Appendix B

Polymer melt flow analysis

B.1 STRAIN RATES IN CHANNEL FLOWS

We need to be able to convert data from a melt rheometer into a flow curve and to use such a curve to estimate pressure
drops in simple melt processing equipment. Figure B.1 shows four types of flow in channels. These are assumed to be
steady laminar flows. The first task is to quantify the shear strain rates. Polymer melts adhere to metal surfaces, so the melt
velocity is zero at the stationary channel walls.

(a) Rectangular slot of breadth b >> height h

With the xyz axes shown, the only non-zero strain rate is the shear strain rate g_ yz in the yz axes. Consequently we can drop
the subscripts yz on this and on the shear stress syz without causing any confusion. There will be a strain rate g_ xz near the
sides of the slot, but this will be ignored. The analysis also applies to annular channels of radius r >> h; the slot is bent
until the sides meet and an annulus formed.

(b) Cylindrical channel

The only non-zero strain rate is g_ rz in the cylindrical axes r, q, z. Consequently the subscripts on this and the corresponding
shear stress may be dropped.

(c) Spreading disc flow between parallel plates

This occurs in an injection mould cavity of constant thickness. There is a shear strain rate g_ rz in the cylindrical axes. There
are also extensional strain rates in the rq plane, with e_z ¼ 0 and e_q ¼ e_r because the melt extends in the hoop direction
while contracting in the radial direction.

FIGURE B.1 Flows in channels used in polymer processing; (A) and (B) are shear flows in a rectangular slot and a cylindrical die, respectively; (C) and
(D) are combinations of shear and extensional flow in a spreading disc and a tapering cylinder. The non-zero velocity components are shown.

299
300 Appendix B

(d) A tapering cylindrical channel

In addition to the shear strain rate g_ rz as in (b), there is a uniaxial extension strain rate, due to the melt extending in the z
direction, with
e_q ¼ e_r ¼ 0:5e_z
Flows (c) and (d), although common in polymer processing, are not easy to instrument or analyze. Consequently we
concentrate on the simple shear flows (a) and (b). Even with these, tensile stresses can arise as a result of the melt elasticity.

B.2 SHEAR FLOW OUTPUTS FROM A SLOT OR CYLINDRICAL DIE

The analysis proceeds in three stages. Details will be given for the rectangular slot, with the cylindrical slot result given in
square brackets.

(a) Shear stress variation with position

The section of channel is assumed to be remote from any sudden changes of cross section, so that there are no elastic
entrance or exit effects. The pressure p is constant across the cross section and varies linearly along the length
dp Dp
¼  (B.1)
dz Dz
Dp is the pressure drop between the section entrance and exit. Next we consider the forces on the slab of liquid between
 y. For the steady flow, the forces are in equilibrium, so
2ybDp þ 2bDLs ¼ 0
Hence
Dp
s ¼ y
Dz
So, from Eq. (B.l)


dp r dp
s ¼ y ¼ (B.2)
dz 2 dz
This linear variation of shear stress with position is a consequence of constant pressure gradient in channel.

(b) Use the melt flow relationship to find the shear strain rate
The relationship between the shear stress and shear strain rate is referred to as the flow curve. We need to assume a form for
the flow curve before analyzing the data from a pressure flow rheometer. For drag flow rheometers, in which one surface of
the channel moves relative to the other, this assumption is not necessary. The melt is usually assumed to be power law
fluid, for which
s ¼ k g_ na (B.3)
k is a constant that decreases with increasing temperature, and n is a constant that changes with the polymer and the width
of its molecular mass distribution. If the pressure drops in the channel are less than 10 MPa, the flow is effectively
isothermal and k is a constant. At very low strain rates, n tends to 1, and the behaviour reduces to that of a Newtonian
fluid with
s ¼ hg_ (B.4)
The constant h is the shear viscosity. We introduce the value of the shear stress at the channel wall


h Dp R Dp
sW ¼  ¼  (B.5)
2 DL 2 DL
 Appendix B 301

so Eq. (B.2) becomes

s 2y
¼ 
sw h
Substituting this in Eq. (B.3) gives
 1n "  1n #
g_ 2y 2r
¼ ¼ (B.6)
g_ w h R

(c) Integrate to find the velocities and the flow rate

The shear strain rate in a simple shear flow is defined by


dVz dVz
_
gh ¼ (B.7)
dy dr
where Vz is the z component of velocity. The volume flow rate Q in the channel is given by the integral
Zh=2
Q ¼ 2b Vz dy
0

Zh=2
dV
¼  2b
h=2
2b½Vz dy0 y dy
dy
0

The first term is zero, as Vz ¼ 0 at the channel wall. Using Eq. (B.7) in the second term we have
Zh=2
Q ¼  2b _
ygdy (B.8)
0

Equation (B.6) for the variation of the strain rate can now be substituted to give
Zh=2
2bg_ w bg_ w h2
Q¼  y1þ1=n dy ¼  (B.9)
ðh=2Þ
1=n 4 þ 2=n
0

Equation (B.9) is more useful in its inverted form


ð4 þ 2=nÞQ ð3 þ 1=nÞQ
g_ w ¼  ¼  (B.10)
bh2 pr 3
Figure B.2 shows the linear variation of shear stress and the nonlinear variation of shear strain rate across a rectangular
channel, for a power law fluid with n ¼ 0.5. The variables have same sign. For a Newtonian fluid, the velocity variation
would be parabolic, but for the power law fluid, the velocity is more constant in the central region.

B.3 PRESENTATION OF MELT FLOW DATA

Melt rheometers either impose a fixed flow rate and measure the pressure drop across a die or, as in the Melt Flow Indexer,
impose a fixed pressure and measure the flow rate. Equation (B.5) gives the shear stress, but Eq. (B.10) requires knowledge
of n to calculate the shear strain rate. It is conventional to plot shear stress data against the apparent shear rate g_ wa ,
calculated using with n ¼ 1 (assuming Newtonian behaviour). If the data are used subsequently to compute the pressure
drop in a cylindrical die, there will be no error. However, if a flow curve determined with a cylindrical die is used to predict
302 Appendix B

FIGURE B.2 Variation of shear stress, shear strain rate and velocity V, for the flow in Fig. B.1 (A) with the coordinate y.

the pressure drop in a rectangular channel, there will be a slight error. The apparent shear rate at the channel wall can be
calculated from the mean velocity V in the channel using


6V 4V
g_ wa ¼  ¼  (B.11)
h r
The apparent viscosity of a melt is defined by
sw
haw h (B.12)
_gaw
The apparent shear viscosity decreases as the shear strain rate increases.