MECHANICS OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS- CHP 452

By Samuel Sarmat Chemjor

Bibliography
Chemical engineering volume 1 by J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson
Course Outline
Review of the characteristics of Newtonian fluids
Introduction to Non-Newtonian fluids
Flow properties of non-Newtonian fluids:
Pseudo-dilatant, Bingham plastics, power law, visco-elasticity and its effects.
Pipeline design for non-Newtonian fluids
Laminar flow in non-Newtonian fluids
Measurement of non-Newtonian fluids
Fully developed laminar flows
Relationship between Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids
Introduction
Matter exists in two states: (1) Solid state (2) Fluid state (gas and liquid).
Fluid mechanics is the science dealing with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion.
The study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics while that of fluids in motion is called
hydrodynamics. A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to a
shearing stress. Viscosity is a property of fluids which determines their resistance to
shearing stress. An ideal fluid has no resistance (μ=0). A solid has infinite viscosity
(μ=∞).
Newton’s law of viscosity
Newton’s law of viscosity is expressed by the equation: R=-μdur/dr =-μdux/dx or μduy/dy
where r= radius of pipe in which the fluid flows and R = the shearing stress with units
N/m2 while ur or ux=velocity a distance r or x from axis of pipe. In the expression R=-
μdur/dr, the radius r is measured from the axis of pipe to the wall of pipe. In this case,
velocity of fluid is a maximum at the axis and zero at the walls of pipe. The expression
dur/dr is called the velocity gradient or shear rate. In R =μduy/dy, the distance y is
measured from the wall of pipe and velocity increases with distance from wall of pipe
(where u=0) towards the pipe axis where velocity is maximum (u= umax). The constant μ
(constant only for Newtonian fluids) is called the coefficient of dynamic viscosity. The
coefficient of dynamic viscosity may be defined as the amount of tangential stress
required to maintain unit relative velocity between two parallel layers of fluid at unit
distance apart. Fluids which obey Newton’s equation of viscosity are known as
Newtonian fluids. The fluids which do not obey this law are non-Newtonian fluids (μ ≠
constant). Kinematic viscosity ѵ (izhitsa)) is the ratio of the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity to fluid density i.e. ѵ= μ/ρ.
Fundamentals of flow through pipes
A pipe is a closed conduit through which fluids can flow. The flow in a pipe is termed
pipeline flow only when the fluid completely fills the cross-section and there is no free
surface of fluid otherwise it is open channel flow. Pipes most commonly used in
engineering practice are of circular cross-sections. The Darcy Weisbach equation
describes the relationship between pressure losses and the pipe geometry together with
the fluid properties. –Δp (pressure loss) α kinetic energy of fluid, length of pipe l and
1/diameter d-1. –Δp = Cd (l/d) (u2/2)ρ where Cd =drag coefficient and ρ = density of
fluid. The drag coefficient is a function of Reynoulds number Re and smoothness of pipe
surface ε. Cd =f (Re, ε). ε=h/d and for smooth circular cross-sections Cd= 64/Re.
Shear stresses in Newtonian fluids
It is convenient to relate the pressure drop –Δp to the shear stresses in a fluid flowing in a
pipe for the purpose of design. In the expression: R =μduy/dy, the term duy/dy is positive
because velocity increases towards the axis of pipe. In the expression: R=-μdur/dr, the
term dur/dr is negative because velocity decreases away from the axis of pipe. Suppose a
fluid is flowing through a pipe of length l and radius r over which the change in pressure
due to friction is –Δp, then a force balance on the fluid in the pipes gives: Pressure forces
acting at ends of pipe= shear stress forces. In such a situation, the fluid flows under
steady state conditions (uniform velocity). –Δpπr2 =resultant force acting at ends of pipe,
where -Δp=p2-p1. R=force/area=F/A and therefore F (Force due to shear stress) = R*A.
The forces acting at curved surfaces of pipe are shear stress forces. The area of the curved
surface of pipe A= 2πrl and therefore shear stress force = 2πrl*Rr. For the fluid to flow at
uniform velocity (steady state conditions), –Δpπr2 =2πrlRr. Therefore Rr= -Δp(r/2l). If a
force balance is taken over the central core of fluid of radius s: -Δpπr2 =2πslRs. As a
result, Rs = -Δp(s/2l) and consequently Rs/Rr = -Δp(s/2l)/ [-Δp(r/2l)] = s/r. The
conclusion is that shear stresses vary linearly along the radius of pipe.
Velocity distributions and streamline flow for Newtonian fluids
The distribution of velocity in the stream direction over the cross-section of a fluid
flowing in a pipe is not uniform. Taking a pipe of a circular cross-section with fluid
flowing at steady state conditions, the resultant of all acting forces must be zero.
The forces acting are the normal pressure forces over the ends and the shear forces over
the curved surfaces. Force over one end AB =Pπs2 while the force over the other end CD
=[P+(dP/dl)dl]πs2 and that over the curved surface =2πsdlRs where Rs =-μdus/ds. Taking
a force balance: -Δpπs2= 2πsdlRs but –Δp =P-[P+(dP/dl)dl] =-(dP/dl)dl. Therefore -
(dP/dl)dl πs2 = 2πsdlRs. –(dP/dl)s = -2μdus/ds. This gives the equation: –(dP/dl)s +
2μdus/ds =0. The velocity at any distance from the axis of pipe can now be found by
integrating the above equation. –(dP/dl)s + 2μdus/ds =0, dus/ds=(1/2μ)(dp/dl)s, ʃdus=ʃ
(1/2μ)(dp/dl)sds, us =(1/2μ)(dp/dl)s2/2 +constant C.
Boundary conditions: (1) at the walls of pipe (s=r), the velocity us must be zero (us=ur=0).
(2) At the axis of pipe (s=0), the velocity is maximum (us=umax=uCL). When s=r, us =0
and on substituting, constant C= (1/4μ)(-dp/dl)r2 and therefore us =(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)(r2-s2) or
us=r2(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)[1-(s/r)2]. The maximum velocity (umax=uCL) occurs when s=0 and
therefore umax=uCL =(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)r2.
Volumetric rate of flow and average velocity for Newtonian fluids
If the velocity is taken as constant over an annulus of radii s and s+ds, the volumetric
flow rate dQ through the annulus is given by: dQ =2πsdsus. Since us=r2(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)[1-
(s/r)2], we can substitute the velocity with this expression in the volumetric flow rate
equation above. We then obtain: dQ =2πs(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)r2[(1-(s/r)2ds] but umax=uCL
=(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)r2. Hence ʃdQ from 0 to Q=2πuCLʃs[1-(s/r)2]ds from s=0 to s=r. This gives
Q=(π/2)r2uCL but the average velocity u is given by u=Q/(πr2) since the cross-sectional
area of a circular pipe A=πr2. Therefore u=(π/2)r2uCL/(πr2) =uCL/2 =umax/2. Since
us=r2(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)[1-(s/r)2] and umax=uCL =(1/4μ)(-dp/dl)r2. us/umax =1-(s/r)2 from which
velocity profiles can be constructed.
Introduction to non-Newtonian fluids
For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity μ is constant at a given temperature and pressure and
does not depend on the shear rate (dur/dr) and for streamline flow: μ =│Rr│/│(dur/dr)│.
Gases and lower molecular liquids are all Newtonian and viscosity is taken as constant in
any flow problem. However, many fluids encountered in everyday life do exhibit non-
Newtonian behaviour and their apparent viscosities may depend on the rate at which they
are sheared and on their previous shear history. At any point and time in the fluid, the
apparent viscosity μa is defined as the ratio of the shear stress Rr to the shear rate dur/dr
i.e. μa =│Rr│/│(dur/dr)│. When μa is a function of the shear rate, the behaviour of the
fluid is said to be shear-dependent. When μa is a function of the duration of shearing at a
particular rate, it is referred to as time-dependent. The apparent viscosity μa of a fluid
may either increase or decrease as the shear rate is raised. The common effect is for μa to
fall as the shear rate is raised. Such behaviour is referred as SHEAR THINNING e.g.
paints. When loaded onto the brush, the paint is subjected to low rates of shear and has a
high apparent viscosity. When applied to a surface, the paint is sheared by the brush and
its apparent viscosity becomes less and it flows readily to give an even film. However,
when the brushing ceases, it recovers its high apparent viscosity and does not drain from
the surface. This non-Newtonian behaviour is an important characteristic of a good paint.
Some materials have the characteristic of both solids and liquids and are called Bingham
plastic fluids e.g. toothpaste. It behaves as a solid in the tube but when squeezed, the
paste flows as a plug. The essential characteristics of such a material are that, it will not
flow until a certain critical shear stress known as the YIELD STRESS is exceeded. Thus
it behaves as a solid at low shear stress and as a fluid at high shear stresses. It is a further
example of a shear-thinning fluid with an infinite apparent viscosity at shear stress values
below the yield value and a falling finite value as the stress is progressively increased
beyond this point. A further important property exhibited by non-Newtonian fluids is
ELASTICITY which causes the fluid to try to regain its former conditions as soon as the
stress is removed. A fluid showing elastic behaviour is termed visco-elastic or elasto-
viscous.
Rheology and structure of material
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of matter or fluids, both Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids. It is concerned with the response of materials to mechanical
force. The flow characteristics are represented by a rheogram which is a plot of shear
stress (Rr) against rate of shear (dur/dr) and consists of a collection of experimentally
determined points through which a curve may be drawn. If an equation can be fitted to
the curve, it facilitates calculation of the behaviour of the fluid. Such equations are only
approximations to the actual behaviour of the fluid and should not be applied outside the
range of conditions (particularly shear rates) for which they were determined.
Most non-Newtonian fluids are either single phase or two phase systems in which large
molecules are in solution in a liquid which itself may be Newtonian. Flocculated
suspensions of fine particles are usually shear thinning. Coagulation is the addition of
chemicals to destabilize colloidal particles while flocculation is the slow mixing process
to promote the agglomeration of destabilized particles. The particles of such suspensions
are generally of the order 1μm in size and the flocculation usually in the form of loose
agglomerates including liquid may be in the range of 10- 100μm in size. Surface
chemistry plays an important role in determining the structure of the flocs and with such
relatively high floc sizes, the specific surface of the particles is very high. The rheology
of many of these suspensions can be approximated over a reasonable range of flow rates
by a power law equation with 0.1<n>0.6. There is evidence that some suspensions have a
finite yield stress and conform to Bingham-plastic model. However, frequently the
rheology can equally well be described by a power law model or Bingham-plastic form of
equation. Non-flocculated suspensions can exist at very much higher concentrations and
are often Newtonian. When such suspensions are sheared, some dilation occurs as a result
of particles trying to climb over each other. If an amount of liquid present is then
insufficient to fully fill the void spaces, particle-particle solid friction can come into play
and the resistance to shear increases. This is just one way through which shear thickening
can occur. Many monomers form shear thinning solutions in water. The molecules are
generally long and tend to straighten out in a shear field and thus offer less resistance to
flow. Such solutions are sometimes visco-elastic and this effect may be attributed to a
tendency of the molecules to recover their previous configurations once the stress is
removed.
An understanding of non-Newtonian fluids is important to the chemical engineer for two
main reasons:
(1) Frequently, non-Newtonian properties are desirable in that they can confer
desirable properties on the material which are essential if it is to fulfill the purpose
for which it is required. For example, toothpaste should not flow out of the tube
until it is squeezed and should stay in place on the brush until it is applied on the
teeth. The texture of foodstuffs is largely attributed to rheology.
(2) It is necessary to take account of non-Newtonian behaviour in the design of
process plants and pipelines. Heat and mass coefficients are considerably affected
by the behaviour of the fluid and special attention must be directed to the
selecting of appropriate mixing equipment.
Steady state shear-dependent behaviour
The shear rate dependence of apparent viscosity μa for non-Newtonian fluids is shown
below:
I –Newtonian fluid, II- shear thinning fluid, III- shear thickening fluid, IV- Bingham
plastic fluid.
The apparent viscosity is the same for all four kinds of fluids at the shear rate where they
intersect (point N). At lower shear rates, the shear thinning fluid is more viscous than the
Newtonian fluid and at higher shear rates, it is less viscous than a Newtonian fluid. The
converse applies for the shear thickening fluid. The relationship between shear stress and
shear rate for a Newtonian fluid is defined by a single parameter μ i.e. viscosity of fluid.
No single parameter model will describe non-Newtonian behaviour and models involving
two or even more parameters only approximate the characteristics of real fluids. A useful
two-parameter model is the power law model or Oswald-de-Wade law, to identify its first
proponents. The relationship between shear stress and shear rate is given by the equation:
R = K(dus/ds)n where n= power law fluid index and K = fluid consistency.
Streamline flow of non-Newtonian fluids in pipes of circular cross-section
Taking a force balance of a core of fluid of radius s, we obtain: –(dP/dl)s + 2μadus/ds =0
but μa = K(dus/ds)n-1 and hence –(dP/dl)s + 2K(dus/ds)n =0.
2K(dus/ds)n = (dP/dl)s, (dus/ds)n = [dP/dl*1/(2K)]s, dus/ds = [dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/ns1/n, dus =
[dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/ns1/nds, ʃdus = [dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nʃs1/nds,
 us = [dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nsn+1/n[n/(n+1)] + constant C.
Boundary conditions: For s=r, us = 0.
0 = n/(n+1)[dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nrn+1/n + constant C. Therefore constant C=
-n/(n+1)[dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nrn+1/n.
us = n/(n+1)[-dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nrn+1/n –n/(n+1)[-dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nsn+1/n.
us = n/(n+1)[-dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/n[rn+1/n-sn+1/n]. Velocity at centre line uCL is the velocity
when s= 0 and equals maximum velocity umax.
uCL = n/(n+1)[-dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nrn+1/n =umax. Since us = n/(n+1)[-dP/dl*1/(2K)]1/nrn+1/n[1-
(s/r)n+1/n], it means that us = uCL[1-(s/r)n+1/n].
us/uCL = [1-(s/r)n+1/n].
Mean or average velocity
From our earlier analysis, dQ =2πsdsus.
ʃdQ =2πʃsdsus=Q but us = uCL[1-(s/r)n+1/n] and on substituting Q =ʃ2π uCL[1-(s/r)n+1/n]sds
from s=0 to s=r.
ʃsds from s=0 to s=r will give s2/2│with limits 0 to r while ʃs/r d(s/r) =(s/r)2/2│with
limits 0 to 1. That means that to change the limits of integration we have to multiply the
right handside of the expression Q=ʃ2π uCL[1-(s/r)n+1/n]sds by r2 to give Q = r2ʃ2π uCL[1-
(s/r)n+1/n](s/r)d(s/r) from s/r=0 to s/r=1 because the limits of integration have been
changed.
Q = r2ʃ2π uCL[(s/r)-(s/r)2n+1/n] d(s/r) from the limits 0 to 1
Q = r22π uCL[1/2(s/r)2-n/(3n+1)(s/r)3n+1/n] │from the limits 0 to 1.
Q = r22π uCL[1/2-n/(3n+1)]
Q= 2πr2uCL[(n+1)/2(3n+1)] = πuCLr2[(n+1)/(3n+1)]. But u = average velocity = Q/A and
A = πr2 for a circular pipe.
u=Q/A = 2πr2uCL[(n+1)/2(3n+1)]/πr2= [(n+1)/(3n+1)uCL].
Since us/uCL = [1-(s/r)n+1/n] and u = [(n+1)/(3n+1)uCL],
us/u =(3n+1)/(n+1) [1-(s/r)n+1/n].
The above expression is the one often used to construct velocity profiles of a non-
Newtonian fluid flowing in a pipe of radius r.
Buckingham equation: Bingham plastic liquid model
For a Bingham plastic fluid (fluids that exhibit yield stress) : Rs - Rɣ = -μpdus/ds where Rɣ
= yield stress and Rs = shear stress at a distance s from the axis of flow. Since Rs/Rr = s/r,
it means that Rs = Rr(s/r). Substituting for Rs in the above equation, Rr(s/r) - Rɣ = -
μpdus/ds.
Rɣ-Rr(s/r)= μpdus/ds.
ʃdus = ʃ1/μp [Rɣ-Rr(s/r)]ds.
us = 1/μp [Rɣs-Rr(s2/2r)] + constant C.
Boundary conditions: For s=r, us = 0. Constant C = 1/μp [-Rɣr+Rr(r2/2r)].
Therefore us = 1/μp [Rɣs-Rr(s2/2r)] + 1/μp [Rr(r2/2r) -Rɣr].
After rearrangement, us = 1/μp[Rr/2r(r2-s2)-Rɣ(r-s)].
The above is the equation of velocity profiles which reduces to the parabolic form for a
Newtonian fluid for which Rɣ = 0. For a Bingham plastic fluid, it is conceptualized that
there are two regions of fluid flow: (a) flow in the annular region where r> s > rc and
flow in centre plug region where rc ≥ s ≥0.
Flow in the annular region
The equation, us = 1/μp[Rr/2r(r2-s2)-Rɣ(r-s)] applies in the region r > s > rc (annular
region).
The volumetric flow rate in the annular region is QA = ʃus2πsds but us = 1/μp[Rr/2r(r2-s2)-
Rɣ(r-s)]. Therefore QA = ʃus2πsds =ʃ1/μp[Rr/2r(r2-s2)-Rɣ(r-s)]2πsds from s=2l(Rɣ/-Δp) to
s=r. Earlier, it was observed that through balance of forces –Δpπs2 =2πslRs and therefore
s = 2l(Rs/-Δp) but since we are dealing with a Bingham plastic fluid Rs = Rɣ (yield
stress). Hence s = 2l(Rɣ/-Δp).
This reduces to: QA= -Δpπr4/(8μpl){1-8/3X-8X2+32x3-80/3X4} where X=(l/r)(Rɣ/-Δp).
FLOW IN CENTRE PLUG
The velocity up of the centre plug is obtained by putting s= rc= 2l(Rɣ/-Δp) in us =
1/μp[Rr/2r(r2-s2)-Rɣ(r-s]. Thus up = 1/μp{-Δpr/(2l)*1/(2r)[r2-4l2(Rɣ/-Δp)2]-Rɣ(r-2lRɣ/-
Δp). This simplifies to up = -Δpr2/(4μpl){1-4X+4X2} where X=(l/r)(Rɣ/-Δp). The
volumetric flow rate in the plug Qp is given by the equation:
Qp = upπrc2 but rc =2l(Rɣ/-Δp).
Therefore Qp = -Δpr2/(4μpl){1-4X+4X2}π (4l2)(Rɣ)2/(-Δp)2
Qp = -Δpπ r4/(8lμp) {8X2-32X3+32X4}

TOTAL FLOW THROUGH PIPE

The total flow rate Q through the pipe is given by:
Q = QA+Qp = -Δpπ r4/(8lμp) {1-8/3X+16/3X4}
Thus the mean velocity of flow, u, is given by u= -Δpr2/(8lμp) {1-8/3X+16/3X4} or
u= -Δpd2/(32lμp) {1-8/3X+16/3X4}. This equation is called the Buckingham equation.

PIPELINE DESIGN FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Scale up of pipe networks
The basic equation for fluid flow is given by the Weisbach equation: ∆p=λ(l/d) (u2/2g)
where λ=Ф(Re,ε), l=length of pipe line, d= diameter of pipe line , u=velocity of fluid,
g=gravitational acceleration and ε=ξ/d=roughness factor which is applicable in the
turbulent region only. For fluid flowing in a pipe, the above Weisbach equation takes the
following form: ∆p=4f (l/d) (u2/2g) where the f=friction factor=2(R/ρu2). Therefore ∆p=8
(R/ρu2)(l/d)(u2/2g). The well known friction chart for fluid flow in a pipe is essentially a
plot of (R/ρu2) against Re. In the laminar region, the plot is linear and (R/ρu2)=8/Re.
In the turbulent region, (R/ρu2) is a function of the roughness factor (ξ/d=ε) in addition to
Re. From the Weisbach equation, the basic equation for scale up and the prediction of
power requirements on the production scale unit is given by the ratio of liquid head lost:
∆p2/∆p1=(f2/f1)(l2/l1)(d1/d2)(u22/u21)=
{(R/ρu2)2/(R/ρu2)1}(l2/l1)(d1/d2)(u22/u21). If the fluids in both scales or systems is at the
same temperature, then with the same physical properties and in the laminar region,
(R/ρu2)2/(R/ρu2)1=(8/Re)2/(8/Re)1=
(8μ/udρ)2/ (8μ/udρ)1=u1d1/u2d2.
Under these conditions and for non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity is proportional to the
shear rate which in turn is proportional to the ratio u/d. Hence, if the viscosity is the same
in both systems, u2/u1=d2/d1 and the above equation becomes (R/ρu2)2/(R/ρu2)1=u12/u22
which on substitution in the equation ∆p2/∆p1=
{(R/ρu2)2/(R/ρu2)1}(l2/l1)(d1/d2)(u22/u21) gives ∆p2/∆p1=(l2/l1)(d1/d2) or writing N’=l/d=
the number of pipe diameters, ∆p2/∆p1=N2’/N1’. This equation applies to non-Newtonian
fluids in the laminar region only.

MEASUREMENT OF RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

An understanding of rheology and ability to measure rheological properties is necessary
before viscous behaviour can be controlled. Such a control is quite important for the
manufacture and handling of numerous fluids e.g. plastics, polymers, paints, inks,
toothpaste, slurries, pigments, syrup, mayonnaise, ketchup, tomato sauce, adhesives,
lubricating oils etc. Hooke and Newton proposed basic laws of elastic response and
viscous flow respectively. The flow properties of a fluid may be defined as the resistance
to flow e.g. viscosity. These properties may be measured by determining the rate of flow
through a capillary, the resistance of the flow when the fluid is sheared between two
surfaces or the rate of motion of a bubble or a ball moving through a fluid. Viscometers
and microscopes are the instruments used in defining and solving flow problems. The
microscope is especially important in investigating the physical structure of formulated
materials e.g. ink and paint and also the effect of the physical structure on flow
characteristics of the material. Many fluids of commercial and biological importance
occur as dispersed systems.
Viscometers
Many commercial viscometers are available with a variety of geometries for a wide range
of viscosities and shear rates. Viscometers are available in three varieties: (1) capillary
viscometers (2) falling body viscometers (3) rotating parts viscometer.
CAPILLARY VISCOMETERS
In spite of the capillary method being the oldest, its popularity is overwhelmingly large in
most industries. A liquid is drained through a fine-bore tube and the viscosity is
determined through the measured flow, applied pressure and the tube dimensions.
Basically the Hagen-Poiseuille equation is used: μ = (πr4ΔPt)/(8Vl) where μ = viscosity,
ΔP= pressure drop, V = volume of liquid flowing at a time t, l = length of the capillary
tube and r = the radius of the capillary tube. For a given viscometer with similar fluids
and a constant pressure drop, the above equation reduces to μ = kt i.e. viscosity is
determined by multiplying the efflux time by a suitable constant. Capillary viscometers
are particularly useful for measuring precise viscosities of non-Newtonian fluids. For
highly accurate work, corrections must be made for kinetic energy losses, incomplete
drainage, turbulence, possible surface tension and heat effects. The correction for loss on
effective pressure and energy loss, the Hagen-Poiseuille equation becomes ѵ = μ/ρ = Ct-
Bt. There are broadly three types of capillary viscometers: (1) glass-capillary viscometers
(2) orifice-capillary viscometer (3) piston-cylinder viscometers. Glass-capillary is widely
used for measuring the viscosity of Newtonian fluids. The orifice or efflux or cup
viscometers are commonly used to measure and control flow properties in the processing
and application of non-Newtonian products. Their design answered the need for simple,
easy to operate viscometers in areas where precision and accuracy are not particularly
important. The efflux time of a fixed volume of liquid is a sufficient indication of the
fluidity of the material. They have very short capillaries. The piston-cylinder capillary
viscometer or extrusion rheometers are used primarily to measure melt viscosity of
polymers, food and other viscous materials. A reservoir is connected to a capillary tube
and the viscous fluid is extruded through the capillary by means of a piston to which a
constant force is applied.

ROTATIONAL VISCOMETERS
These are more versatile than capillary viscometers since they can be used for a wide
range of materials of differing opacity and settling. They are important in shear thinning
and time-dependent behaviour and are used in routine evaluation and quality control
measurements. The mechanical parts are quite simple and these viscometers are often
interfaced with computers and computer software and the bulk of complexity of the
viscometer is in the software. Using the rotational viscometer, the viscosity μ is given as
μ = (shear stress term/shear rate term). The stress term may be torque, load or deflection
and the shear rate term must be in rpm (revolutions per minute). The basic parts are: 2
concentric cylinders separated by the fluid being measured, a plate and a rotor in the
cylinder. There are three basic types of rotational viscometers: (1) concentric cylinder or
co-axial viscometer (2) cone and plate viscometer (3) parallel plate viscometer.
Co-axial (concentric cylinder) viscometer
It consists of two cylinders, one within the other with the sample being tested between
them. For Newtonian, the relationship between viscosity μ, angular velocity ω and the
torque in the inner cylinder T is given by Margules equation: μ = [T/(4ωπh)(1/Ri2-1/R02)]
= kT/ω where h= length of the inner cylinder or height submerged in the fluid being
tested, Ri = radius of the inner cylinder, R0 = radius of the outer cylinder, ω = relative
angular velocity in radians per second (rads-1) and k = instrument’s constant. The
viscosity is calculated from the torque and angular velocity which are themselves
expressed as shear rate (du/dr) and shear stress given by the basic Margules equation as
follows: du/dr =ɤ = (2ω/r2)(Ri2R02)/(R02-Ri2) where r is any radius while the shear stress
R is given by R = T/(2πr2h). In most cases, the radius r used is Ri since the shear stress
and shear rate of interest are at the inner, torque-sensing cylinder and thus du/dr = du/dRi
= 2ωR02/(R02-Ri2) but μ = shear stress/shear rate = R/(du/dr) = R/(du/dRi) = T/(2πRi2h)/
[2ωR02/(R02-Ri2)] = T/(2πRi2h)(R02-Ri2)/( 2ωR02). Thus μ = T/(2πRi2h)*(R02-Ri2)/( 2ωR02).
For Newtonian fluids, the viscosity may be calculated directly using Margules equation
and for non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity is calculated from the slope of shear stress-
shear rate plot. The non-Newtonian fluids give intercepts and curves with such plots and
hence the need to include correction factors for yield points and shear-thinning. In
addition, the correction for end effects due to drag at the ends of the cylinder must also be
included. This correction appears as an addition to the length h.
Cone and plate viscometers
A low angle (≤ 30), cone rotates against a flat plate with the fluid sample between them.
This is a straight forward instrument, easy to use and extremely clean and suited for
routine work due to its rapid measurement and no tedious calculations required.
Generally, the shear rate varies with distance from the wall or centre of rotation.
However, in a cone-plate viscometer, the rate of shear across the conical gap is constant
because of linearity of viscosity and the gap between the cone and the plate both increase
with distance from the axis.

MOVING BODY VISCOMETERS

The motion of a ball, a plate or needle or a rod through a material or fluid is monitored.
Falling ball viscometers
The working principle of this instrument is based on Stoke’s law which relates the
viscosity of a Newtonian fluid to the velocity of a falling sphere. When a sphere is
allowed to fall freely through a fluid, it accelerates until the viscous force balances with
gravitational force. This is given by the equation: 2r2g(ρs-ρl)/(9Vl) where r=radius of
sphere, ρs = density of sphere, Vl = volume of liquid ρl = density of liquid. This type of
viscometers is only employed in viscous fluids.