someone to do/not to do something.

Example:

 I make my brother study hard.

 We have him bring TV.
 He let him go out of the jail.
 We get her to study hard.
 They help me to teach them.
 They help me teach them.

Phrasal verb:
A group of words that functions as a verb and is made up of a verb and a preposition or an adverb.
For example:

 turn down: reject

 break out: erupt, escape
 count out: exclude
 think up: imagine
 take off: depart, remove
 work out: solve
 put off: delay
 egg on: incite
 put out: extinguish
 put off: postpone

 They turned down my offer. turn down= reject

 He turns on the light.
 They put off our meeting.

Kinds of phrasal verb

Separable phrasal verb inseparable phrasal Verb

Separable Phrasal Verbs: Are those phrasal verbs which can be separated.

Example:

20 |P a g e
  They turn down my offer.
 They turn my offer down.
 She turns off the light every night.
 She turns light off every night.

Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: Are those phrasal verbs which cannot be separated.

Examples:

look after = take care of hurry up = hurry.

look out = look break down = break

 You have look after the children.

 I sat down with my old fried yesterday.
 Look out! The car is coming be careful.

Note: Those phrasal verbs which are followed by the object they can be separated.

Note: Those phrasal verbs which are not followed by object they can’t be separated.

ADVERB

Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb or an entire clause.

Adverb modifies these things:

1) Verb: He runs fast.

2) Adjective: He is very intelligent.
3) Another adverb: He runs too fast.
4) Clause: Actually, if you come here, I will respect you a lot.

Note: It usually modifies depend clauses.

Adverbs are used in three shapes:

 As a word: They run fast.

 As a phrase: They live in a small house.
 As a clause: When he called me, I was sleeping.

There are seven kinds of Adverb

01 Interrogative Adverb
02 Adverb of Manner
03 Emphasizing Adverbs
04 Adverb of Place
05 Adverb of Degree
06 Adverb of Time
07 Adverb of Frequency

Interrogative Adverbs: Are those adverbs which ask questions.

(when, where, why, how)

For instance:

1) When did you graduate from school?

2) Where do you live?
3) Why are they fighting?
4) How old are you?

Adverb of Place: Are those adverbs which describe position involved in the action of a verb.

21 |P a g e
North, everywhere, here, there, forward, downward, up, uphill, behind
They answer the question (where).

For example:

 I absolutely hate running uphill.

 They live in Kabul.
 They went to school.
 They came down from the mountain.

Adverb of Degree: Are those adverbs which show up to what extent something is.

 I'm fairly certain

They are: (too, very, so, enough, definitely, truly, quite, pretty, somewhat, fairly…etc.)

Too is used before an adjective or adverb to show impossibility.

 He is too tired to go. It means he can’t go.

 This chair is too heavy to lift.
 He is running too quickly to catch.

Very is used before adjective to show possibility. It gives positive meaning.

 He is very tired to go. It means he can go. He is so weak.

 They are very busy. He is strong enough. He is tired enough.

Enough: is an adverb when used after the verb, adjective, and another adverb which means sufficiently or adequately.

 He drank tea enough. It means (he drank tea sufficiently.)

 They are strong enough to help us.
 She speaks fast enough.

Adverb of Time: Are those adverbs which describe when something happens.
 We are eating now.
They answer the question (when)

There are two kinds adverb of time

 Definite adverbs of time

 Indefinite adverbs of time

Definite Adverbs of Time: When they show exact time, they are called definite adverbs of time.

(today, last day, last year, last spring…)

 I called her last night.

 We were here last summer.

Indefinite Adverbs of Time: When they do not show exact time, they are called indefinite adverbs of time.

(Already, still, yet, recently…)

 I am still teaching in Hewad Academy.

Adverbs of frequency:

Adverbs of frequency: Are those adverbs which show the repetition of an action.
(Always, usually, often, sometime, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, occasionally, daily, weekly, monthly, never)

They answer the question (how often).

For example:

22 |P a g e
  They always come late.
 I rarely eat breakfast in bed.
 They usually go to Kandahar.
 We sometimes play cricket in the morning.

Adverbs of Manner:

Adverbs of Manner: Are those adverbs which show how an action happens.

They answer the question (how).

 They work hard.

 He peaks very carefully.

Formation of Adverbs of Manner:

1. We add (ly) to most adjectives to change them into adverbs of manner.

slow__slowly bad____badly quick____quickly
2. When the adjective ends in (e), we drop the (e) and add (ly).
true____truly possible____possibly
3. When the adjective ends in (y), we change (y) into (i) and add (ly).
happy _____ happily easy _____ easily heavy ______ heavily
4. When the adjective ends in (l), we keep (l) and add (ly).
beautiful ____ beautifully careful ____ carefully
5. When the adjective ends in (ic), we add (ally) at the end.
basic ____ basically automatic ____ automatically
6. The following adjectives do not take (ly) at the end.
fast ___ fast hard ___ hard good ____ well

Emphasizing adverbs: Are those which are often used with adverbs of manner for emphasis.

They are: (very, rather, quite…)

For example:

 Ali drove very carefully.

 I opened the parcel rather nervously.
 The twins dress quite differently.

ARTICLE
Articles identify whether a noun is definite or indefinite. For this reason, articles are divided into two categories: the definite
article, the, and the indefinite articles, a and an.
Article

Definite article indefinite article

(the) (a, an)

The usages of indefinite articles:

A/An
A and an, on the other hand, are used to identify a person or thing that is unspecific
For instance:
• “I’m looking for a pen.” (There is not a specific pen that the speaker is looking for.)
• “Would you please turn on a light?” (There is not a specific light the speaker is asking to be turned on.)
• “There is an angry student waiting to speak with you.” (Although there is a particular student, he or she is unknown to the
speaker.)
• “I’m waiting for an answer.” (There is not one specific answer the speaker is waiting for.)
• “That was an exciting night.” (Noun phrase beginning with an adjective)

23 |P a g e
• “The truly remarkable thing is how long the deal took to happen.” (Noun phrase beginning with an adverb)
Articles cannot precede verbs, however, as verbs are not used to create noun phrases.

“The”
The definite article “the” is used to identify a specific person, place, or thing.
For instance:
 I’m looking forward to the game. (There is a specific game that the speaker is looking forward to.)
 Would you pass me the phone? (There is a specific phone that the speaker is asking for.)
 She turned on the lamp next to her bed. (There is a specific lamp next to her bed that she turned on.)
 He’s going to the play later. (There is a specific play that he is going to see.)

CONJUNCTION
Conjunction: It is a word that joins two words, clauses, phrases, and sentences.

For example:

 black and white (words).

 I was sleeping when she called me. (Clauses)
 in the class or at home (Phrases)
 They played well, but they lost the match. (Sentences)

There are three main types of conjunctions:

1) Coordinating Conjunction
2) Subordinating Conjunction
3) Correlative/ paired conjunction

Coordinating conjunctions: Are used to join two or more words, phrases, or independent clauses.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English, which can be remembered using the acronym FANBOYS:
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So

For example:
 I believe you, for you have never lied to me before.
 James and Jack are coming to the party.
 He doesn’t like football, nor does he enjoy hockey.
 I want to go shopping but I can’t.
 Would you like the chicken, the pork, or the beef?
 The movie was depressing yet uplifting at the same time.
 He was exhausted, so he went to bed early.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions: Are those conjunctions which join a dependent clause with an independent clause.
 I went to the supermarket. We were out of milk.
 I went to the supermarket since we were out of milk.

There are nine kinds of subordinating conjunctions:

1) Subordinating Conjunction of Time.

2) Subordinating Conjunction of Place.
3) Subordinating Conjunction of Reason.
4) Subordinating Conjunction of Contrast.
5) Subordinating Conjunction of Result.
6) Subordinating Conjunction of Condition.

24 |P a g e
 7) Subordinating Conjunction of Comparison.
8) Subordinating Conjunction of Purpose.
9) Subordinating Conjunction of Manner.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Time: Are those conjunctions which show the time of an action.

They are:
(when, while, before, by the time, after, until, once, whenever)

For example:

 Ask him when he comes home.

 While they were going to school, they fought on the way.
 Wash your hands before you eat food.
 Call me whenever you get home.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Place: Are those conjunctions which show place.

They are:

(wherever, where, everywhere, anywhere)

For example:

 She went where she had come from.

 He lives where it’s always sunny.
 Everywhere she goes, she creates problems.
 Anywhere I look, I see beautiful faces.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause and Reason: Are those conjunction which show the reason of something.

They are:

(because, as, since, now that, seeing that)

For example:

 She didn’t come here because she was sick.

 I spoke to her mother since she wasn’t at home.
 Now that he was my friend, I helped him.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Contrast: Are those conjunctions which show contrast. They are:
(while, whereas, although, though, even though)

For example:

 My brother worked really hard, while I didn’t make much of an effort.

 I can’t stand watching tennis, whereas I love watching basketball.
 I went to that restaurant though/although I was told it wasn’t very good.
 I went to that restaurant even though I was told it wasn’t very good.
 They didn’t study hard even though they passed the test.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Result: Are those conjunctions which the result of something.

They are:
(so…..that, such….that)

For example:

 He is so intelligent that everybody likes him.

 The table was so heavy that I couldn’t carry it.
 He played so well that he was selected for Afghan National Cricket Team.

25 |P a g e
  She is such a nice girl that everyone likes her.
 It was such a heavy table that I couldn’t carry it.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition: Are those conjunctions which show condition.

(If, only if, even if, unless, provided that, providing that)

Unless= if … not

For example:
 I will buy you a pizza if you help me move my furniture.
 I will buy you a pizza provided you help me move my furniture.
 I will buy you a pizza even if you don’t help me move my furniture.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison: Are those conjunctions which show comparison.

They are:
(as…as, than, as, as…so)
For example:
 It’s pouring rain, as I thought it would.
 Ahmad is as tall as Ali (is).
 Ahmad is not as short as Khan (is).
 She is more intelligent than her sister.
 As is the mother so is the daughter.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose: Are those Conjunctions which show the purpose of something.

They are:

(so that, in order that, in order to, so as, for the purpose of)

For example:

 He comes here so that he learns English.

 She comes here so as she becomes a doctor.
 She helped him in order to get rewards.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Manner: Are those conjunctions which show the way an action happens.

They are:

(how, the way that, the manner that, as, as if, as though)

For example:

 I teach you how you want me to teach.

 He did the job the way that I told him.
 Do it as I told you.
 He speaks as though he is my father.

Correlative Conjunction or Paired Conjunctions: Are pairs of conjunctions that work together to indicate the relationship
between two elements in a sentence.
They are:
 both … and
 either … or
 neither … nor
 not only … but also
 whether … or

For example:
26 |P a g e
  This house is both large and cozy.
 She cleaned her room and washed the dishes.
 Let’s either go swimming or go shopping.
 I have neither the time nor the patience for silly TV programs.
 She not only cleaned her room, but she also washed the dishes. I don’t know I’m going to help you whether
you like it or not.

INTERJECTION

Interjection: It is a word which shows sudden/strong feelings of sorrow, happiness, and surprise.

 Wow! It looks nice.

 oh! I wasn’t able to participate in the meeting.
 Ouch you are standing on my foot.

PREPOSITION
Preposition: Is used to express the relationship of a noun or pronoun with the other part of the sentence.
For example:

 He is at home.
 He went to school.
 I am in front of you.

Kinds of preposition

There are four kinds of preposition:

1) Simple preposition
2) Double preposition
3) Compound preposition
4) Phrase preposition
1. Simple Prepositions: Are those prepositions which are made of only one word.

Such as; (in, on, at, for, to, with, by…)

2. Double Prepositions: Are those prepositions which are made of two words.

Such as; (next to, out to, because of, due to…)

3. Compound Prepositions: Are those prepositions which contain prefix and suffix.

Such as; (inside, within, without…)

4. Phrase Prepositions: Are those which are made of more than two words.

Such as; (in front of, in spite of)

“SENTENCE”
A group of related words which has subject and predicate and gives a complete thought or sense.

e.g.

 Ali respects his parents.

 He wants to speak English perfectly.
 She would like to wash clothes and cook the food.

Main parts of sentence

Subject: The person or thing that we are talking about it is called subject.

Predicate: Without the subject the remaining part of the sentence that talks about the subject is called predicate.
27 |P a g e
  Ali supports his family.

Kinds of sentence according to meaning:

1) Declarative Sentence
2) Imperative Sentence
3) Optative Sentence
4) Exclamatory Sentence
5) Interrogative Sentence

DECLARITIVE SENTENCE
Declarative Sentence: A sentence which makes a statement of thought or opinion is called declarative sentence.

e.g.

 Allah is One.
 Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan.
 They are going to the city tomorrow.

Note: It begins with the subject and ends with a period (.)

Imperative sentence: A sentence which makes order, request, advice, direction or suggestion is called imperative sentence.

It has two forms positive and negative.

e.g.

 Close the door!

 Go!
 Do not close the door.
 Please help me.
 Respect your brother. Request form.
 Turn right. Direction form.
 Let’s go to park. Suggestion form.

OPTATIVE SENTENCE

Optative Sentence: A sentence which shows pray and wish is called optative sentence.

If an optative sentence is used to show pray, it begins with (may) and ends with exclamation mark.

e.g.

 May Allah succeed you!

 May you reach there safe and sound!
 May he recover soon!
 May she be healthy!

If an optative sentence is used to show wish, we use wish, O that, and would that.

Wish in the present – simple past tense/past continuous tense

When we regret for doing or not doing something, we use simple past tense or past continuous tense.

It has two structures

1. Subject + wish+ that + subject + were+ complement.

e.g.
 I wish that I were president.
 I wish that I were a teacher.
 I wish that it weren’t snowing.
2. Subject + wish+ that + Subject + had+ noun+.
e.g.
28 |P a g e
  I wish that I had a car.
 I wish that I had a gun.
 O that/ Would that I were the president of Afghanistan!

Wish in the past — past perfect tense

When we regret in the past for doing or not doing something.

1. Subject + wish+ that + subject + past perfect/ past perfect continuous tense+ Object.
e.g.
 I wish that I had followed my father.
 I wish that I had helped her yesterday.
 I wish that I had been studying for two hours when I went to University.
2. O that/ would that + Subject + had + Past Perfect/ past perfect continuous tense+ Object!
e.g.
 O that/ would that I had helped her yesterday!
 Would that I had been speaking to him politely by the time he taught me well!

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

Exclamatory Sentence: A sentence which shows sudden feelings and emotions of sorrows and happiness.

Exclamatory sentences are introduced by two things:

Interjection

1) W-H word___ what/ how

If an exclamatory sentence begins with interjection, put exclamation mark after interjection and full stop at the end of sentence.

For example;

 Wow! It looks nice.

 Oh! We lost the match again.
 Ha ha ha! I see where you are.

If it begins with (W-H), put exclamation mark at the end of the sentence.

What

1) What + a/an + noun +!

What a car!
2) What + a/an + Adjective + noun +!
What a nice car!
3) What + a/an + Adjective + noun + subject + Verb+!
What an intelligent student he is!
4) What + a/an Adjective + plural count noun + subject + verb +!
What an intelligent students they are!
5) What +Adjective + Non Count noun + subject +verb +!
What cold weather it is!

How

a) How + Adjective + noun + Subject + verb +!

How interesting story it is!
b) How + Adverb + Subject + verb +!
How fast he runs!
c) How + Subject + Verb + object/complement +!
How he found the answer!

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

Interrogative Sentence: A sentence which asks a question and ends with question mark is called interrogative sentence.

29 |P a g e
For example:

 Can you speak English?

 Do you know Ali?
 Where are studying English Grammar?
 When have you learned English Writing Rules?

Kinds of question

1) W-H questions
2) Yes/No questions
3) Tag-questions
4) Miscellaneous questions

W-H questions

W-H question are those questions which are used for getting information.

For instance:

 Where are you studying English?

 Whom have you been waiting for?
 Why aren’t you writing?

W-H words are below with full details:

1) Who: It is used to ask about person(s). Who is he? Who are these guys?
2) Whom: It is used to ask about person(s) in the objective case. Whom did you see?
3) Which: It is used to ask about thing(s)/ it shows choice(s). Which do you like?
4) Whose: It is used to show someone possession. Whose car is that?
5) Why: It is used to ask about the reason(s). Why is she crying?
6) How: It is used to ask about the manner. How does she drive?
7) What: It is used to ask about thing(s). What is in your hands?
8) When: It is used to ask about time. When do you come?
9) Where: It is used to ask about the place. Where are you from?

YES/NO QUESTIONS
Yes/No Questions: Yes/No questions are those questions which are answered by yes/No.

There are two kinds yes/no questions:

 Positive Yes/No questions: Are those in which we do not expect whether the answer will be yes or no.
e.g.

Are they coming tonight? Yes, they are. No, they aren’t.
Can you speak Urdu? Yes, they can. No they can’t.

 Negative yes/No questions: We use negative yes/no questions when we want to confirm a positive statement about
which both speaker and listener already know.

For example:

 Can’t they swim well?

 Are they not coming tonight?
TAQ-QUESTIONS
Tag-questions: A short question added to the end of positive/negative statements for confirmation.

Ex: He is a teacher, isn’t he?

Rules for formation of a tag-question:

1. The first part of a tag-question is a statement.

e.g.
30 |P a g e
  They learn Arabic at school, don’t they?
 He doesn’t learn the lesson, does he?
2. The second part of a tag-question is tag ending.
e.g.
 He is not watching TV, is he?
 They are playing cricket, aren’t they?
3. Comma is used between statement and tag ending.
e.g.
 I have seen him, haven’t I?
 They didn’t go to school, did they?
4. Question mark is used after the tag ending.
e.g.
 Ali is my student, isn’t he?
 We were students at University in 2016, weren’t we?
5. If the statement is positive, tag ending must be negative.
e.g.
 We are friends, aren’t we?
 They were in one class, weren’t they?
6. If the statement is negative, tag ending must be positive. Each tense and models are possible.
e.g.
 You do not study regularly, do you?
 She didn’t wash the clothes, did she?
7. Interrogative sentence doesn’t have tag ending.
e.g.
 Do you study English, don’t you?
 Haven’t they gone to Kabul, have they?
8. If the statement is positive, but meaning is negative, we must use positive tag ending.
e.g.
 They never go to school, do they?
 Nothing is in the freezer, is it?
9. We use only pronouns in the tag ending, and we can’t use names.
e.g.
 Khan walks fast, doesn’t Khan?
 Ali doesn’t speak politely, does Ali?
10. We must use the contracted form of “not” and auxiliary in the tag ending. Full form is also possible, but that is very
formal.
e.g.
 He is busy, isn’t he?
 He is busy, is not he?
11. The tag ending for “I am” is “aren’t I”; however, we can use “am I not”.
e.g.
 I am a teacher, aren’t I?
 I am a teacher, am I not?
 I am not crazy, am I?
12. If the statement begins with “let’s” the tag ending is “shall we”.
e.g.
 Let’s commence cricket, shall we?
 Let’s go to the ground, shall we?
13. After imperative sentence we use can (n’t) you, will/won’t you, could (n’t) you, would (n’t) you?
e.g.
 Open the windows, won’t you?
 Please help me, can’t you?
Don’t move, could you?
14. When the subject of sentence is (this, that) we use (it) in tag ending.
e.g.

31 |P a g e
  This is too expensive, isn’t it?

That was a secret, wasn’t it?
15. When the subject of sentence is (these or those), we use “they” in tag ending.
e.g.
 Those are English books, aren’t they?
 These are not students, are they?
16. If the statement has personal indefinite pronouns “someone, anyone, everyone, no one, somebody, anybody,
everybody or nobody”, we use “they” in the tag ending.
Ex:
 Someone is knocking the door, aren’t they?
17. If the statement has non-personal indefinite pronouns “someplace, anyplace, everyplace, no place, somewhere,
everywhere, anywhere, nowhere, something, anything, everything, nothing”, we use “it” in the tag ending.
e.g.
 Something is here in the room, isn’t it?
 Everywhere is good for playing of volleyball, isn’t it?

Kinds of Miscellaneous Questions:

Miscellaneous questions are those questions which have different kinds.

1) Embedded Question
2) Alternative Question
3) Echo Question
4) Rhetorical Question

Included/ indirect/ embedded questions

When we combine one question into another question, it is called embedded question.

For example:

 Can you tell me?

 Where does she drive?
 Can you tell me where she drives?

Rules:

1. The first question remain is unchanged.

2. The second question is changed into affirmative sentence.
3. Do, Does and did are removed.
4. For (W-H) question we use the same (W-H) word.
5. For yes/ no question, we use (If, Whether)

First structure for (W-H)

 Do you remember + W-H word + Subject + Verb + Object?

 Do you Know + W-H word + Subject + Verb + Object?
 Can you tell me + W-H word + Subject + Verb + Object?

Where does she drive? Can you tell me where she drives?
When are they coming? Do you know when they are coming?
Who are they? Do remember who they are?

Second structure (W-H)

Do you know
Do you remember + W- H Word + Verb + Object +?
Can you tell me

32 |P a g e
Who locked the door? Can you tell me who locked the door?
What happened her yesterday? Do you know what happened her yesterday?

Changing Yes/No question into embedded question

Do you know
Do you remember + if/whether + subject + verb + object?
Can you tell me

For example;

Does he work hard? Into embedded question Can you tell me if he work hard?

Do they come on time? Into embedded question Do you remember whether they come on time?

Do, Does, Did are not used but it is used as rest auxiliary. Besides each tense and model are possible.

Is she teaching at MELI? Into embedded Do you if she is teaching at MELI?

Have they eaten lunch? Into embedded Can you tell me whether they have eaten lunch?

Why he did not respect you? Into embedded Can you tell why he did not respect you?

Alternative Question

Alternative questions: Are those questions which expect their answer from choices available in the question.

For example:

 Did he cry or laugh?

 Is it true or false?
 Would you like to drive or drink?

Echo Question

Those questions in which we repeat the same statement of the speaker to show surprise.

For example:

 He left this institute into echo He left this institute?

 She got married into Echo She got married?
 We went to Kabul into Echo we went?
 He got married into Echo He got married?
 He went to Kabul into Echo He went to where?
 She got married into Echo she got married who?

Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical Questions: Rhetorical question is asked as a way of making a statement, and does not ask for information.

It has an obvious answer.

e.g.

 Don't you see me what I am doing? (I am busy.)

 Do you know what can I do? (I can do everything.)
 What will you do? (You will do nothing.)
 What time it is? (You are late.)
 Do you know how many students does Hewad Academy have? (It has a lot of students.)

Note: Rhetorical also question can come after a statement.

e.g.

 I can’t find my book. What is this, then?

33 |P a g e
  He came right now. Why is that?
 Ali is not present today. What is he then?

Declarative Questions

They are as declarative sentences, but they are end with question mark to show surprise.

e.g.

 She failed in the test?

 He is a teacher?

Note: Short questions are just W-H words used in conversation.

For instance:

 She left the country. Why? When?

 She insulted him. Why? When?

Question for Attention: They are short questions often used in conversation to show that the listener is paying attention to
whatever he/she is hearing from the speaker. They are made by the help of auxiliary verb of the sentence and some common
attention signal words.

For example:

He can speak in four languages. He got the first position.

Oh! Can he? Really! Did he?

Kinds of sentence according to structure:

1) Simple sentence
2) Compound sentence
3) Complex sentence
4) Compound-complex sentence

SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.

Examples of simple sentences:

 I‘m happy.
 Ali doesn’t eat meat.
 My brother and I went to the mall last night.
 This new laptop computer has already crashed twice.

Notice that a “simple sentence” is not necessarily short. The subject can be a single word like “I” or “Ali,” or it can be a double
subject like “my brother and I,” or it can be multiple words describing a single person/thing, like “this new laptop computer.”

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet, however).
Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking word:
e.g.
 I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining.
 Ali doesn’t eat meat, so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him.
 My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything.
 This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.

Note: Each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.

COMPLEX SENTENCE

34 |P a g e
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.

e.g.

 I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money.

 Ali, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.
 After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night.
 This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

A compound-complex sentence contains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent and at least 1 dependent clause.
e.g.
 I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always complaining since we can’t afford to buy
the newest toys.
 Ali, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat – so Fatima made a special vegetarian dish for him.
 After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night, while my sister stayed home and
studied.
 This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice; however, I have no idea why.

TENSE

The word of tense has been taken from Latin word “Tempus” which means time or era.

Tense is the form of a verb which indicates whether the action of the verb happens in the present, past, or future.

Basically tense is divided into three main kinds.

1) Present tense
2) Past tense
3) Future tense

Present Tense past Tense Future Tense

1. Simple Present Tense 1. Simple Future Tense

1. Simple Past Tense 2. Future Continuous
2. Present Continuous Tense
2. Past Continuous Tense Tense
3. Present Perfect Tense
3. Past Perfect Tense 3. Future Perfect Tense
4. Present Perfect
4. Past Perfect 4. Future Perfect
Continuous Tense
Continuous Tense
Continuous Tense

35 |P a g e
 Simple Present Tense

It is used to show an action which happens habitually or regularly.

Helping verbs of this tense are (Do/Does)

Structures:

 Subject + Verb (es/s) + object. He works in the bank

 Subject + does/ do + Verb + object. He doesn’t work in the bank
 Do/Does + subject + Verb + Object. Does he work in the bank?

Usages of Simple Present Tense

1. We use (S.P.T) to talk about daily activities of someone. Ex: Ahmad goes to school every day.
2. We use (S.P.T) when we talk about fact. Ex: Ahmad is a student. Allah is One.
3. We use (S.P.T) with future time expressions (next day, tomorrow, next week, upcoming summer, next Sunday….). Ex:
they go to America Next week.
4. We use (S.P.T) with (always, sometimes, usually, hardly ever...) to talk about repeated action. Ex: He always talks with
himself.
5. We use (S.P.T) in the headlines of newspaper to talk about as simple past or present perfect. Ex: Ashraf Ghani meets
with Biden.

Present Continuous Tense

It shows an action that is happening right now or at the moment of speaking.

Auxiliary verbs are: (is, am, and are)

Structures:

 Subject + is/am/are + verb +ing + object. He is using the cellphone all the time.
 Subject + is/am/are + not + verb +ing + object. We aren’t speaking English most.
 + Is/Am/Are + subject + verb + ing + object? Am I calling you right now?

Usages of Present Continuous Tense:

1. We use (P.C.T) to talk about a condition that changes. Ex; the weather is getting cold day by day.
2. We use (P.C.T) with future time expressions to talk about an action that is planned to happen in the future. Ex; he is
playing next Friday.
3. We use (P.C.T) with (always, usually) to talk about repeated action that annoys the speaker. Ex; he is always coming
late. They are usually saying present for the attendance sheet.

How do we spell the Present Continuous tense?

We make the Present Continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple: we just add -ing. But sometimes we
have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how
to spell the Present Continuous tense.

Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb:

Work → Working

36 |P a g e
 Play → Playing

Assist → Assisting

See → Seeing

Be → Being

Exception If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:

s t O p

consonant stressed consonant

vowel

vowels = a, e, i, o, u

Stop → Stopping

Run → Running

Begin → Beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:

Open → Opening

Exception If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

37 |P a g e
 Lie → Lying

Die → Dying

Exception If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

Come → coming

Mistake → mistaking

Present Perfect Tense

It shows an action that has just completed or it shows an action that has happened at unspecific time in the past.

Structures:

 Subject + has/have + Verb (3) + object. We have written of the grammar notes
 Subject + has/ have + not + Verb (3) +object. He has written the grammar notes.
 Has/Have + Subject + Verb (3) + Object? Has she spoken on the phone with
someone?

Usages of Present Perfect Tense:

1. We use (P.P.T) with (today, this week, these days…) when the period isn’t finished. Ex; I have not seen Ahmad today.
2. We use (P.P.T) with (since, for) to talk about an action that started in the past continued into the present may/may not
go to the future. Exs; I have lived in Kabul since 2014. I have taught here for 7-seven months.
Since shows the starting point or time of an action. For show the duration of an action.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

It shows an action that started in the past and is still continuing.

Helping verbs are (has/ have been)

Structures

 Subject + have/has + been + verb + ing +object since/for + time.

 Subject + have/has + not + been + Verb + ing + object since/for + time.
 Have/ has + Subject + been + ing + object + since/for + time

The usages of Present Perfect Continuous Tense.

1. We use (P.P.C.T) to talk about an action that stopped short time or very recent time ago without (since/for).
Ex; I have been talking about you. We have been teaching English grammar.
2. We use (P.P.C.T) to talk about an action that was in progress in the past, but the result is in present.
Exs; I have been working. We have been running.

38 |P a g e
 Simple Past Tense
It shows an action that happened at specific or particular time in the past.
Helping verb: (did)

Structures:

 Subject + Verb (2) + object.

 Subject + did + not + base form of verb + object?
 Did + subject + base + of verb + object?

Usages of Simple Past Tense

1. We use (S.P.T) when we write or tell a story in the past.

Ex; they had a house. One upon a time there was a king in the Egypt.
2. We use (S.P.T) with (when) to talk about two actions one occurred first and completed then the second action.
Exs; when I was in high school, I went to Pakistan. When he graduated from University, he left the country. He got very
rich when he started business.
3. We use (S.P.T) with (used to) to talk about someone’s habits.
Exs; Ahmad used to keep long hair. They used to fight with people.

Past Continuous Tense

It shows an action that was in progress at specific time in the past.

Auxiliary verbs: (was/ were)

Structures

 Subject + was/ were + verb + ing + object.

 Subject + was/were + not + verb + ing + object.
 Was/ were + subject + verb + ing + object?

Usages of past Continuous Tense

1. We use (P.C.T) with when to talk about two actions one of which was in progress in the past when the second action
happened.
Examples;
I was speaking on the phone when you called me. She was crying when she cooked.
2. We use (P.C.T) with (while) to talk about two actions which were in progress at the same time in the past.
For instances;
They were discussing about the lasting peace for Afghanistan while Americans were fighting with Talib fighters.

Past Perfect Tense

It shows an action which had happened before another action in the past.

Helping verb: (had).

 Subject + had + past participle form of verb + object.

 Subject + had + not + past participle form of verb + object.
 Had + subject + past participle form of verb + object?

39 |P a g e
Past Perfect Tense Past Tense

Before
Earlier Later action
We use (when, by the time, after) to show

Connection between them.

First action Second action

Past Perfect tense Past tense

For examples; when the doctor arrived, the patient had died. After the patient had died, the doctor arrived.

Usages of past perfect tense

1. We use (P.P.T) to talk about completed action before another action in the past.
Example;
By the time she called me last night, I had eaten dinner.
2. We use (P.P.T) with (for) to talk about the duration of an action before another action in the past.
For instance; when they went to Peshawer, I had lived in Laghman for two years.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

It shows the duration and continuation of an action before another action in the past.

Helping verb: (had + been).

Structures

 Subject + had + been + verb + Ing + since/ for + time.

 Subject + had + not + been + verb + ing + since/ for + time.
 Had + subject + been + verb + ing + since/ for + time?

Usages of Past Perfect Continuous Tense

1. We use (P.P.C.T) to talk about the duration and continuation of an action before another action in the past.
Example;
When I came here, you had been waiting for ten minutes. When I came here you had been working since yesterday.

Simple Future Tense

It shows an action that will happen in the future.

Auxiliary verb: (will/shall). Shall is used with the subject (I, we).

Structures

 Subject + will/shall + base form of verb + object.

 Subject + will/shall + not + base form of verb + object.
 Will/ shall + subject + base form of verb + object?
Usages of Simple Future

1. We use (S.F.T) to predicate about the future.

Example;
It will rain tomorrow. Tomorrow there will be strong hurricane in capital of Afghanistan.
40 |P a g e
 2. We use (S.F.T) to show willingness.
Examples;
I will open the door. We will bring the chairs.
3. We use (S.F.T) to show unwillingness.
For examples;
I will not type the letter for you.
4. We use (S.F.T) with (To Be + going to) to talk about preplanned activity.
For instance;
I am going to travel to Lahore next week.

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about an action that will be continuing in the future.

Helping verb: (will be/ shall be).

Structures

 Subject + will/shall + be + verb + ing + object.

 Subject + will/shall + not + be + verb +ing + object.
 Will/shall + subject + be + verb + ing + object?

Usages of Future Continuous Tense

1. We use (F.C.T) to predicate about the future.

Example;
It will be raining tomorrow in Qalat city.
2. We use (F.C.T) to talk about future plan.
By the year 2020, I will be living in USA.

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to show an action that will have completed by a certain time in the future.

Auxiliary verbs (will + have/ shall + have).

Structures

 Subject + will/shall + have + base form of verb + object.

 Subject + will/shall + not + have + base form of verb + object.
 Will/ shall + subject + have + base form of verb + object?

Usages of Future Perfect Tense:

1. We use (F.P.T) to talk about completed action before another action in the future.

Future before simple Present

Earlier later action
First action second action
Future Perfect Tense Simple Present Tense
We use (when, before, by the time) to connect two sentences.
Examples; when I come from school, you will have cleaned the room. By the time Ahmad calls for launch, we shall have
played cricket.
2. We use (F.P.T) with (for) to talk about the duration of an action before another action in the future.
For instance;
When we go to bed, we will have studied for three hours.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It shows the duration and continuation of an action before another action in the future.

41 |P a g e
Structures;

» Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb + ing + object + since/for + time.

» Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + verb + ing + object + since/for + time.
» Will/shall + Subject + + have + been + verb + ing + object + since/for + time?

For example;

When I come here at 6: 00 tomorrow, you will have been studying since 1: 00 tomorrow.

When you call me at 12: 00 tomorrow, I shall have been waiting for 4-hour tomorrow.

Usages of Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

1. We use (F.P.C.T) to show that for how long an action will be in continuation in the future.
For example;
We will have been studying English for 3:00 tomorrow. They will have been using solar energy since next month.

VOICE

Voice is the form of verb which shows whether the subject does something or something is done to the subject.

e.g.

 Ahmad drives a car. (Active voice)

 Ali was killed last night. (Passive voice)

Kinds of voice:

There are two kinds of voice in English.

 Active Voice
 Passive Voice
Passive voice which has passive form are divided to the following kinds:

1) Declarative Passive
2) Model Passive
3) Causative Passive
4) Imperative Passive
5) Interrogative Passive
6) Stative Passive

Active voice: When the doer of an action is the subject of the sentence, it is called active voice.

Passive voice: When the doer of an action is not the subject of the sentence, it is called passive voice.

For example.

 I use a computer. (Active voice).

 A computer is used. (Passive voice).

Rules for changing active voice into passive voice.

1. Divide sentence into subject, main verb and object.

2. Object of an active sentence becomes subject of passive sentence.
3. The subject of an active sentence becomes part of (by phrase).
4. Main verb is changed into (be + past participle) structure.
5. “Be” is used according to each tense.
6. Only transitive verbs are changed into passive voice.
7. Subject pronouns are changed into object pronouns.
8. Object pronouns are changed into subject pronouns.

42 |P a g e
“By Phrase” is called the agent of the passive sentence. Sometimes we do not use “by phrase”. It’s only used when we want to
know who performs the action.

o Ford Motors are made in America.

o This car is painted by my dad.

We usually don’t use by phrase when the subject is people and someone.

e.g.

o People speak Uzbek in Mazar-e-Sharef.

o Uzbaki is spoken in Mazar-e-Sharef.
o My purse was stolen.

According to passive voice, verb is divided into two types.

► Transitive verbs
► Intransitive verbs

Transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by object.

Transitive verbs are divided into three types according to objects.

1. Mono-transitive Transitive verbs

2. Di-transitive Transitive verbs
3. Complex Transitive verbs

Mono-transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by one object.

For example;

 They drove the car.

 She is cooking food.

Di-transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by two objects (direct and indirect object).

For instance:

 I bought a computer (direct) to Ahmad (indirect).

Direct object: Is an object which receives the action first, and it is usually a thing.

Indirect object: Is an object which receives the action second, and it is usually a person.

Formulas:

 Subject + verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object.

For example;
 I bought a pen for Ahmad.
 They bought flowers for us.

 Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object.

For example;
 I bought Ahmad a pen.
 They bought us flowers.
Note: If a verb contains two objects (Direct & Indirect). Make only one passive each.

Active Voice Passive Voices

I wrote a letter to Ali. A letter was written to Ali. Ali was written a letter.
43 |P a g e
Complex transitive verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by one object and a complement. Complement can be a noun or
an adjective.

For example:

 They selected Ashraf Ghani the president.

 I always make my mother happy.

Intransitive verbs: Are those verbs which are not followed by object but followed by complement. When (PATAP) comes in a
sentence, it is called complement.

P stands for place. A stands for adverb. T stands for time. A stands for adjective. P stands for preposition. e.g.

 He comes here every day.

 They cry a lot. Hezbullah runs fast.

Simple present tense Simple present tense

Active voice passive voice

Helping Verbs = do/ does helping verbs. = is, am, are

Subject + verb(s,es) + object. (Positive) Subject + is/am/are + past participle + by phrase. (Positive)

Ex: He cleans the room. Room is cleaned by him.

Subject + do/ does + not + 1st verb + object. (Negative) subject + is/am/are + 3rd verb + by phrase.

They do not help him. He is not helped by them.

Do/ does + subject + 1st verb + object? (Interrogative). Is/am/are + sub + C (Interrogative).

Ex: Does he call us? Are we called by him?

Negative interrogative Negative interrogative

Do/ does + not + sub + 1st v + object? Is/am/are + not + sub + 3rd verb + by phrase?

Ex. Do not they help him? Is not he helped by them?

Present continuous tense Present continuous tense

Active Passive

H.V = am/ is/ are H.V = am being/ is being/ are being

Sub + am/ is/ are + 1st v + ing + obj. (Positive) Sub + am/ is/ are + being + 3rd v +by phrase. (Positive)

Ex: He is cooking the dinner. Ex: The dinner is being cooked by him.

We are fixing the cars. The cars are being fixed by us.

Sub + am/ is/ are + not + 1st v + ing + obj. (Negative) Obj + am/ is/ are + not + being + 3rd v +by phrase.

Ex: He is not cooking the dinner. Ex: The dinner is not being cooked by him.

The cars are not being fixed by us. Ex: We are not fixing the cars.

Am/ is/ are + sub + 1st v + ing + obj? (-)Sub+Am/ is/ are + obj + being + 3rd v + by phrase?
44 |P a g e
Ex: Is he cooking the dinner? Ex: Is the dinner being cooked by him?

Are we fixing the cars? Are the cars being fixed by us?

Am/ is/ are + not + sub + 1st v +ing + obj? (-,?) Am/ is/ are + not + obj + being + 3rd v +by phrase?

Ex: Is not he cooking the dinner? Ex: Is not the dinner being cooked by him?

Are not we fixing the cars? Are not the cars being fixed by us?

45 |P a g e
Present perfect tense (active) Present perfect tense (passive)

H.V = have/ has H.V = have been/ has been

Sub + have/ has + 3rd v + obj. (+)Obj + have/ has + been + 3rd v + by phrase. (+)

Ex: You have invited them. Ex: They have been invited by you.

He has painted the wall. The wall has been painted him.

Sub + have/ has + not + 3rd v + obj. (-)Obj + have/ has + not + been + 3rd v + by phrase. (-)

Ex: You have not invited them. Ex: They have not been invited by you.

He has not painted the wall. The wall has not been painted him.

Have/ has + sub + 3rd v + obj?Have/ has + obj + been + 3rd v + by phrase?

Ex: Have you invited them? Ex: Have they been invited by you?

Has he painted the wall? Has the wall been painted him?

Have/ has + not + sub + 3rd v + obj? (-,?) Have/ has + not + obj + been + 3rd v + by phrase? (-,?)

Ex: Have not you invited them? Ex: Have not they been invited by you?

Has not he painted the wall? Has the wall not been painted him?

Present perfect continuous tense (A.V) Present perfect continuous tense (P.V)

Note: Perfect continuous tenses are not common to change from active to passive but we can change them.

H.V = have been/ has been H.V = have been being/ has been being

Sub + have/ has + been + 1st v + ing + obj. (+) Obj + have/ has + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase. (+)

Ex: They have been washing the cars. Ex: The cars have been being washed by them.

She has been teaching English. English has been being taught by her.

Sub + have/ has + not + been + 1st v + ing + obj. (-)Obj+have/has + not + been + being + 3rd v +by phrase.

Ex: They have not been washing the cars. Ex: The cars have not been being washed by them.

She has not been teaching English. English has not been being taught by her.

Interrogative Interrogative

Have/ has + sub + been + 1st v + ing + obj?Have/ has + obj + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase?

Ex: Have they been washing the cars? Ex: Have the cars been being washed by them?

Has she been teaching English? Has English been being taught by her?

Have/ has’t + sub + been + 1st v + ing + obj? (-,?) Have/ hasn’t +obj+been + being +3rd v +by phrase?

46 |P a g e
Ex: Have not they been washing the cars? Ex: Have not the cars been being washed by
them?

Has not she been teaching English? Has not English been being taught by her?

Simple past tense Simple past tense

Active Passive

H.V = did H.V = was/ were

Sub + 2nd v + obj. (+) subject + was/were + V3 + by phrase…(+)

Subject + did not + V1 + ob/com. (-) subject + was/were + not + V3 + by phrase…(-)

Did + subject + V1 + ob/com. (?) Was/were + subject + V3 + by phrase…? (?)

Did + subject + not + V1 + ob/com. (-?) Was/were + subject + not + V3 + phrase…? (-?)

Exs: I made a party. A party was made by me.

They didn’t break the chairs. The chairs weren’t broken by them.

Did they break the chairs? Were the chairs broken by

them?

Did they not break the chairs? Were the chairs not broken by
them?

Didn’t they break the chairs? Weren’t the chairs broken by them?

Past continuous tense Past continuous tense

Active Passive

H.V = was/ were H.V = was being/ were being

(+): Sub + was/ were + 1st v + ing + obj. (+): Subject + was/ were + being + 3rd v + by phrase ….

(-): Sub + was/ were + not + 1st v + ing + obj. (-): Subject + was/ were + not + being + 3rd v + by phrase ….

(?): Was/ were + sub + 1st v + ing + obj? (?): Was/ were + obj + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

(-?): Was/ were + not + sub + 1st v + ing + obj? (-?): Was/ were + not + obj + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Examples: Examples:

Ahmad was eating apples. Apples were being eaten by Ahmad.

The women were cooking meat. Meat was being cooked by the women.

Ahmad was not eating apples. Apples were not being eaten by
Ahmad.

Was Ahmad eating apples? Were apples being eaten by Ahmad?

47 |P a g e
Were not the women cooking meat? Was not meat being cooked by the
women?

Past perfect tense Past perfect tense

Active Passive

H.V = had H.V = had been

(+): Sub + had + 3rd v + obj. (+): subject + had + been + 3rd v + by phrase …

(-): Sub + had + not + 3rd v + obj. (-): subject + had + not + been + 3rd v + by phrase…

(?): Had + sub + 3rd v + obj? (?): Had + sub + been + 3rd v + by phrase…?

(-?): had + not + sub + 3rd v + obj? (-?): had + not + sub + been + 3rd v + by phrase…?

For instance: For instance:

The farmer had killed the snake. The snake had been killed by the farmer.

The robbers had shot them. They had been shot by the robbers.

The farmer had not killed the snake. The snake had not been killed by the
farmer.

Had the farmer killed the snake? Had the snake been killed by the farmer?

Had not the robbers shot them? Had not they been shot by the robbers?

Past perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense

Active Passive

H.V = had been H.V = had been being

Sub + had + been + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + had + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase…

Sub + had + not + been + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + had + not + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase …

Had + sub + been + 1st v + ing + obj? Had + sub + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Had + not + sub + been + 1st v + ing + obj? Had + not + sub + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Examples: Examples:

He had been teaching English. English had been being taught by him.

He had not been teaching English. English had not been being taught by him.

Had he been teaching English? Had English been being taught by him?

Had not he been teaching English? Had not English been being taught by him?

Simple future tense Simple future tense

48 |P a g e
Active Passive

H.V = will H.V = will be

Sub + will + 1st v + obj. Sub + will + be + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Sub + will + not + 1st v + obj. Sub + will + not + be + 3rd v + by phrase
…

Will + sub + 1st v + obj? Will + sub + be + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Will + not + sub + 1st v + obj? Will + not + obj + be + 3rd v + by phrase…

Examples: Examples:

We will write a letter. A letter will be written by

us.

I will not fly a kite. A kite will not be flown by

me.

Will we write a letter? Will a letter be written by

us?

Will not I fly a kite? Will not a kite be flown by

me?

Future continuous tense Future continuous tense

Active Passive

H.V = will be H.V = will be being

Sub + will + be + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + will + be + being + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Sub + will + not + be + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + will + not + be + being + 3rd v + by
phrase …

Will + sub + be + 1st v + ing + obj? Will + sub + be + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Will + not + sub + be + 1st v + ing + obj? Will + not + sub + be + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Examples: Examples:

The teacher will be typing a letter. A letter will be being typed by the teacher.

The teacher will not be typing a letter. A letter will not be being typed by the
teacher.

Will the teacher be typing a letter? Will a letter be being typed by the teacher?

Will not the teacher be typing a letter? Will not a letter be being typed by the
teacher?

Future perfect tense Future perfect tense

49 |P a g e
Active Passive

H.V = will have H.V = will have been

Sub + will + have + 3rd v + obj. Subject + will + have + been + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Sub + will + not + have + 3rd v + obj. Subject + will + not + have + been + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Will + Sub + have + 3rd v + obj? Will + sub + have + been + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Will + not + Sub + have + 3rd v + obj? Will + not + sub + have + been + 3rd v + by phrase
…?

Examples: Examples:

He will have done his homework. The president will have been elected by them.

They will not have elected the president. The president will not have been elected by them.

Will they have elected the president? Will the president have been elected by them?

Will not the president have been elected by them? Will not they have elected the president?

Future perfect continuous tense Future perfect continuous tense

Active Passive

H.V = will have been H.V = will have been being

Sub + will + have + been + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + will + have + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Sub + will + not + have + been + 1st v + ing + obj. Sub + will + not + have + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase ….

Will + Sub + have + been + 1st v + ing + obj? Will + sub + have + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase …?

Will + not + Sub + have + been + 1st v + ing + obj? Will + not + obj + have + been + being + 3rd v + by phrase
…?

Examples: Examples:

She will have been ironing her clothes. Her clothes will have been being ironed by her.

They will not have been reciting the holy Quran. The holy Quran will not have been being recited by
them.

Will she have been ironing her clothes? Will her clothes have been being ironed by her?

Will not she have been ironing her clothes? Will not her clothes have been being ironed by her?

Active Voice Passive Voice

Preset Perfect Continuous Tense= not common

Future Perfect Continuous Tense= not common

50 |P a g e
Future Continuous Tense= not common

Future Perfect Continuous Tense= not common

The above tenses are not common in passive, but they can be changed into passive voice.

Modal Passive
How to change having model auxiliary verb active voice into passive voice.
Structures: Structures:
Positive (active voice) Positive (passive voice)
Sub + model auxiliary + base form of verb + obj. Sub + modal auxiliary + be + pp + by phrase.
Negative (active voice) Negative (passive voice)
Sub + model auxiliary + not + V1 + obj. Sub + model auxiliary + not + be + V1 + by phrase.
Interrogative (active voice) interrogative (passive voice)
Model auxiliary + sub + V1 + obj model auxiliary + sub +be + V1 + by phrase?
Negative interrogative (active voice) Negative interrogative (passive voice)
Model auxiliary + not + sub + be + V1 + obj model auxiliary +not + sub +be + V1 + by phrase?
For examples: For examples:
I can speak English. English can be speaks by me.
Her mother might invite us to night. We might be invited by her mother to night.
He ought to teach you well. You ought to be taught well.
He ought not to teach you badly. You ought not to be taught badly.
Ought he to teach you normally? Ought you to be taught normally.
You should not have called him. She should not have been called by me.
May he call me? May I be called by him?

Passive Voice of Causative Verbs

Causative Verbs
 Causative Verbs are those verbs which cause someone to do/not to do something.

Standardized, we have five kinds of causative verbs. (make, let, get, help, and have)

General formula for causative verbs.

Subject + Helping verb + causative Verb + Object + bare/Full infinitive + Object/Complement.

Causer receiver doer

Make Get
let + Bare infinitive Help + Full infinitive Help + bare/full infinitive
Have

6) Make: It means to force someone to do/not to do something.

7) Let: It means to permit someone to do/not to do something.
8) Have: It means to choose someone to do/not to do something.
9) Get: It means to encourage someone to do/not to do something.
10) Help: It means to assist someone to do/not to do something.

Rules for changing of Make, Let and Help into passive voice

1. Receiver doer becomes the subject of a passive voice sentence.

51 |P a g e
 2. To be verbs are used according to each tense.
3. Make is changed into made.
4. Let is changed into allowed/ permitted.
5. Help is changed into helped.
6. Full infinitive is used.
7. By phrase is used at the end of a sentence as optional.

Examples: Examples:

Active voice Passive Voice

They make Ahmad drive the care. Ahmad is made to drive the car (by them).

They helped Ahmad drive the car. Ahmad was helped to drive the car.

They have let Ahmad drive the car. Ahmad has been allowed to drive the car by them.

Rules for changing of Get and Have into Passive Voice

Subject of (get and have) doesn’t move.

Receiver doer becomes by phrase.

Full infinitive and bare infinitive are changed into past participle.

Only transitive verbs are changed into passive voice.

For examples; for examples;

Active Voice Passive Voice

They get Ali to teach her. They get her taught by Ali.

They had Ali fix the car. They had car fixed by Ali.

We got her children to learn English. We got English learned by her children.

We got her children to go to school. It’s unchangeable because of transitive verb.

Imperative Sentences

Passive Structure of Imperative Sentences

Affirmative Imperative Passive Structure:

Let + obj + be + 3rd v.

Examples:

Open the door. (Active)Let the door be opened.

(Passive)

Negative Imperative Passive Structure:

 Let + obj + not + be + 3rd v.

Examples Don’t open the door.
(active)
 Let the door not be opened.
(passive)

52 |P a g e
  Don’t + let + obj + be + 3rd v.
Don’t open the door. (Active)

Don’t let the door be opened. (Passive)

Some formal imperative passive voice structures:

First:

Positive Positive

Active Voice Passive Voice

Please/ kindly + base form of a verb + obj/ com.You are requested + full infinite + object.

Ex: Kindly/ please, help me. Ex: You are requested to help me.

Kindly/ please, call her. You are requested to call her.

Negative Negative

Active Voice Passive Voice

Please/ kindly + don’t + base form of a verb + obj/com. You are requested + not + full infinitive + obj/com.
Please, don’t disturb. You are requested not to disturb me.

Second:

Positive Positive

Active Voice Passive Voice

Base form of a verb + obj/com. You are advised + full infinitive + obj.

Respect elders. You are advised to respect elders.

Negative Negative

Active Voice Passive Voice

Don’t + base form of a verb + obj/ com. You are advised + not + full infinitive + obj/ com.

Don’t waste the time you are advised not to waste the time.

Third:

Positive Positive

Active Voice Passive Voice

Base form of a verb + obj/com. You are ordered + full infinitive +

obj/com.

Open your books.

You are ordered to open your books.

Negative Negative

Active Voice Passive Voice

Don’t + base form of a verb + obj/com. You are ordered + not + full infinitive + obj/com.

53 |P a g e
Don’t close your books. You are ordered not to close your books.

Fourth:

Positive Positive

Active Voice Passive Voice

Base form of a verb + obj/com. You are directed + full infinitive + com/obj.
Take one
tablet three times a day.You are directed to take tablet three times a day.

Negative Negative

Active Voice Passive Voice

Don’t + base form of a verb + obj/com. You are directed + not + full infinitive + obj/com.

Don’t take tablet before meal. You are directed not to take tablet before
meal.

Interrogative passive:

This kind of passive is used for asking question about person or thing. In interrogative passive

We use from question words such as: who, whom, what, when, where, whose, how and why.

If the active sentence is began with who; the who is changed by whom then place the to be

Verb according the active tense.

Who took the pen?

By whom the book was taken?

If the active question starts with whom, whom is changed to who in passive voice.

Whom did you see?

Who was seen?

If the active question starts with what, what doesn’t change its form.

What have you bought?

What has been bought?

If the active question starts with words such as: when, where, why, whose, and how there forms

Are not changed in passive form.

Note: If we have interrogative with do, does in present tense we change them into passive by using am, is, and
are to interrogative passive form.

If we have did in interrogative sentence we should change it to was and were.

Stative Passive

When the past participle form of the verb is used as an adjective which shows state not an action, it is called
Stative passive. Or Stative Passive shows the state of the subject or it shows in which state the subject is.

Stative passive express existing state rather than an action.

Stative passive verbs are used to describe the following situation.

54 |P a g e
Location and position

Afghanistan is located in the heart of Asia.

Part whole relation

Korea is divided into two parts.

Connection

Afghanistan and Uzbekistan are joined by Hairatan Bridge.

Purpose

Phone is used to talk with each other

Manner of method

Temperature is measured in degree

Note: Stative passive does not have active forms.

I was born in 1979.The door is closed. The cat is killed. The chair is taken. I am finished. The buses are gone.

Changing some active sentence to passive:

For example;

Active sentence passive sentence

 The food tastes good. The food is good when it is tasted. (passive)
 I know him. He is known to me.
 The flowers smell awful. The flowers are awful when they are smelled.

SPEECH
Speech is the collection of information which is reported by someone. There are two ways to convey speech.

1. Direct speech 2. Indirect speech

Direct speech: when we report the exact words of someone to someone else without changing of tenses,
pronouns, adverb of time, place and some other words is called direct speech.

Say/ Tell

1. Say is used alone or it can be followed by (to + object). For instance;

“The Signs of the Direct Speech”

1. We report the exact words.

2. The first letter of the reported speech is capitalized
3. Reported speech is written in quotation.
4. We put comma between the two speeches.

For example:

He said to me, “I will play cricket.”

They told us, “We are working very hard.”

Indirect Speech

When we report the message or idea of someone to someone else with changing tenses, pronouns, adverb of
time, adverbs of place and other words is called indirect speech.

55 |P a g e
“The Signs of the Indirect Speech”

1) Comma is removed.
2) Quotation marks are removed.
3) Capitalized letter is changed into small letter.
4) That is optionally used between the two parts.

For example;

He said to me, “I will play cricket.” Into indirect speech He said that he would play cricket.

She told me, “I am going to Kabul tomorrow.” She told that she was going to Kabul the next day.

They said to me, “we are coming to the party.” They said that they were not coming to the party.

CHART OF TENSES CHANGE

DIRECT INDIRECT
Simple present tense. Simple past tense.
present continuous tense past continuous tense
present perfect tense past perfect tense
present perfect progressive tense past perfect progressive tense
simple past tense past perfect tense
past continuous tense past perfect continuous tense
past perfect tense past perfect tense
past perfect progressive tense past perfect progressive tense
going to future was/ were going to
Simple future/ shall/ will Simple future would
Future continuous tense/ will be Future continuous tense/ would be
Future perfect tense/ will have Future perfect tense/ would have

Rules for changing of Adverbs Change

1 Now Then
2 Here There
3 These Those
4 This That
5 Ago Before
6 Just Then
7 Yesterday The previous day, the last day
8 Next week The following week, the coming week
9 Tomorrow the next day, the coming day, the following day
10 To day That day
11 The day after tomorrow In two day time
12 The day before yesterday Two days before
13 Thus So

Changing Pronoun in Indirect Speech

First person singular Plural

Second person I We
Third person you you
He They
She

1. The first person singular of reported speech is changed according to the subject of reporting speech

56 |P a g e
Ali said, “I am writing a letter.” Ali said that he was writing a letter.

She said, “I have cleaned the house.” She said that she had cleaned the house.

2. The second person of reported speech is changed according to object of reporting speech

I said to them, “You are wasting of my time.” I said to them that they were wasting of my time.

3. The third person of reported speech remain the same

I said to them, “He works hard.” I said to them that he worked hard.

They said to me, “She will have looked food.” They said to me that she would had looked food.

4. The first person plural (We) of reported speech is changed into the third person plural (They).

He said, “We were playing football.” He said that they had been playing football.

5. If there is the second person in reported speech and there is no object in reporting speech the
second person of reported speech is changed according to the situation.
1. She said, “You do not help me.” She said that she did not help her.
2. She said, “You do not help me.” She said that they did not help her.
6. If there are two clause connected with help of conjunction, and both clauses have different tenses,
the tense of both clauses are changed according to their rules

Example;

He said to me, “When I came here, you were teaching.” He said to me that when he had come there I had
been teaching.

Note: if the reporting verb is in simple present or future, the tense of reported speech does not change.

For examples;

He says, “I work hard.” He says that he works hard.

He will say, “I work hard.” He will say that he works hard.

Interrogative Sentence
Rules for Changing Yes/No and W-H Question into Indirect Speech
1) Interrogative sentence is changed into declarative sentence.
2) Question mark is changed into period/full stop.
3) Reporting verbs are changed into (asked, wanted to know, inquire, interrogated).
4) That is not used.
5) For Yes/No we use if/ whether.
6) For (W-H) we use the same W-H word.
7) Do, Does, and did are not used.

For example;

Direct speech and indirect speech

A. He said to them, “Do you study English?” He asked them if they studied English.
B. He said to them, “Where do you study English?” He asked them where they studied English.
C. I said, “Which color do you like?” I wanted to know which color he liked.
D. I said, “Can you speak English?” I wanted to know if they could speak English.

57 |P a g e
 Imperative Sentence

Changing Imperative Sentence into Indirect Speech

1) Reporting verb is changed into (ordered, requested, advised, and directed).

2) To is used before reported verb.
3) That is not used.

For example;

I said to him, “Stop the car.” I ordered him to stop the car.

She said to them, “Please help me.” She requested them to help me.

I said to him, “Do not west of your time.” I advised him not to west his time.

Note: “Please” is not used in the indirect speech.

He said to them, “Please open the door.” He ordered them please to open the door.

Optative Sentence

Changing Optative Sentence into Indirect Speech

If an optative sentence is used show pray the following changes will take place:

1) Reporting verb is changed into prayed or prayed for.

2) May is changed into might and it is used after the subject.
3) That is used
4) Exclamation mark is changed into full stop.

For example;

They said, “May Allah recover her soon!” They prayed that Allah might recover him soon.

My mother said to me, “May Allah succeed you!” My mother prayed for that might Allah succeed me.

Note: if there is object we use Prayed for unless we use prayed.

If an optative sentence is used to show wish the following changes will occur:

1) Reporting verb is changed into wished.

2) O that/would that are removed.
3) Tenses, pronouns and other words are changed according their rules.
4) That is used.
5) Exclamation mark is changed into full stop.

For examples;

She said, “O that I were educated!” She wished that she had been educated.

He said, “Would that I had a gun!” He wished that he had had a gun.

Exclamatory Sentence

Rules for Changing Exclamatory Sentence into Indirect Speech

1. Exclamatory sentence is changed into declarative sentence.

2. Exclamatory mark is changed into full stop.
3. Interjections are removed.
4. What/How is removed and verb is used before the adjectives and instead of them (very) is added.
5. That is used.

58 |P a g e
6. Tense, pronouns, and other words are changed according to their rules.
7. If there is Sorrow in a sentence the reporting verb is changed into exclaimed with sorrows.
8. If there is Happiness in the sentence the reporting verb is changed into exclaimed with happiness or
joy.
9. If there is surprise in the sentence the reporting verb is changed into exclaimed with surprise. There
are some examples below;

a. They said, “Hurrah! We won the match.” They exclaimed with happiness/joy that they had won the
match.
b. She said, “Oh! I failed again.” She exclaimed with sorrows that she had failed again.
c. She said, “Wow! It looks nice.” She exclaimed with surprise that it looked nice.
d. They said, “How difficult the exam is!” They exclaimed with surprise that the exam was very difficult.
e. He said, “What nice it is!” He exclaimed surprise that it was very nice

How can we change those sentences which start (let’s = let us)?

1) These sentences always express suggestion.

2) Reporting verbs are changed into suggested, proposed.
3) With reporting object takes reported subject (we).
4) If there is no reporting object, reported subjects (they, we) are used in indirect speech.
5) Reported verb is changed into (Verb + ing) or it is followed by should.
6) Only for (Let), we use (should).

For example;

He said to me, “Let’s play cricket.” He suggested playing cricket. Or he suggested that we should play
cricket.

She said, “Let’s go to Kabul.” She proposed going to Kabul. Or she proposed that they should go to Kabul.

She told, “Let’s wait a few minutes and then try again later.” She suggested waiting a few minutes and
trying later. Or she suggested that they/we should wait a few minutes and try again later.

She said her sister, “Let him complete his study first.” She suggested her sister that he should complete his
study first.

A situation under which formal categorization of tenses is not allowed

1. Universal Facts:

Ali said, “Allah is more merciful.” Ali said that Allah is more merciful.

2. General Facts:

Our teacher said, “She is young and beautiful.” Our teacher said that she is young and beautiful.

3. Past Historical Events:

My father said, “Pakistan came into being in 1947.” My father said that Pakistan came into being in 1947.

4. Improbable Conditional Clause:

Our teacher said, “If you studied hard, you would pass the test.” Our teacher said that if I studied hard, I
would pass the exam.

5. Real Conditional Clause:

59 |P a g e
Her father said, “If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.” Her father said that if it rains, the picnic will be
cancelled

60 |P a g e
CLAUSE

Clause is a group of related words which has subject and predicate and can be meaningful and meaningless.

 If you come late, (meaningless)

 You will miss the class. (meaningful)

Kinds of Clause

There are two clauses (dependent and independent)

Dependent Clause Independent clause

It is also called: it is also called:

Subordinate Clause Main clause

1. Independent Clause: It is a complete sentence. It can be used alone.

Examples;

 They want to hire new teacher.

 They cancelled the meeting.
2. Dependent Clause: A dependent clause is a clause that depends on the information from an
independent clause to form a complete, logical thought.

Here are some examples of dependent clauses:

 Whenever I travel
 Whom we met on the plane
 That they like to eat sushi
We can see that each of the examples above is a clause, because they each have a subject (I, we, and they) and
a predicate (travel, met on the plane, and like to eat chicken). However, we can also see that they are
dependent, as they do not express a complete idea—they require independent clauses to be logically
complete:
 Whenever I travel, I like to stay in fancy hotels.
 We struck up a great conversation with a person whom we met on the plane.
 She found it strange that they like to eat chicken.

Kinds of dependent clause

There are three types of DEPENDENT clauses.

Adjective/Relative Clause Adverb Clause Noun Clause

Relative Clause
Relative clause is an adjective clause functioning almost exactly like a single adjective to modify a noun.
Adjectival clauses are dependent clauses, and usually begin with a relative pronoun (which, that, who,
whom or whose) or a relative adverb (where, when, and why).
Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs
Relative pronouns are used to help clarify who or what a sentence is talking about, or else give extra
information about the person or thing. Like other pronouns, they have the grammatical function of nouns, and
can be either the subject or object of the relative clause. There are five common relative pronouns: who,
whom, which, whose, and that.
Here are some examples of relative clauses introduced by relative pronouns:

61 |P a g e
  There’s the woman who sits next to me on the bus.
 The man, whom I’d heard so much about, gave an electrifying speech to the crowd.
 I know the people who live in that house.

Kinds of Adjective clause:

Here are two type of Adjective clauses:

Modifying adjective clause non-modifying adjective clause

Defining adjective clause non-defining adjective clause

Modifying Adjective clause: it gives essential information about the noun.

Rules:

1) It gives us important information.

2) It modifies common noun.
3) It cannot be deleted essential information.
4) Commas are not used.
5) All relative pronouns are used.
6) Deletion of relative pronoun is possible in the objective case.

For example:

 I’ll always remember the river where we learned to swim.

 I sat on the chair that has a wobbly leg.
 I’ll always remember the river where we learned to swim.
 I saw the guy who delivers my mail in town yesterday.
 She’s the person whose daughter goes to Harvard.
 I’m going to wear the skirt that I bought in London.
 I refuse to live in any house that Jack built.

Non-modifying Adjective Clause

It gives extra information about the noun which is not necessary to the meaning of sentence.

Rules:

1) It gives extra information.

2) It modifies pronoun.
3) It cannot be deleted
4) Commas are used
5) All relative pronouns are used without that.
6) Deletion is possible in objective case.

For example;

 Paris, where I spent six months studying, is the most beautiful city in the world.
 The woman down the street, whose children are the same age as ours, invited us over for dinner
next week.
 I love casual Fridays, when we get to wear jeans to work.
 Shakira, whom he’s asked to be his bridesmaid, is getting married next year.
 The senator, who is up for re-election next month, has made a lot of promises to his
constituency.
 The movie, which is my favorite comedy of all time, is being shown on TV tomorrow night.

62 |P a g e
  The skirt, which is a lovely dark blue color, only cost $10.
 My eldest son, whose work takes him all over the world, is in Hong Kong at the moment.
 The film, which stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.
 The car, which can reach speeds of over 300km/h, costs over $500,000.
 Ashraf Ghani, who was the ex-president of Afghanistan, is a nice man.
 Kabul’s river, which is polluted, is not safe for swimming.

In the examples above, the relative clauses merely give extra information about the nouns; they do not define
them. The sentences would still make sense even if the relative clauses were removed, which is how we know
that we are dealing with Non-modifying relative clauses.
For example:
 Paris is the most beautiful city in the world.
 The woman down the street invited us over for dinner.
 I love casual Fridays.
 Samantha is getting married next year.
 The senator has made a lot of promises to his constituency.

The movie is being shown on TV tomorrow night.
Notes: That non-restrictive clauses cannot be introduced by the relative pronoun that or the relative adverb
why—these can only introduce restrictive clauses.
If an adjective clause is used at the middle two commas are used. If it is used at the end single comma is used.
Cases of Adjective Clauses

i. Subjective case
ii. Objective case/ Accusative case
iii. Possessive case
1. Subjective Case: In this case relative pronouns are used as the subject of adjective clause, and they
are followed by a verb or auxiliary.

For instance;

The doctor was from India.

He treated me.

 The doctor, who treated me, was from India.

 The doctor was from India, who treated me.
 They want a car which/ that has automatic system.
 There’s the woman who sits next to me on the bus.
 I know the girl who write my name on the hand.
 She was my student who got the first position in the whole academy.
 Ali, who is in the CONNECTION class, is an intelligent student.

2. Objective Case: In this case relative pronouns are used as the object of an adjective clause, and they
are followed by a noun or pronoun.

For example;

 The man, whom I helped yesterday, was a teacher.

 The children, whom the kidnaper kidnaped them, were under 7-year old.
 The man, whom I’d heard so much about, gave an electrifying speech to the crowd.
 The boy, whom police arrested yesterday, was innocent.
 The old man, whom they killed brutally, was from very poor family.
 This is the book which she wants.

63 |P a g e
 3. Possessive Case: In this case we use whose and it should be used before noun.

For example;

 I know the boy whose father is teacher.

 She is a woman whose husband is in the Kabul.
 This is the applicant whose interview I took.
 The people, whose names are on this list, will be glad to help you.
 Titanic, whose budget was over $200 million, was a great movie.
 I visited the country whose people love to go hiking.
 The doctor, whose moustache is very bushy, was very kind.

Places of formal and informal of relative pronouns

Who:

01 Subjective case (formal)

02 Objective case (informal)
03 Oblique case (informal)

Examples;

He is the boy who called me yesterday. (Formal)

That is the man who I met yesterday. (Informal)

He is the man to who you must speak. (Informal)

He is the man to whom you must speak. (Informal)

Whom:

01 Subjective case never used.

02 Objective case (Formal)
03 Oblique case (formal)

Examples;

He was the teacher whom I have met in Iran.

He was the man to whom you should speak.

Which:

1) Subjective case (formal)

2) Objective case (formal)
3) Oblique case (Formal)

Examples;

 The book which was bought yesterday was good.

 The book which I bought yesterday was very interesting.
 The book about which I fold id right.
1. Relative Adverb: (where, when)

We use where to modify a place like city, country, and town, house and so on. When (where) is used, no
preposition is used. We used preposition with (which).

64 |P a g e
For example:

She lives in the house where she has grown up.

She lives in the house in which she has grown up.

Oblique case: They live in town where nobody can go late. This is the place where the accident happened.

Note: In three case are all possible.

When: It is used for time.

For example; Friday is the day when I do not teach. I will never forget the day when I met Ali for the first time.
2013 is the year when I started University.

Deletion of Relative Pronoun

We delete relative pronoun only in objective case. When we delete relative pronoun from adjective clause,
this is called (zero/ unmarked adjective clause).

For example; the below underlined sentences are the deleted form of clause in the objective case.

 The boy whom the police arrested was innocent.

 The boy the police arrested was innocent.
 The book which I teach is easy. The book, I teach is easy.
 She is a girl whom I met yesterday. She is a girl, I met her yesterday.
 In the subject we cannot remove the relative pronoun.

Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial Clauses
Definition
An adverbial clause, or adverb clause, is a group of words behaving as an adverb. Like all clauses, it always
contains a subject and a predicate, and it is used, like a regular adverb, to modify adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs. For example:
• I went to the park today.
• I went to the park before my parents woke up.

Key Points of Adverb Clause

1) It is also called Adverbial clause.

2) It is a dependent clause it must be connected with main clause.
3) It can be used after and before main clause.
4) Adverbial clause cannot be changed into question because it introduced by subordinating
conjunction.
5) It cannot be used in the future tenses. It is used in present and past tenses.

For example:

 When I saw them, they were playing.

 I will meet him when he comes here tomorrow.

Kinds of Adverb Clauses

1. Adverb clause of time

2. Adverb clause of place
3. Adverb clause of reason
4. Adverb clause of purpose

65 |P a g e
 5. Adverb clause of manner
6. Adverb clause of contrast
7. Adverb clause of result
8. Adverb clause of condition

Adverbial clauses of time

An adverbial clause of time describes when or for how long something has occurred or will occur. Or it is used
to show the time of an action happens, or it shows that when an action happens. Possible subordinating
conjunctions include when, whenever, while, before, after, since, until, and once, by the time, until, till, yet.

For example:
 I will arrive when dinner is ready.
 He said he’ll go whenever you decide it’s time to leave.
 Animals are cute while they’re young.
 Before you leave, let me give you a kiss.
 Teachers grade papers after the students go home for the day.
 I have loved you since the day I met you.
 She waited on the shore until the ship departed.
 The bully stopped picking fights once he realized it was wrong.
 While they were playing cricket, it started to rain.
 She was 20 year old when she graduated from college.
Be careful with the subordinating conjunction since, because it is also used with adverbial clauses of reason or
purpose, as we will see below.)
Adverbial clauses of place
An adverbial clause of place describes where something has occurred or will occur. The most common
subordinating conjunctions are where, wherever, everywhere, and anywhere.
For example:
 Grandma and Grandpa want to go where their children live.
 I can go wherever I want to go.
 Ali brings his sunglasses everywhere he goes.
 Birds create nests anywhere they deem suitable.
 Stay there where you are.
 He went where he had come.
 Everywhere you want, you can go.
Adverbial Clauses of Reason
An adverbial clause of reason describes why something has occurred or will occur. Common subordinating
conjunctions are because, seeing that, now that, as, since.
For example:
 I admire you because you are an inspiration to many people.
 As it is raining, we probably shouldn’t go to the park today.
 I’m going outside to play since my homework is finished.
 He went to his room seeing that he studies the lessons for exam.
 Because it was rain, we were outside.
 I helped him since he was my friend.
 Now that he was sick, he did not come here.
 We can go everywhere you want as I am free.

(Be careful with the subordinating conjunction since, because it is also used with adverbial clauses of time, as
we saw above.)
Adverbial Clause of Purpose
An adverbial clause of purpose describes that for what purpose an action has occurred or will occur. Common
subordinating conjunctions are: so that, in order that, in order to, in the purpose of, so as.

For example:

66 |P a g e
  You come here so that you learn English.
 You come here for the purpose of learning English.
 He works hard in order that he earns a lot of money.
 They go very quickly in order to reach there by time.
 She’s washing the dishes in purpose of going to the wedding.
 So as I am getting experience, I’ve been teaching English.

Adverbial clauses of comparison or manner

An adverbial clause of comparison or manner describes how or in what manner something occurred or will
occur, to what degree something occurred or will occur, or how something compares to something else. Some
of the most often used subordinating conjunctions are like, as, as … as, as if, the way, and then.
For example:
 He sings like he wants to be a rock star.
 The freshly picked flower is as beautiful as it is soft.
 She looked excited, as if she could jump up and dance at any moment.
 She walks confidently, the way a model struts on a runway.
 Ali is more nervous than Khalid (is).
 He did the job the way that I guided him.
 Do it as I told you.
 He acts as if he is an actor of Indian movies.
 I teach you how my director told me.

(In colloquial English, the final verb in an adverbial clause of comparison may be omitted.
In this case, the sentence would become Ali is more nervous than Khalid, in which the predicate verb is
implied. We also see verb omission in adverbial clauses containing the subordinating conjunctions before,
after, and as … as.)
Adverbial clauses of contrast
An adverbial clause of contrast describes something that differs from or contrasts with an idea expressed in
the main clause. Commonly used subordinating conjunctions include though, although, even though, whereas.
For example:
 Though the sun is out, the wind is very chilly.
 Although she doesn’t have much money, Ali often goes traveling.
 I do this job even though I hate it.
 Babies look at the world with innocence, whereas adults look at it with experience.
 Ali likes hot weather whereas Ahmad likes cold weather.
 I let him sit in the class although he came late.

Adverbial Clause of Result

An adverb Clause of Result shows the result of something.

The follow subordinating conjunctions introduce adverb clause of result.

(so…that, such...that)

1. So … that.
 He is so intelligent that he gets first position. The test was so difficult that he got 50% marks.
 He played so well that he was selected for team.
2. Such … that.
 He is such an intelligent teacher that everyone likes him.
 It was such a heavy chair that I couldn’t carry it.

Adverbial clauses of condition

Adverbial clauses of condition describe the conditions necessary for specific actions or events to happen. This
type of clause usually employs the subordinating conjunctions if, unless, whether or not, in the event, and
provided that, providing that.

67 |P a g e
For example:
 If it snows tonight, I’m not going to work tomorrow.
 Selma can’t attend the school unless her parents allow it.
 He’s always doing crazy stunts whether or not they’re considered safe.
 In the event of a hurricane, you must stay inside.
 They’ll approve your request provided that you pay the appropriate amount of money.

Noun Clause
A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that is able to function grammatically like a noun in a sentence.
Or Noun clause is dependent clause which has the same function as a noun in the sentence.
Forming Noun Clauses
Noun clauses most commonly begin with the words that, how, if, and the “wh-” words
—what, whatever, where, wherever, when, whenever, why, which, whichever, who, whom, whoever,
whomever, whether, and whatever.
Like all clauses, a noun clause contains a subject (sometimes represented by one of the words above) and a
predicate (a verb and any additional information attached to it).
Below we’ll look at some examples of various noun clauses performing the different functions of a noun:
Subjects
The subject performs or controls the action of the verb.
 Wherever we decide to go is fine with me. (Wherever we decide to go is the subject of the linking
verb is.)
 Which option is best remains to be seen. (Which option is best is the subject of the verb remains.)
 Whoever wants to go should sign up with their supervisor.” (Whoever wants to go is the subject of
the phrasal verb sign up.)
 That you act so happily with money shows you aren’t ready to lead this company.(That you act so
happily with money is the subject of the verb shows.)
Objects
Remember that intransitive verbs do not take direct and indirect objects, so you will only find noun clauses
used as the objects of transitive verbs.
Direct objects
A direct object is a person or thing that directly receives the action of the verb.
 I will enjoy whatever we decide to do. (Whatever we decide to do is the direct object of the verb
enjoy.)
 We’ve decided to go wherever the wind takes us. (Wherever the wind takes us is the direct object of
the verb go.)
 I want to see what is available before I make a purchase. (What is available is the direct object of the
verb see.)
 At this point, we’ll take whatever we can get. (Whatever we can get is the direct object of the verb
take.)
Indirect objects
An indirect object is a person (or sometimes thing) that receives the direct object via the action of the verb.
For example:
 I’ll send whoever is responsible a strongly worded letter. (Whoever is responsible is the indirect
object of the verb send, and a strongly worded letter is the direct object.)
 Just pay whomever you hire $100, as we agreed. (Whomever you hire is the indirect object of the verb
pay, and $100 is the direct object.)
 I will give whatever you propose my full support. (Whatever you propose is the indirect object of the
verb give, and my full support is the direct object.)
Objects of prepositions
A preposition is followed by its object to create a prepositional phrase, which can function as an adverb or an
adjective in a sentence. For example:
 There is the man to whom I owe my life. (Whom I owe my life is the object of the preposition to,
acting as an adjective to describe the noun man.)

68 |P a g e
  I ran into a few people from where I used to live. (Where I used to live is the object of the preposition
from, acting as an adjective to describe the noun people.)
 They were angry because of what they found out. (What they found out is the object of the
compound preposition because of, acting as an adverb to describe the adjective angry.)
 She can study with whomever she likes. (Whomever she likes is the object of the preposition with,
acting as an adverb to modify the verb study.)
Replacing a noun clause with a pronoun
A noun clause can always be replaced by a single pronoun (such as you, he, she, it, they, there, etc.), the same
way a normal noun would. If you are uncertain whether a part of a sentence is functioning as a noun clause,
try replacing it with a pronoun; if the sentence is still grammatically complete, then the part you replaced is a
noun clause. (The only exception to this rule is when a noun clause is used as an adjective complement, since
a pronoun cannot function this way.)
Noun clause is made of

1. Statement
2. Yes/ no question
3. W.H question

Noun clauses which are made from the statement are introduced by the using of (that).

Statement: she does not like music. Noun clause: we know that she does not like music.

Statement: He is the best of all. Noun clause: I am sure that he is the best of all.

Functions of Noun Clause

Noun clause that begins with (that). Can be used as:

1. Subject of sentence
For example;
 That she does not like music is clear to all.
 That he committed the crime is obvious.
 That she dislikes anonymous phone is her nature.
 That they had played well have been trained very well.
2. The subject after (it)
For example;
 It is surprising that she was dismiss from the job.
 It is true that statement make excuses.
 It is my opinion that T.V reduce interest in reading.
 It is right that he was very intelligent student.
3. The subjective complement after To Be.
For example;
 The problem is that the test was very difficult.
 Pakistan is that place where Afghans most go for treatment.
 The weakest points were that I didn’t try well.
 The happiest moment was that they were telling romantic story.
4. The object of verb:
For example;
 I will prove that he is innocent.
 The result of test indicates that you do not study hard.
 He is intelligent.
 That he is intelligent is clear. (Subjective case)
 The problem is that he is intelligent. (Subjective complement)
 I know that he is intelligent. (Objective case)

Noun clause made from Yes/No question:

69 |P a g e
Noun clause made from Yes/No question is introduced by (whether… or not) or (If…or not).

For example;

 Did he get the promotion?

 Whether he got the promotion or not, has not been announced.
Or
 Whether or not he got the promotion, has not been announced.
 Are they coming tonight?
 Whether they are coming or not, is not clear.
Or
 Whether or not they are coming is not clear.
 I do not know whether they are coming or not.
Or
 I do not know whether or not they are coming.
 I do not know if they are coming or not.

Function of noun clause beginning with whether or not

It can be used:

1. As a subject
For example:
 Whether she joined the class or not is not my problems.
 Whether he went to U.S. or not is not clear.
 Whether she is coming or not is still unclear.
 Whether they were here or not is not known.
2 As an object
For example:
 We do not know whether he went to Japan or not.
 We do not know whether he went to Japan or not.
 They did not understand whether he was killed or not.
 She was aware whether her husband left the country or not.
3 As subjective complement
For example:
 The problem is whether she writes the report or not.
 The question is whether they help us or not.
 The solution was clear whether problem was difficult or not.
 Question was very easy whether they described or not.
4 As object of preposition
For example:
 He has not told me whether he join the job or not.
 She has not told anything about whether she will stay or not.

Noun clause made from W-H question

For example:

Question: when did he leave this country?

Noun clause: when he left this country is still unknown.

Question: Who are they inviting today?

Noun clause: Who they are inviting today is not clear. I do not know who they are inviting today.

70 |P a g e
Question: why is he coming tomorrow?

Noun clause: why he is coming tomorrow is a secret.

Note: Do, does and did are removed and auxiliary use after the subject pronoun.

The usages of noun clause beginning with W-H word

1. As subject:
For instance:
 When they left this country is unknown.
 Why they are not telling a story is a secret.
 Where they are learning English is modern center.
 Whom he helped yesterday was very poor man.
2. As complement after To Be verb:
For example:
 The problem is where we should get money from.
 The question is how we can get there.
 The solution is when they come.
3. As an object:
For example:
 I have not decided what I am going to buy for him.
 I don’t know when they are coming.
4. As an object of preposition:
For example:
There will be enough food for whomever you invite.
The question is not related to what we are discussing right now.

The End …

71 |P a g e