DraGeomorphology (from Ancient Greek: γῆ, gê, "earth"; μορφή, morphḗ, "form"; and λόγος, lógos,

"study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features

created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's surface.
Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to
understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field
observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within
disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering
geology, archaeology, climatology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests
contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Contents

 1Overview
 2History
o 2.1Ancient geomorphology

o 2.2Early modern geomorphology

o 2.3Climatic geomorphology

o 2.4Quantitative and process geomorphology

o 2.5Contemporary geomorphology

 3Processes
o 3.1Aeolian processes

o 3.2Biological processes

o 3.3Fluvial processes

o 3.4Glacial processes

o 3.5Hillslope processes

o 3.6Igneous processes

o 3.7Tectonic processes

o 3.8Marine processes

 4Overlap with other fields

 5See also

 6References

 7Further reading

 8External links

inage system assignment

Introduction. Drainage is the method of removing surface or sub-surface water from a given
area. Drainage systems include all of the piping within a private or public property that conveys
sewage, rainwater, and other liquid waste to a point of disposal.Aug 10, 2017

Drainage is the method of removing surface or sub-surface water from a given area. Drainage
systems include all of the piping within a private or public property that conveys sewage, rainwater,
and other liquid waste to a point of disposal. The main objective of a drainage system is to collect
and remove waste matter systematically to maintain healthy conditions in a building. Drainage
systems are designed to dispose of wastewater as quickly as possible and should prevent gases
from sewers and septic tanks from entering residential areas.

Residential Drainage Systems

Residential drainage systems remove excess water from residential areas. This system helps whisk
water away from walkways, driveways, and roofs to avoid flooding. Residential drainage systems are
very important as they prevent rotting, mold, mildew, and structural damage in buildings from a
buildup of water. Our SE exam review courses discuss the requirements and recommendations for
residential structures regarding drainage systems.

The types of residential drainage systems are:

1)Surface
2)Subsurface
3)Slope
4)Downspout/gutters

Surface Drainage Systems

Surface drainage systems contain shallow ditches dug in a parallel pattern, which act as canals for
run-off water. Theses ditches lead the water into the main drain to avoid water pooling and flooding.
Subsurface Drainage Systems

A subsurface drainage system is also known as a French drain. Subsurface drains are placed
beneath the top layer of soil to remove excess water at the root level. Subsurface drains require the
digging of deep ditches and the installation of underground pipes. A large collector drain is installed
to collect water from the pipes.

Slope Drainage Systems

Slope drains allow water to flow downward from a structure with the aid of pipes moving down a
slope. A pipe is installed and anchored into a small incline, which causes water to flow through the
pipe and away from the structure. 

Downspout and Gutter systems

Downspouts collect water from gutters and divert it to the ground. A downspout is typically
connected to a gutter system on a building and carries water away from the roof down to the ground.
Downspouts empty out the water on a slope so that the water does not pool at the base of the
downspout. 

Combined drainage systems use a single drain to convey both water from sanitary usage and
rainwater from roofs and other surfaces to a shared sewer. This system is economical to install.
Separate drainage systems use separate foul water drains that lead to a sanitary sewer. The
rainwater from roofs and other surfaces is conveyed in a separate surface water drain into a surface
water sewer. This system is relatively expensive to install. Our SE exam review courses thoroughly
review the building and design codes to follow proper drainage system installations.
BY SCHOOL OF PE AUGUST 10, 2017 10:22

Drainage system
sewage
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LEARN ABOUT THIS TOPIC in these articles:

importance in

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
 

In roads and highways: Drainage

…element in pavement performance, and drainage systems can be extensive and

expensive. Drainage involves handling existing watercourses, removing water from the
pavement surface, and controlling underground water in the pavement structure. In
designing the system, the engineer first selects the “design storm”—that is, the most
severe flood that can be…

READ MORE

 Indus civilization
 o

In roads and highways: India

Great attention was devoted to drainage. The houses had drainpipes that
carried the water to a street drain in the centre of the street, two to four
feet deep and covered with slabs or bricks.

READ MORE

 macadam roads
 o

In roads and highways: McAdam

Drainage was essential to the success of McAdam’s method, and he

required the pavement to be elevated above the surrounding surface. The
structural layer of broken stone (as shown in the figure, bottom) was eight
inches thick and used stone of two to three inches…

READ MORE

 Roman
 o

In roads and highways: The Roman roads

…feet apart to provide longitudinal drainage—a hallmark of Roman road

engineering. The foundation was then raised about three feet above
ground level, employing material taken from the drains and from the
adjacent cleared ground. As the importance of the road increased, this
embankment was progressively covered with a light bedding…

READ MORE

 airports
 o

In airport: Drainage

Large airports are actually urban complexes in which high-population

activity centres are closely associated with very extensive paved areas.
Typically a large airport can, on a daily basis, handle more than 100,000
passengers and support a working population of more than 50,000
employees. The…

READ MORE

 building construction
 o

In construction: Plumbing

Drainage systems to remove wastewater are made of cast-iron pipe with

threaded joints or bell-and-spigot joints sealed with molten lead or with
plastic pipe with solvent-welded joints. The waste pipe of every plumbing
fixture is provided with a semicircular reverse curve, or trap, which
remains…

READ MORE
 o

In construction: Plumbing

The internal drainage of large flat roofs introduces another piping system,
similar to that for sanitary wastewater, to carry away storm water to
separate underground storm sewers. Heavy rainstorms can introduce huge
influxes of water into storm sewers, and sometimes this surge effect is
tempered by the…

READ MORE

 tunnel construction
 o

In tunnels and underground excavations: Water inflows

…and permitting their pretreatment by drainage or grouting. When high-

pressure flows occur unexpectedly, they result in long stoppages. When
huge flows are encountered, one approach is to drive parallel tunnels,
advancing them alternately so that one relieves pressure in front of the
other. This was done in 1898 in work…

READ MORE

hat is the difference between drainage system and drainage pattern?

while Drainage pattern means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in
terms of geographical shapes in the areas of different rock types, geological structure,
climate conditions and denudation history e.g. trellis pattern,
 dendritic pattern Different drainage problems, including puddling, pooling, saturated soil, and
even undirected downspout water, can destroy landscaping and turn a backyard into a swamp.
It creates moisture and mold problems and can damage home foundations; drainage is a
serious concern when there is a problem.Jul 29, 2015
The Five Most Common Drainage Problems
 Blockages. Blockages in drains are an issue that affects every property owner at
one time or another. ...
 Displaced/Open Joints. ...
 Fractures and Cracks. ...
 Root Intrusions. ...
 Collapsed or Broken Sections of Pipe.
Jan 11, 2018

The Five Most Common Drainage Problems - Drain 247

www.drain247.co.uk › Help Centre Articles

1.
Search for: What are the problems of drainage?
What are the causes of poor drainage system?
The Most Common Causes of Drainage Blockage
 Causes of Blocked Drains. The most common causes of blocked drains are:
 Unknown objects. ...
 Heavy storms and rain. ...
 Damaged Pipes. ...
 Pipe Installation. ...
 Water flow problems. ...
 Conclusion.
Feb 12, 2018

Causes of drainage failure

Some communities suffer from drainage problems not because they have no drains,
but because the existing drainage system has collapsed, become blocked, or is
otherwise in need of repair and rehabilitation. Many more will find that the nearest
convenient point of discharge for a new drainage system is an existing primary
drainage pipe or canal that needs attention if it is to function properly.

Collapse and blockage are the principal types of drainage failure. Each of these can
have several causes. Collapse of drains can occur through:
-erosion of the bottom and sides of the drain (scouring);
-excessive pressure of water in the ground beneath and beside the drain lining;
-vehicles passing over or too close beside the drains; -root growth, especially from
nearby trees;
-crown corrosion in closed drains containing sewage.

The causes of blockage can be:

-accumulation of refuse, leaves and earth in the drain;

-structures such as houses or bridge piers erected in the drain and obstructing the flow;
-excessive vegetation growing in drainage channels;
-silt deposited in low sections owing to misalignment or where the slope is
insufficient and cleaning is not regular enough.

If rehabilitation of a failed system is to have a good chance of success, diagnosis and

elimination of the original causes of failure are required as well as treatment of the
immediate symptoms. Each possible cause of collapse has its cure.

(a) Erosion in an unlined channel is illustrated in Fig. 21 (page 39) along with the
appropriate remedies. In a lined drain, erosion can mean the lining itself is not robust
enough, and a more resistant lining is needed. A common weak point is at the joints
between channel or pipe elements, which should be sealed with cement mortar. Where
the slope is greater than 10%, baffles or steps of some kind are needed (see Fig. 6,
page 17). Scouring on the outside of a channel lining can mean that water is not
entering the drain but running parallel to it. If the lining rises above ground level, it
needs notches in the sides so that the water can flow in. Small earth banks running
diagonally across the road will also help to divert water to the drain at the side.
Alternatively, scouring beside the drain can mean that it overflows during storms,
indicating that more frequent cleaning, a larger drain, or more frequent turnouts are
required (see Fig. 5, page 16). In closed drains that
are overloaded, water can escape into the ground through the joints owing to the
pressure inside the pipe. When the pressure drops, the water runs back into the drain,
carrying soil with it and excavating a cavity over the drain which will eventually
collapse. The solution is to seal the joints with cement grout or, preferably, to build a
larger drain.

(b) Water pressure from the outside or pressure resulting from the swelling of clay can
be controlled by using a sand bedding (see Fig. 15) and providing weepholes in the
lining (see Fig. 11).
(c) Vehicles can easily damage open drains. If vehicle damage recurs frequently, the
drains should be protected by some form of barrier such as a rail or a kerbstone. If the
damage is due to vehicles attempting to cross the drain, then an adequate vehicle
crossing should be built over it. Vehicle damage to covered drains indicates that they
should either be laid deeper or be protected by concrete.

(d) Roots from nearby trees will tend to grow into drains, especially if they contain
standing water and the linings are not impermeable. The most effective protection, if
the problem persists, is to remove all trees within 5 m of the drain.

(e) Crown corrosion occurs in closed drains containing sewage, where gases from the
sewage can attack and weaken cement, particularly over the crown or cover of the
drain.

The cures for most of the causes of blockage are fairly easy to see: collection of
refuse, removal of structures, and clearing of vegetation. If the drains have an even
and adequate slope, it should not be necessary to remove silt; clearing the vegetation,
whose roots hold the silt in place, should enable the next heavy flow in the drain to
wash it away.

However, the slope is not always even. The drain may have been badly laid, the sand
bedding beneath some sections may have been eroded causing them to sink, or the
lack of weepholes or a sand bedding may have caused the lining to be lifted by the
pressure of water from the surrounding ground. Uneven settlement of the ground is
common in flat areas of clay soil, and is another cause of uneven slope. Damage by
vehicles and earthquakes can also cause distortion, or even misalignment of sections
of drainage channel or pipe, resulting in blockage by sediment or other solids. In such
cases, the drains should be rebuilt to an even slope, although slight irregularities can
be corrected by filling in the depressions with cement mortar.

Finally, the drain itself may be in good condition, but may fail to function correctly
owing to insufficient capacity. Even a drain that was large enough when built may
prove to be too small for the increases in runoff flow which accompany increased
building development in the catchment area.

3.2 Rehabilitation of existing systems

There are many drainage systems in urban areas that are functioning imperfectly or
not at all owing to one or more of the causes of failure listed in the previous section.
Before a new system is envisaged, the first step is to ascertain whether a drainage
system already exists and whether it can be rehabilitated. Local residents will
normally know if one exists in their area, but they may not be aware of existing main
drains, especially closed drains, which are outside their neighbourhood, and into
which a future local micro-drainage system could discharge.

Municipal records, including old drainage master plans, should be consulted for
details of any previous drainage construction in the vicinity, and the area should be
visited on foot to check their accuracy and to look for tell-tale signs such as old
manholes, or pieces of pipe or concrete exposed by erosion, especially along major
streets and downstream of the area where better drainage is needed.

Remove cover slabs from drainage channels, taking care that there is no risk of
pedestrians' or vehicles' falling into them accidentally. Starting at the downstream end,
remove silt and solids. Special tools for cleaning channels are described in section 3.3.
After clearing, flush the drainage line with water. The fire services may be able to
help with this.

Inspection of closed drains

The inspection of closed drains is more difficult and dangerous, and should be carried
out under expert supervision. The first step is to draw a sketch map of the system, if
record drawings are not available. The map should show all existing manholes, inlets
and other drainage structures. If the gap between any two manholes is very long
compared to that between most others, it is likely that one or two other manholes have
been buried or destroyed between them. From the regular manhole spacing, it should
be possible to calculate the most likely location of a missing manhole. Local residents,
who may know of buried manholes, should also be consulted. The probable sites of
missing manholes should be excavated, to uncover them.

No one should enter any manhole until it has been adequately ventilated. As a
precaution, the manholes upstream and downstream of the section to be inspected
should be opened at least two hours beforehand. To save time, a number of manholes
can be opened simultaneously. Further ventilation can be achieved by introducing the
air hose from a compressor, if one is available. Inspection should start as far
downstream as possible, and work upstream. Water in flooded manholes should be
pumped out to the next manhole downstream using a sump pump, of the type used by
construction firms for excavations. Alternatively, the water could be baled out with
buckets or removed with a siphon, but this is likely to take a very long time.

Once the manhole has been ventilated, a further safety check is necessary to ensure
that it is safe to enter. A lighted candle or a miner's safety lamp is lowered into the
manhole. If the flame dies, it means that there is insufficient oxygen inside and that
anyone entering the manhole could be suffocated by the gases produced by sewage
and sediment. However, no naked light should be used until the manhole has been
ventilated, as it could cause those gases to explode.
A final safety precaution, no less necessary, is that no one should enter a manhole
without a lifeline. A spare lifeline should be ready for use if necessary. Access steps
in an old manhole are liable to be seriously corroded and much less secure than they
appear. They are often slippery. At least two people should remain above ground to
pull out the third member of the party in case of emergency. They should never follow
the third member into the manhole, even in an emergency, as they could all be killed.
Even if the manhole is properly vented, the person inspecting it should disturb the
settled sludge and silt as little as possible. These sometimes contain poisonous gases,
which could be released when the sediment is agitated. If a drain is completely
blocked so that it cannot be inspected, material should be removed only from the
upstream end. These safety precautions are illustrated in Fig. 22.

The alignment of a closed drain can be checked by two people in consecutive

manholes using a flashlight and a mirror, as shown in Fig. 23. First the flashlight and
the mirror are held within 5-10 cm of the bottom of the pipe (known as the invert),
and then they are both raised to just below the crown. If there is any irregularity in the
vertical alignment of the drain pipe, it will be detected in one of these positions, since
it will obscure the flashlight beam. This procedure will also make minor defects and
obstructions visible.

The most likely place to find cracks and misalignment is immediately adjacent to the
manhole, owing to uneven settlement of the ground after pipe-laying (Fig. 24).
Another problem to look for is crown corrosion, which can easily be discovered by
attempting to dig into the pipe material at the sides and top with a penknife or a large
nail.

Drainage pipes of less than 1 m in diameter cannot be entered safely, and great care
should be taken in entering larger drains. The dangers include poisonous gas, cave-
ins, sudden rushes of water from clogged sections or from storms, and even wild
animals. Naked lights such as matches or candles should not be used in a closed sewer
or within 3 m of any open manhole. A miner's safety lamp is preferable to a flashlight,
to avoid the risk of explosions.

Poorly drained stormwater forms stagnant pools that provide breed- ing sites for disease
vectors. Because of this, some diseases are more common in the wet season than the dry
season. ... Poor drainage can lead to flooding, resulting in property loss, and people may even
be forced to move to escape floodwaters.
The Five Most Common Drainage
Problems
Posted on 11th Jan 2018 by admin_drain

The problem with drains is that you can’t see them. Stuck underground, you hope that
they’re OK – and very often, the first sign that there’s a drainage problem is that you
notice a nasty niff – or that your water isn’t draining at all. Or both.
Every year we are called out to thousands of properties across London, Hertfordshire,
and Middlesex to help solve people’s drainage issues. When it comes to drainage
problems, we’ve seen it all. So we decided to compile a list of the top five most
common drainage troubles faced by the property owners of the UK, and how you can
solve them.
1. Blockages
Blockages in drains are an issue that affects every property owner at one time or
another. Blocked drains can come on slowly, often taking years to be noticeable. The
most common causes include fat, hair and coffee grinds. But having done this for a
number of years now nothing surprises the Drain 247 team when it comes to
blockages.
So what can you do about it?
There’s a range of DIY methods to get your drains flowing again depending on what
it is that’s blocking your pipes. Trouble is, you don’t always know what the cause of
the blockage is. And some of these methods might end up causing more harm than
good.
Our expert team of drainage gurus will be able to unblock your drains quickly,
efficiently, and with no hassle for you. Plus, you get peace of mind with our 30-day
guarantee on unblocking.

2. Displaced/Open Joints
Ground movement, usually caused by ground instability, subsistence and increasing
traffic levels, can cause a displaced or open joint in your pipes. These gaps can cause
wastewater to leak into the surrounding areas, potentially resulting in structural
damage. The pipe may also break as it loses support, resulting in whole new levels of
headaches.
So what can you do about it?
Previously, broken pipes could only be fixed by digging up the ground, pulling them
out and replacing them. Thankfully this is no longer always necessary. With drain
relining we have the ability to line pipes with diameters ranging from 75mm to
1200mm, where excavation wouldn’t be possible due to location or depth.
A drainage professional will be able to recommend the best type of lining for your
needs. Even better, if it is just a small area of the drain that has come open, patch
liners can be used to repair localised damage.

3. Fractures and Cracks

Fractures occur due to the excessive ‘wear and tear’ that drain pipes go through. They
are often found near the pipe joints but it’s not uncommon to see further down the
pipework. Fractures and cracks in the pipework can allow wastewater to leak into the
surrounding areas, weakening the ground structure.
So what can you do about it?
If you suspect your drain might have a crack, you can request a CCTV drain
survey from a qualified drainage engineer. They’ll send a small camera down the
pipes and identify where the problem is. They can then use a patch lining to repair the
area that’s cracked.

4. Root Intrusions
Sometimes tree and plant roots will burrow deep into the ground until they hit the
drainage pipework. Roots are always searching for water, oxygen, and nutrients. Pipes
– especially sewer systems – contain plenty of these, so roots will often penetrate any
opening they find to get through. They usually go through the joints of the drainage
pipework but sometimes they can ‘punch’ a hole through the pipe material and create
a hole within the pipework.
This can allow bad smells and wastewater to seep out, which nobody wants. Where a
root system has started to grow inside a pipe, there is also an increased chance that
debris such as tissue paper and fats could become stuck, causing the pipe to flow
slower.

So what can you do about it?

or removing roots, an engineer will use various methods. These include high-pressure
flushing or drain jetting, root sawing, and the use of an auger, which is a flexible drill
designed to break-up blockages. There are other DIY methods, like pouring copper
sulfate down the lines, but getting a professional to remove the roots is the most
effective method.

5. Collapsed or Broken Sections of Pipe

Having a collapsed pipe is a major issue as this means the wastewater isn’t leaving the
property. Instead, it is seeping out into the surrounding areas. This in itself is a major
problem as it can cause a host of other problems.
Water may start to flow into the terrain around the pipe which can lead to damp and
mold appearing on the floor or walls of your property. Water spreading on the area
around the property can cause subsidence or create a sinkhole due to the weakened
ground structure. As this water collects it can also attract pests and rodents like flies
and rats.

So what can you do about it?

If you suspect you have a collapsed or broken pipe you need to contact a drainage
expert immediately. A survey will likely need to be carried out so you may be
instructed to get a qualified CCTV drain survey company to carry out the CCTV drain
survey if they suspect that there may be structural damage to the drainage system.
If a repair is required. engineers typically repair drains through one of two
methods; Drain Excavation and Drain Relining. Due to the importance of getting this
work done quickly, many companies will offer a 24-hour emergency service and can
often be with you within an hour of your call.

But how would you know?

Good question – how would you know that your drainage system has a problem? A
CCTV Drain Survey is an easy way of finding out what the fault is. This is where an
engineer will thrust a little camera right down your drains – with enough light, of
course, so that they can see what’s going on down there. From the images, they
capture they’ll be able to tell you whether you’ve got a blockage, a crack, or a
collapsed pipe and they’ll be able to suggest the best solution for you.

Contact Drain 247 for Drain Unblocking in Lon