The Arabesque(Islîmî‫ ;)٭‬Its Formation and Religious

Devotion in Early Islamic Art of Persia

Dr Mohammad Khazâie
Associated Professor of Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IRAN.
E-mail: khazaiem@modares.ac.ir

Abstract
Muslim Persian designer covered everyday and religious objects with
many different type of decoration - geometry, epigraphy, human and
animal figures and arabesque. Among them, the most universal motif is the
arabesque, a highly abstract and rhythmic ornament. It became one of the
most charming and individual devices in the repertoire of the Islamic
artisans. The fluid nature of the arabesque has made this motif particularly
suitable for decorating the whole surface of any object. It is found in a
wide variety of media: the arts of the book, ceramics, tiles; stucco,
stonework, wood, metalwork, textiles and so on. Thus it occurs on every
kind of surface, from religious Monuments such as Mosques to everyday
utility object. The arabesque ornament was popular in all periods of
Persian art, which it has lasted until the present day.
In this article some aspect of the arabesque motifs in early Islamic art of
Persia, such as origin, formation, development, and finally; its significance
and relation to the Islamic world view, would be discussed.

* Islîmî is the Persian term for the Arabesque.

1
 Introduction
The arabesque is the most common motif in Islamic art of all countries.
Muslim artists of all regions used the arabesque and provided new variants,
although these always followed the original spirit. Several misleading
definitions of the arabesque exist in which the term is applied to almost
every form of Islamic decoration.1 Properly, the arabesque is a particular
Islamic form of a conventionalised vegetal ornament composed of spiral or
stylised waves and abstract elements suggesting a leaf, in which the
abstract elements are set on either side of curving scrolls.
The examples gathered together in this article demonstrate the importance,
the variety and the richness of the arabesque as a decorative motif in its
setting of the daily life in the Muslim world. In addition the examples
make clear how and when the arabesque began to be used? And finally
why Muslim artists chose to use it?

The arabesque motif did not suddenly come into existence ready-made at
the time of the rise of Islam. There was a continuity of artistic development
from the pre-Islamic to the Islamic period. The classical origins of the
arabesque are widely known. The Austrian art historian Alois Riegl
discusses the vegetal arabesque rooted in the classical palmetto and tendril
ornament.2 Ernst Herzfeld said: "In German the word denotes the foliage
ornament of Muslim art; in a wider sense current since the Baroque period
it is applied to the ornament of that art in general. The word "Moresque",
properly referring to the art of Muslim Spain, is almost synonymous.

1 For example see: E. Herzfeld, "Arabesque", in Encyclopaedia of Islam (1), Leiden:

E.J. Brill, 1938, p. 365.
2 Alois Riegl, Problems of Style: Foundations For a History of Ornament, Princeton:

Princeton Univ. Press, 1992, p. 237.

2
 Modern usage frequently applies the word arabesque."3 He also claims that
its origin is certainly derived from the classical foliage ornament.4 Ernst
Kühnel traces the origins of the arabesque to late antiquity and notes that it
had acquired its typical shape in the 9th century under the ‘Abbâsids (749-
1258 AD), becoming more fully developed in the 11th century.5 Pope
suggests that the Persian arabesque does not represent any real object in
nature at all, but was derived from a beautiful Greek architectural
ornament, the anthemion(palmetto).6
In addition to this claim that the origin of arabesque is the classical
palmetto and tendril ornament, another source of early Islamic ornament is
Sâsânid (226-642 AD) art. One of the possible origins of the arabesque in
Persian art is the Sâsânid wing motif. Over time the wing motif developed
and was further stylised to the extent that it often lost its identity, being
transformed into the arabesque shape which we recognise today.
One of the most important elements frequently found in Sâsânid
decorative art is the paired-wings or wing-palmettos motif. These motifs
are probably the noblest among the Sâsânid forms, which survived long
after the fall of the empire. Perhaps the use of this motifs was not only
purely decorative but of some greater significance.
As mentioned above, the wing motif was a sign of the highest nobility
forms among the Sâsânid motifs, and was derived from the winged disk of
the Achaemenids (560-331 BC). While the winged sun-disk is employed at
Susa, Persepolis and so on as a symbol of Ahura Mazdâ (Fig. 1), the god of
the Zoroastrian religion. This form of Ahura Mazdâ with two great

3 E. Herzfeld, "Arabesque", in EI (1), p.560.

4 E. Herzfeld, "Arabesque", in EI (1), p. 363.
5 Ernst Kuhnel, "Arabesque" in Encyclopaedia of Islam (2), Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960,

p. 561.

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 outspread wings was changed by Sâsânid artists, and most frequently they
used only a pair of wings for decoration of objects. (Figs. 2). The
symmetrical wing motifs are also depicted on the top of the some Sâsânid
kings' crowns( see Fig. 19). During this period a number of animal figures
are designed with wing motifs. In other examples the symmetrical wings
are combined with plant motifs of several types.

Fig. 1, Symbol of Ahura Mazda, Persepolis, Achaemenid period (560-331 BC).

Fig. 2. Wing motifs, stucco plaque, Ctesiphon, Sâsânid period (224-642 AD), New York, Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
The continuation of the Sâsânid tradition of wing motifs in early Islamic
art is a fact which cannot be disputed and is exemplified in numerous
objects of the Umayyad (641-749 AD) and ‘Abbâsid (749-1258 AD) styles

6A. U. Pope, The Past and Future of Persian Art, Tehran: Madrasa Alli Khadamat
Jehangardi va Atlat Press, 1977, p. 39.

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of decoration. One of the best representations of wing motifs of the
Sâsânid type can be found in the Dome of the Rock (691-92 AD) in
Jerusalem, one of the first Islamic monuments (Fig.3).

Fig. 3. Wing motifs, Dome of the Rock (691-92), Jerusalem, Umayyad period (661-750).

Under the ‘Abbâsids(749-1258) the Islamic Capital transferred from

Damascus in Syria to the newly founded city of Baghdâd near Ctesiphon,
the imperial centre in Sâsânid times. Baghdâd became one of the most
flourishing cities in the world. At this time there are a few fine examples
that show the beginning of the arabesque. One of these examples is the
mimbar of the Qayrawân Mosque in Tunisia which, according to literary
sources, was imported with luster tiles of its mihrab from Baghdâd in the

5
 beginning of the 9th century 7 And can be assigned to the reign of Hârûn
al-Rashîd (786-808). 8

In the early 9th century the ‘Abbâsid court moved from Baghdâd to
Samarrâ. The art of Samarrâ was the first demonstration of an entirely new
taste in Islamic art that ultimately derives from the Sâsânid art of
Ctesiphon, which is not far away from Samarrâ. There was a continuity of
artistic development from the Sâsânid to the Islamic period. Excavations
conducted at Samarrâ by German archaeologists under Sarre and Herzfeld
revealed a city of great splendor.9 The walls of the palaces and private
houses were decorated with paintings and stucco panels10. Wing palmettos
were found on the Samarrâ stuccoes, where they form part of a purely
abstract decorative design(Fig. 4).

Fig.4. Stucco panels, Samarrâ, ‘Abbâsid period (749-1258), New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

7 Dimand, M S. "Studies in Islamic Ornament, I. Some Aspects of Omaiyad and Early Abbasid
Ornament," Ars Islamica, vol. IV, 1937, p. 301.
8 Mohammad, Khazâie,.Islamic Persian Art, Origin. Form and Meaning, London: Book Extra,
1999, see Figs. 2:18-20.
9 For further discussion see: C.A. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, Penguin
Books, 1958, pp. 289-90.
10 M. S. Dimand, "Studies in Islamic Ornament, II. The Origin of the Second Style of

Samarrâ Decoration," Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld, New

York: J.J. Augstin Publisher, 1952, P. 62.

6
 The history of Persian art during the first century of Islamic rule has not
yet been fully researched and recorded. Almost nothing of Persian art, with
new manners, under the Umayyad period (661-750) has come down to us.
It seems that the artists of this period followed the local traditions of
Sâsânid models, and gradually adopted and developed new methods of
decoration such as the arabesque was a gradual one.
The earliest datable examples of arabesque ornament in Iran based on
the wing motifs belong to the early Iranian dynasties, such as the Sâmânid
(819-1005), the Bûyid (932-1002 and the Seljuq (1038-1194) periods.
During these dynasties, a special attempt seems to have been made to
decorate objects with arabesques.
One of the earliest examples of wing motif is a stucco column which
was found in the excavations at the great Mosque of Isfahan, now in the
Iran Bastan Museum in Tehran. This stucco clump shows a rich decoration
of the highly stylised wing motifs in the ninth or the early centuries of
Persian art, which undoubtedly derived from Sâsânid motifs(Fig. 5).

Fig.5. Stucco column, the great Mosque of Isfahan, c.9th Century, Tehran, Iran Bastan Museum.

Nishapur in Khurasan was one of the most important centres during the
early centuries of the Islamic era in Iran. The excavations at Nishabur,
have brought to light important material for the history of Islamic

7
decoration in the ninth and tenth centuries. Several stucco panels which
were found in this area show a rich decoration of the highly stylised wing
motifs(Fig. 6). A considerable amount of pottery of this period has also
been excavated at Nishâpur. These potteries show several decorative
themes. The common element is the highly stylised wing(the true
arabesque style).

Fig.6. Carved stucco panel, excavated at Nishabur, Sâmânid period, c.10th Century, Tehran, Iran Bastan
Museum.

Among this pottery the association of the true arabesque style with other
elements is also the most popular and most developed. In fact, one of the
main applications of the arabesque is in combination with other decorative
motifs including epigraphy; geometrical interlacing; animal and figural
motifs. This association may be shown in two systems. The first one
comprises patterns which are designed in the form of arabesques with

8
strong stylisation. In fact, the motifs are transformed into the shape of
arabesques. The other feature, shows the decorative elements combine with
arabesque scheme or the arabesque draw on as background decoration.
An attractive group of this type of decoration in Nishâpur pottery is
depiction of Kufic inscriptions and arabesque in brownish or purplish
black on a white ground of pottery. This group of pottery is usually well
made and of great decorative beauty. One of the best examples of this type
is a bowl from Nishâpur, which the letters are written in a highly
decorative way with their shafts ending in symmetrical arabesque in the
shape of wing motifs(Fig. 7).

Fig.7, Interweaving Kufic inscription and Wings Motif, Bowl, Nishâpur, Sâmânid period, 10th century,
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The invention of the formation of the arabesque and the employment of

calligraphy as an iconographic ornamental device are the most significant

9
contributions of the Sâmânid period(819-1005), which formed an excellent
preparatory ground for future ornamentation. This type of decoration in
which the Kufic inscription played an important role was never again
achieved in any Islamic pottery.

The combination of arabesque motif with animal motif was one of the
most popular patterns during the early period. The most frequent features
of combination are animal motifs which are drawn in the form of
arabesques. The most common are birds. In several textiles and ceramic
objects, the bird motifs provide the principal decorative interest. The
extreme stylisation, particularly in the design of the wings, gives the bird a
stronger arabesque character (Fig.8). Here the empty spaces which appear
on the body of the bird play an important role in making a balance between
the shape of the wing and the body in terms of arabesque design.

Fig. 8, Bird motif in the form of arabesque, earthward bowl, Nishâpur, Sâmânid period,
10th century, Los Angeles, Los Angeles country Museum of Art.

Other group of combination of the arabesque motif with animal consists

of animals which combined with an arabesque scheme. One of the glased
earthenware with polychrome decoration dish of Nishâpur from 9th- 10th
century, should be regarded as a particularly successful effort. In this
polychrome dish, the ornament shows a highly decorative combination of a

10
 horse and arabesque(Fig. 9). This kind of design shows the way in which
the draughtsman incorporated his zoomorphic design into the system of
arabesque.

Fig. 9, Horse, glased earthenware dish, Nishâpur Sâmânid period, from 9th- 10th century, privet
collection.

Artistic life flourished under Bûyid rule (932-1062). In this period, the
arabesque appears in a more developed form. The wing motifs can also be
found in the stucco decoration of the Mosque of Nâyin (c. 960 AD) from
the Bûyid dynasty (932-1062). Most of the vertical letters of the Kufic
inscriptions are combined and finished with symmetrical wing motifs, and
they mark a considerable advance towards true arabesque motifs.11
Portals of the Jurjir Mosque in Isfahan, which were completed under
Bûyids about 995 AD., which discovered accidentally, is a complex
decoration of brick and stucco. The decoration of this facade introduces
some new motifs, such as the symmetrical arabesque with geometrical

11 Mohammad, Khazâie,.Islamic Persian Art, Origin. Form and Meaning, London:

Book Extra, 1999, see3 Figs. 2:30.

11
motifs at the top and bottom which are clearly derived from Sâsânid
motifs, "The Tree of Life"(Fig. 10).

Fig. 10, Stucco decoration, Portals of the Jurjir Mosque, Isfahan, Bûyid period, 10th century.

The old part of stucco relief of the Mosque of Ardistan on the centre of
Iran, is one of the most important examples of stucco relief in the tenth
century(Fig. 11). This stucco was influenced by the stucco decoration of
the Mosque of Nâyin and the portals of the Jurjir Mosque. An interesting
feature of the decoration of this stucco is introduce some new motifs, such
as arabesques in the shape of symmetrical Sâsânid wing motifs and "The
Tree of Life", which are of exceptional importance for the history of

12
Islamic ornament, particularly for the origin and development of the
arabesque.

Fig. 11, Symmetrical wing motifs, stucco decoration, the Mosque of Ardistan, centre of Iran, 10th
century.
Another example which points towards the origin of the arabesque is a
silver Bûyid medal or coin. In 962 Rukn al-Dawla (947-77 AD) issued
commemorative medals showing him wearing a crown in the Sâsânid
tradition with a symmetrical arabesque motif at the top. Here the form of
the wings is transformed into an abstract arabesque form (see Fig.12).

13
 Fig. 12, Medal or coin, silver, Bûyid (Rukn al-Dawla) 962 AD, New York, American Numismatic
Society.

During the Seljuq period (960-1186) the decorative style shows a rapid
development of arabesque design. In this period a brilliant era of Islamic
ornament began in the east of Iran, where new motifs were developed by
artists. In this period the main ornamental motif is the arabesque. Several
types of arabesque decoration from this period can be seen.
An interesting feature of the decoration of this period is the symmetrical
wing elements, which are importance for the history of Islamic ornament,
particularly for the origin and development of the arabesque. One splendid
mihrab found at Rayy, now in the National Museum in Tehran, is one of
the most important examples of stucco relief in the early eleventh century.
This mihrab introduces some new motifs, such as arabesques in the shape
of symmetrical wing motifs (Fig. 13). The symmetrical arabesque at the
top and bottom of the rectangular field are clearly derived from Sâsânid
wing motifs.

14
 Fig. 13, Symmetrical wing motifs, mihrab form Rayy, Seljuq period, early eleventh
century, Tehran, Iran Bastan Museum.

The association of arabesque - the true Islamic ornament - and monumental

inscriptions in Kufic or Naskh calligraphy became essential elements of
decoration during the Seljuq period. For example, in the stucco decoration
of the great Musque of Qazvin, dated 1113 or 1119, the artist uses

15
arabesque motifs in a wide band as the background for a Kufic inscription.
The Kufic inscription also designed in the form of arabesques with strong
stylisation. In fact, the Kufic inscription is transformed into the shape of
arabesques(Fig. 14). This sort of design played an important role in Persian
ornamentation in later periods.

Fig. 14, Kufic inscriptions, the great Musque of Qazvin, Seljuq period, dated 1113 or
1119.

The other type of arabesque decoration associated with the Seljuqs uses
arabesque motifs as a background for other decorative motifs such as Kufic
script, which can be seen in a numbers of the Seljuqs monuments and
manuscripts. The most notable illuminated manuscripts of this period, are

16
 the enormous Qur’âns known as Qarmathian Qur’âns(Fig. 15).12 These
Qur’âns show a highly decorative aspect of fine Kufic script and arabesque
scrolls and floral designs, painted in brown ink. Furthermore, the spaces
between lines and letters have been completely covered with endless
arabesque scrolls in every empty space.

Fig. 15, , Illuminated page of Qur’ân, Qarmathian Qur’ân, Seljuq period (1038-1194).
12 Some writers on Islamic art, for instance Safadi in his book Islamic Calligraphy,

note that the name of this script has never been satisfactorily explained. The origin of
the Qarmati is pointed out by Nizâm al-Mulk, the great vizier of the Seljuqs, in the
Siyâsat nâma.

17
 The most interesting aspects of the Seljuq decorative arts is that they
show scenes of figures with arabesque motifs in a great number of luster-
painted and fritware bowls with luster(minâî) ware. The figures are heavily
outlined and are reserved in a dense background of arabesque scrolls. The
costumes of the figures are also designs of either arabesque scrolls or
geometry. One of the finest of Seljuq luster ware pieces from Kashan, is a
bowl with a representation of five figures against a background of bold
arabesques, rendered in the highly decorative style characteristic of Seljuq
art (Fig. 16). This type of design is often close to the style of paintings in
the manuscript of the Waraqa wa Gulshâh from the early 13th century.

Fig. 16, Luster dish, Kashan, Diameter: 47.5 cm. Seljuq period (1038-1194), Oxford,
Ashmolean Museum.

The famous manuscript, Warqa wa Gulshâh, is the only surviving

illustrated Persian manuscript of the early 13th century, and is held in the
Topqapi Sarayi Museum library, Istanbul. This manuscript was probably

18
 copied in Qunya about 1225.13 In this manuscript, the arabesque motifs
were applied as the main element for decoration of background of the
paintings, and the surface of objects, particularly the tents (Fig.17). This
book painting is a particularly fine example of the highly decorative style
developed of the arabesque motifs by the painter.

Fig. 17, Book illustration, manuscript of Warqa wa Gulshâh, , probably copied in

Qunya about 1225, Istanbul, Topqapi Sarayi Museum library.

All of these examples show different stages of stylisation of wing

motifs derived from the Sâsânid prototype, which may well have prepared
the ground for the arabesque. These elements of decoration continued to
develop in later periods, and seem to have turn into the extremely stylised
form of the arabesque motif, which was generally approved and became an
important branch of decoration in Persian art. The Hellenistic influence
may have been strong in the western parts, but in the central and eastern
parts of the Islamic world the Sâsânid influence was much more powerful,
and is therefore more likely to have been the direct source of Persian
arabesque forms.14

13 B. Brend, Islamic Art, London: British Museum Press, 1991, p. 85.

14 It was Orientalists who saw the arabesque as major feathure in Syria, Egypt, North

Africa, and Spain during the 19th century. They have not paid attention to eastern,

19
 It is interesting to note that although the form of the arabesque motif
during later periods continued to develop, and the original form (the wing
motif) became completely stylised and lost its original identity and details.
The original form of symmetrical wing motifs in some decorations of later
times particularly during Ill-Khanid dynasty (1256-1353) and the Safavid
period, can still be traced. One of the finest instances is an Ill-Khanids
stucco panel in the Shrine of Pir Bakran(1303), in the Linjan near Isfahan.
The decoration of this carved plaster panel is depicted in the form of
symmetrical wings motif, which topped by a Kufic square inscription (Fig.
18).

Fig. 18, Wings Motif, stucco, the Shrine of Pir Bakran in the Linjan, near Isfahan, Ill-Khanid
Period(1256-1353).

The style of arabesque decoration which evolved in the twelfth century

continued gradually to develop. The arabesque became the basis for a new

non - Hellenistic influences, particularly the role of Sâsânid art in the development of
the arabesque motif in Iran, Iraq and Central Asia.

20
chapter in the history of decorative art of Persia, which has lasted until the
present day.
The arabesque when taken over by Islamic artists was not only used
abstractly, but the arabesque played an important role in creating an
Islamic character. The figural and animal motifs are almost always
combined with arabesque motifs. In fact, it might be suggested that one of
the element which strongly distinguishes Islamic figural motifs from pre-
Islamic art is the presence of the arabesque.

The Arabesque and Religious Devotion

There are several factors which explain why the arabesque motif in a
whole repertory of Islamic decorative motifs became important. One of the
most striking factors is the religious aspects associated with the arabesque,
which were used most frequently in mosque decoration or in Qur’ânic
illumination.
The connection between art and religious methods was well established
during the Islamic period. In Persia itself Islamic art adopted many
religious motifs of the pre-Islamic period, but they were completely
transformed by the spirit of Islam, which gave them a new life within its
own universe of meaning.
As we have seen, one of the possible sources of the arabesque in
Persian art is the Sâsânid wing motif. The wing motifs are probably the
noblest forms among the Sâsânid motifs, and were derived from the
winged disk of the Achaemenids. Perhaps the use of this motif may have
had some religious significance in Achaemenid Iran. For example the
winged sun-disk employed at Susa or Persepolis as a symbol of Ahura
Mazdâ (see Fig. 1). This symbol regularly hovers over the figures of the
kings, indicating the divine protection the kings and they insist so much in

21
 their inscriptions.15 The form of Ahura Mazdâ, the symbol of divinity with
two great outspread wings, was changed by Sâsânid artists. Most
frequently they used only a pair of wings as a symbol of the Zoroastrian
religion (see Fig. 2). These symmetrical wing motifs are depicted at the top
of Sâsânid kings' crowns(Fig. 19). According to Porada,16 this emblem was
symbol of the god, intended to show the close relation between god and
king.

Fig. 19, Silver- gilt plate, with Khusraw II (590-628) hunting, Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale.
The continuation of the Sâsânid tradition of wing motifs in Islamic art is
a fact which cannot be disputed and is indicated by numerous objects of
the Umayyad and ‘Abbâsid styles of decoration such as the representation

15 Ernst E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, London: Oxford University Press, 1941,
p. 255.
16 E. Porada Ancient Iran, The art of Pre-Islamic Times, London: Holle Verlag

Gmbh, 1965, p. 201.

22
of wing motifs in the first Islamic monuments, the Dome of the Rock (691-
92) in Jerusalem (see Fig. 3).
As mention above, in Iran, this artistic continuation and development
from the pre-Islamic to the Islamic periods could well have resulted from
the original religious aspects of the wing motifs, which were used most
frequently as an emblem of divinity. In the above examples, the early
Muslim artists employed Sâsânid wing motifs on religious objects and
buildings or the earliest Qur’ân. During the Islamic era the wing motif was
further stylised, to the extent that it often lost its identity, being
transformed into the arabesque shape which we recognise today.

However, it is apparent that the arabesque motifs are an affirmation of

religious and philosophical meaning through traditional and pictorial
symbols, this aspect of Islamic decorative art clearly requires more
research and enquiry and much work still remains to be done. This article
is a vital first step; the examples given alongside evidence provide
important means for understanding the religious symbolism of the
arabesque motifs to be found in Persian art. Further comparison of motifs
and religious meanings to identify their symbolism will enrich our
understanding even more.

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