What is Islamic art?

The Dome of the Rock, the Taj Mahal, a Mina’i ware bowl, a silk carpet, a Qur‘an—all
of these are examples of Islamic art. But what is Islamic art?

Islamic art is a modern concept created by art historians in the 19th century to facilitate
categorization and study of the material first produced under the Islamic peoples that
emerged from Arabia in the seventh century.

Today, the term Islamic art describes all of the arts that were produced in the lands
where Islam was the dominant religion or the religion of those who ruled. Unlike the
terms Christian art, Jewish art, and Buddhist art—which refer only to religious art of
these faiths—the term Islamic art is not used merely to describe religious art or
architecture but applies to all art forms produced in the Islamic world.

Thus, the term Islamic art refers not only to works created by Muslim artists, artisans,
and architects or for Muslim patrons. It encompasses works created by Muslim artists
for patrons of any faith, including—Christians, Jews, or Hindus—and the works created
by Jews, Christians, and others, living in Islamic lands, for patrons, Muslim and
otherwise.

One of the most famous monuments of Islamic art is the Taj Mahal, a royal mausoleum,
located in Agra, India. Hinduism is the majority religion in India; however, because
Muslim rulers, most famously the Mughals, dominated large areas of modern-day India
for centuries, India has a vast range of Islamic art and architecture. The Great Mosque
of Xian, China is one of the oldest and best preserved mosques in China. First
constructed in 742 CE, the mosque’s current form dates to the 15th century CE and
follows the plan and architecture of a contemporary Buddhist temple. In fact, much
Islamic art and architecture was—and still is—created through a synthesis of local
traditions and more global ideas.
 View of the Great Mosque of Xi'an (photo: chensiyuan)
View of the Great Mosque of Xi'an. Image credit: chensiyuan

Islamic art is not a monolithic style or movement; it spans 1,300 years of history and
has incredible geographic diversity—Islamic empires and dynasties controlled territory
from Spain to western China at various points in history. However, few if any of these
various countries or Muslim empires would have referred to their art as Islamic. An
artisan in Damascus thought of his work as Syrian or Damascene—not as Islamic.

As a result of thinking about the problems of calling such art Islamic, certain scholars
and major museums, like the Metropolitan Museum of Art, have decided to omit the
term Islamic when they renamed their new galleries of Islamic art. Instead, they are
called “Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later
South Asia,” thereby stressing the regional styles and individual cultures. Thus, when
using the phrase, Islamic art, one should know that it is a useful, but artificial, concept.

In some ways, Islamic art is a bit like referring to the Italian Renaissance. During the
Renaissance, there was no unified Italy; it was a land of independent city-states. No one
would have thought of themselves as an Italian, or of the art they produced as
Italian. Rather, a person would have self-identified as a Roman, a Florentine, or a
Venetian. Each city developed a highly local, remarkable style. At the same time, there
are certain underlying themes or similarities that unify the art and architecture of these
cities and allow scholars to speak of an Italian Renaissance.

Themes
Similarly, there are themes and types of objects that link the arts of the Islamic world
together. Calligraphy is a very important art form in the Islamic world. The Qur’an,
written in elegant scripts, represents Allah’s—or God’s—divine word, which
Muhammad received directly from Allah during his visions. Quranic verses, executed
in calligraphy, are found on many different forms of art and architecture. Likewise,
poetry can be found on everything from ceramic bowls to the walls of houses.
Calligraphy’s omnipresence underscores the value that is placed on language,
specifically Arabic.

Geometric and vegetative motifs are very popular throughout the lands where Islam was
once or still is a major religion and cultural force, appearing in the private palaces of
buildings such as the Alhambra, in Spain, as well as in the detailed metal work of
Safavid Iran. Likewise, certain building types appear throughout the Islamic world:
mosques with their minarets, mausolea, gardens, and madrasas—religious schools—are
all common. However, their forms vary greatly.

View of the minarets of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul (photo: Graham Bould)
View of the minarets of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul. Image credit: Graham Bould

One of the most common misconceptions about the art of the Islamic world is that it is
aniconic; that is, the art does not contain representations of humans or animals. Early
examples of religious art and architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa
Mosque—both in Jerusalem)—and the Great Mosque of Damascus—built under the
Umayyad rulers—did not include human figures and animals. However, the private
residences of sovereigns, such as Qasr ‘Amra and Khirbat Mafjar, were filled with vast
figurative paintings, mosaics, and sculpture.

Minarets of Al-Azhar Mosque, Cairo, Egypt (photo: Ahmed Al.Badawy

Minarets of Al-Azhar Mosque, Cairo, Egypt. Image credit: Ahmed Al.Badawy

The study of the arts of the Islamic world has also lagged behind other fields in art
history. There are several reasons for this. First, many scholars are not familiar with
Arabic or Farsi—the dominant language in Iran. Calligraphy, particularly Arabic
calligraphy, as noted above, is a major art form and appears on almost all types of
architecture and arts. Second, the art forms and objects prized in the Islamic world do
not correspond to those traditionally valued by art historians and collectors in the
Western world. The so-called decorative arts—carpets, ceramics, metalwork, and
books—are types of art that Western scholars have traditionally valued less than
painting and sculpture. However, the last fifty years has seen a flourishing of
scholarship on the arts of the Islamic world.

Arts of the Islamic world

In this article, we use the phrase “Arts of the Islamic World” to emphasize that the art
discussed was created in a world where Islam was a dominant religion or a major
cultural force but was not necessarily religious art. Often, when the word Islamic is
used today, it is used to describe something religious; thus using the phrase Islamic
art could be mistakenly interpreted to mean that all of this art is religious in nature. The
phrase Arts of the Islamic World also acknowledges that not all of the work produced in
the Islamic world was for Muslims or created by Muslims.

Note on organization from the contributing editor

We have organized the material in this section into three chronological periods: Early,
Medieval and Late. When starting to learn about a new area of art, chronological
organization often enables students to grasp the material and its fundamentals before
going on to more complex analysis, like comparing building types or styles. Within
each of these chronological groups, we have focused on creating geographic groups or
groupings to organize the material further. The Islamic world was only unified very
briefly in its history under the Umayyads, 661-750 CE, and the early Abbasids, 750-932
CE. Soon thereafter, various dynasties or rulers simultaneously commanded sections of
territory, many of which had no cultural commonalities, aside from their religion.

We are also planning to upload a series of introductory essays on major types of art and
architecture from the Islamic world, including carpets and mosques, in addition to
essays and videos about specific works of art and architecture.
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish are complex languages whose transcription from their
respective scripts to English has changed considerably over time. For the sake of ease,
we have used the most common forms today, omitting the vocalizations. While we have
aimed for consistency, we have also tried to use the simplest forms for those who are
new to the arts of the Islamic world.

Mimar Sinan, courtyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque, İstanbul, 1558

Mimar Sinan, courtyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque, İstanbul, 1558

From Indonesia to the United Kingdom, the mosque in its many forms is the
quintessential Islamic building. The mosque, masjid in Arabic, is the Muslim gathering
place for prayer. Masjid simply means “place of prostration.” Though most of the five
daily prayers prescribed in Islam can take place anywhere, all men are required to
gather together at the mosque for the Friday noon prayer.

Mosques are also used throughout the week for prayer, study, or simply as a place for
rest and reflection. The main mosque of a city, used for the Friday communal prayer, is
called a jami masjid, literally meaning “Friday mosque,” but it is also sometimes called
a congregational mosque in English. The style, layout, and decoration of a mosque can
tell us a lot about Islam in general, but also about the period and region in which the
mosque was constructed.

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia

The home of the Prophet Muhammad is considered the first mosque. His house, in
Medina in modern-day Saudi Arabia, was a typical 7th-century Arabian style house,
with a large courtyard surrounded by long rooms supported by columns. This style of
mosque came to be known as a hypostyle mosque, meaning “many columns.” Most
mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for centuries.
Common features
The architecture of a mosque is shaped most strongly by the regional traditions of the
time and place where it was built. As a result, style, layout, and decoration can vary
greatly. Nevertheless, because of the common function of the mosque as a place of
congregational prayer, certain architectural features appear in mosques all over the
world.

Sahn (courtyard)
The most fundamental necessity of congregational mosque architecture is that it be able
to hold the entire male population of a city or town (women are welcome to attend
Friday prayers, but not required to do so). To that end congregational mosques must
have a large prayer hall. In many mosques this is adjoined to an open courtyard, called
a sahn. Within the courtyard one often finds a fountain, its waters both a welcome
respite in hot lands, and important for the ablutions (ritual cleansing) done before
prayer.
 Mihrab & minbar, Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 1356-63 (photo: Dave Berkowitz,
CC BY 2.0)
Mihrab & minbar, Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 1356-63 (photo: Dave Berkowitz, CC BY 2.0)

Mihrab (niche)

Mihrab, Great Mosque of Cordoba, c. 786 (photo: Bongo Vongo, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Mihrab, Great Mosque of Cordoba, c. 786 (photo: Bongo Vongo, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Another essential element of a mosque’s architecture is a mihrab—a niche in the wall
that indicates the direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. Mecca is the city
in which the Prophet Muhammad was born, and the home of the most important Islamic
site, the Kaaba. The direction of Mecca is called the qibla, and so the wall in which
the mihrab is set is called the qibla wall. No matter where a mosque is, its mihrab
indicates the direction of Mecca (or as near that direction as science and geography
were able to place it). Therefore, a mihrab in India will be to the west, while a one in
Egypt will be to the east. A mihrab is usually a relatively shallow niche, as in the
example from Egypt, above. In the example from Spain, shown left, the mihrab’s niche
takes the form of a small room, this is more rare.

Minaret (tower)
One of the most visible aspects of mosque architecture is the minaret, a tower adjacent
or attached to a mosque, from which the call to prayer is announced.
 Mimar Sinan, Minaret, Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul, 1558
Mimar Sinan, Minaret, Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul, 1558

Minarets take many different forms—from the famous spiral minaret of Samarra, to the
tall, pencil minarets of Ottoman Turkey. Not solely functional in nature, the minaret
serves as a powerful visual reminder of the presence of Islam.

Qubba (dome)
Most mosques also feature one or more domes, called qubba in Arabic. While not a
ritual requirement like the mihrab, a dome does possess significance within the
mosque—as a symbolic representation of the vault of heaven. The interior decoration of
a dome often emphasizes this symbolism, using intricate geometric, stellate, or vegetal
motifs to create breathtaking patterns meant to awe and inspire. Some mosque types
incorporate multiple domes into their architecture (as in the Ottoman Süleymaniye
Mosque pictured at the top of the page), while others only feature one. In mosques with
only a single dome, it is invariably found surmounting the qibla wall, the holiest section
of the mosque. The Great Mosque of Kairouan, in Tunisia (not pictured) has three
domes: one atop the minaret, one above the entrance to the prayer hall, and one above
the qibla wall.

Because it is the directional focus of prayer, the qibla wall, with its mihrab and minbar,
is often the most ornately decorated area of a mosque. The rich decoration of
the qibla wall is apparent in this image of the mihrab and minbar of the Mosque of
Sultan Hasan in Cairo, Egypt (see image higher on the page).

Furnishings
 Mosque lamp, 14th century, Egypt or Syria, blown glass, enamel, gilding, 31.8 x 23.2
cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Mosque lamp, 14th century, Egypt or Syria, blown glass, enamel, gilding, 31.8 x 23.2 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

There are other decorative elements common to most mosques. For instance, a large
calligraphic frieze or a cartouche with a prominent inscription often appears above
the mihrab. In most cases the calligraphic inscriptions are quotations from the Qur’an,
and often include the date of the building's dedication and the name of the patron.
Another important feature of mosque decoration are hanging lamps, also visible in the
photograph of the Sultan Hasan mosque. Light is an essential feature for mosques, since
the first and last daily prayers occur before the sun rises and after the sun sets. Before
electricity, mosques were illuminated with oil lamps. Hundreds of such lamps hung
inside a mosque would create a glittering spectacle, with soft light emanating from
each, highlighting the calligraphy and other decorations on the lamps’ surfaces.
Although not a permanent part of a mosque building, lamps, along with other
furnishings like carpets, formed a significant—though ephemeral—aspect of mosque
architecture.

Mosque patronage

Mihrab, 1354–55, just after the Ilkhanid period, Madrasa Imami, Isfahan, Iran,
polychrome glazed tiles, 343.1 x 288.7 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Mihrab, 1354–55, just after the Ilkhanid period, Madrasa Imami, Isfahan, Iran, polychrome glazed tiles, 343.1 x 288.7 cm
(Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Most historical mosques are not stand-alone buildings. Many incorporated charitable
institutions like soup kitchens, hospitals, and schools. Some mosque patrons also chose
to include their own mausoleum as part of their mosque complex. The endowment of
charitable institutions is an important aspect of Islamic culture, due in part to the third
pillar of Islam, which calls for Muslims to donate a portion of their income to the poor.

The commissioning of a mosque would be seen as a pious act on the part of a ruler or
other wealthy patron, and the names of patrons are usually included in the calligraphic
decoration of mosques. Such inscriptions also often praise the piety and generosity of
the patron. For instance, the mihrab now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, bears the
inscription:

And he [the Prophet], blessings and peace be upon him, said: “Whoever builds a
mosque for God, even the size of a sand-grouse nest, based on piety, [God will build for
him a palace in Paradise].”

The patronage of mosques was not only a charitable act therefore, but also, like
architectural patronage in all cultures, an opportunity for self-promotion. The social
services attached the mosques of the Ottoman sultans are some of the most extensive of
their type. In Ottoman Turkey the complex surrounding a mosque is called a kulliye.
The kulliye of the Mosque of Sultan Suleyman, in Istanbul, is a fine example of this
phenomenon, comprising a soup kitchen, a hospital, several schools, public baths, and
a caravanserai (similar to a hostel for travelers). The complex also includes two
mausoleums for Sultan Suleyman and his family members.
 Süleymaniye Kulliyesi (view of kitchens and caravanserai), Istanbul
Süleymaniye Kulliyesi (view of kitchens and caravanserai), Istanbul

Since the 7th century, mosques have been built around the globe. While there are many
different types of mosque architecture, three basic forms can be defined.

I. The hypostyle mosque

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia

It makes sense that the first place of worship for muslims, the house of the Prophet
Muhammad, inspired the earliest type of mosque - the hypostyle mosque. This type
spread widely throughout Islamic lands.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, is an archetypal example of the hypostyle

mosque. The mosque was built in the ninth century by Ziyadat Allah, the third ruler of
the Aghlabid dynasty, an offshoot of the Abbasid Empire. It is a large, rectangular stone
mosque with a hypostyle (supported by columns) hall and a large inner sahn
(courtyard). The three-tiered minaret is in a style known as the Syrian bell-tower, and
may have originally been based on the form of ancient Roman lighthouses. The interior
of the mosque features the forest of columns that has come to define the hypostyle type.

Sahn and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, c. 836-75 (photo: Andrew
Watson, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Sahn and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, c. 836-75 (photo: Andrew Watson, CC BY-SA 2.0)

The mosque was built on a former Byzantine site, and the architects repurposed older
materials, such as the columns—a decision that was both practical and a powerful
assertion of the Islamic conquest of Byzantine lands. Many early mosques like this one
made use of older architectural materials (called spolia), in a similarly symbolic way.
 Ancient capitals (spolia), Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Jaume Ollé, CC
BY 2.5)
Ancient capitals (spolia), Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia
(photo: Jaume Ollé, CC BY 2.5)

On right hand side of mosque’s mihrab is the maqsura, a special area reserved for the
ruler found in some, but not all, mosques. This mosque’s maqsura is the earliest extant
example, and its minbar (pulpit) is the earliest dated minbar known to scholars. Both are
carved from teak wood that was imported from Southeast Asia. This prized wood was
shipped from Thailand to Baghdad where it was carved, then carried on camel back
from Iraq to Tunisia, in a remarkable display of medieval global commerce.
 Maqsura, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Prof. Richard Mortel, CC BY-
NC-SA 2.0)
Maqsura, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Prof. Richard Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The hypostyle plan was used widely in Islamic lands prior to the introduction of the
four-iwan plan in the twelfth century (see next section). The hypostyle plan’s
characteristic forest of columns was used in different mosques to great effect. One of
the most famous examples is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, which uses bi-color, two-
tier arches that emphasize the almost dizzying optical effect of the hypostyle hall.

Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, 8th-10th centuries (photo: Timor
Espallargas, CC BY-SA 2.5)
Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, 8th-10th centuries
(photo: Timor Espallargas, CC BY-SA 2.5)

II. The four-iwan mosque

Just as the hypostyle hall defined much of mosque architecture of the early Islamic
period; the 11th century shows the emergence of new form: the four-iwan mosque. An
iwan is a vaulted space that opens on one side to a courtyard. The iwan developed in
pre-Islamic Iran where it was used in monumental and imperial architecture. Strongly
associated with Persian architecture, the iwan continued to be used in monumental
architecture in the Islamic era.

Iwan, Ctesiphon, Iraq, c. 560 (photo: Edwin Newman Album AL4-B, page 3, San Diego
Air and Space Museum Archive
Iwan, Ctesiphon, Iraq, c. 560 (photo: Edwin Newman Album AL4-B, page 3, San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Plan of the Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, showing iwans opening onto the sahn (court)
Plan of the Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, showing iwans opening onto the sahn (court)

In 11th century Iran, hypostyle mosques started to be converted into four-iwan

mosques, which, as the name indicates, incorporate four iwans in their architectural
plan.

The Great Mosque of Isfahan reflects this broader development. The mosque began its
life as a hypostyle mosque, but was modified by the Seljuqs of Iran after their conquest
of the city of Isfahan in the 11th century.

Like a hypostyle mosque, the layout is arranged around a large open courtyard.
However, in the four-iwan mosque, each wall of the courtyard is punctuated with a
monumental vaulted hall, the iwan. This mosque type, which became widespread in the
12th century, has maintained its popularity to the present.
 View of three (of four) Iwans, Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, 11th - 17th centuries,
looking toward the south (qibla) iwan (photo: reibai, CC BY 2.0)
View of three (of four) Iwans, Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, 11th - 17th centuries, looking toward the south (qibla) iwan
(photo: reibai, CC BY 2.0)

In this type of mosque the qibla iwan, which faces Mecca, is often the largest and most
ornately decorated, as at Isfahan’s Great Mosque. Here, the mosque’s two minarets also
flank the lavish qibla iwan. The Safavid rulers refurbished these walls with new tiles in
the 16th century.

Iwan, Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran (photo: reibai, CC BY 2.0)

Iwan, Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran (photo: reibai, CC BY 2.0)
Though it originated in Iran, the four-iwan plan would become the new plan for
mosques all over the Islamic word, used widely from India to Cairo and replacing the
hypostyle mosque in many places.

III. The centrally-planned mosque

While the four-iwan plan was used for mosques across the Islamic world, the Ottoman
Empire was one of the few places in the central Islamic lands where the four-iwan
mosque plan did not dominate. The Ottoman Empire was founded in 1299. However, it
did not become a major force until the 15th century, when Mehmed II conquered
Constantinople, the capital of the late Roman (Byzantine) Empire since the 4th century.
Renamed Istanbul, the city straddles the European and Asian continents, and, having
been a Christian capital for over a thousand years, had a wholly different cultural and
architectural heritage than Iran. The Ottoman architects were strongly influenced by
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, the greatest of all Byzantine churches and one that features a
monumental central dome high over its large nave.

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, 537, Istanbul

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, 537, Istanbul
Many Ottoman mosques in the late 15th and early 16th centuries referenced Hagia
Sophia’s dome; however, it was not until the masterful work of Mimar Sinan, the
greatest Ottoman, if not Islamic, architect, that the domes of Ottoman mosques
competed with and arguably surpassed that of Hagia Sophia. Sinan experimented with
the central plan in a series of mosques in Istanbul, achieving what he considered his
masterpiece in the Mosque of Selim II, in Edirne, Turkey. Built for Selim II, son of
Suleyman during the golden age of the Ottoman Empire, it is considered the greatest
masterpiece of Ottoman architecture. It represents a culmination of years of
experimentation with the centrally-planned Ottoman mosque.

Mimar Sinan, Dome interior, Selimiye II Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, 1568-74 (photo:
CharlesFred/Charles Roffey, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Mimar Sinan, Dome interior, Selimiye II Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, 1568-74 (photo: CharlesFred/Charles Roffey, CC BY-
NC-SA 2.0)

Sinan himself boasted that his dome was higher and wider than that of the Hagia
Sophia, highlighting the sense of competition with the earlier Byzantine building. In the
Selim Mosque, Sinan distilled previous ideas about the central plan into a simple and
perfect design. The interior octagonal space was made more spacious by 8 massive
piers that pushed back into the walls, and a rhythmic harmony was created through
apertures of small and large arches framed by joggled voussoirs, filling the large space
with light and color.

Mosque architecture around the world

Minaret, Bahasa Indonesia: Masjid Menara Kudus Jawa Tengah, Indonesia, 1549
(photo: PL09Puryono, CC0 1.0)
Minaret, Bahasa Indonesia: Masjid Menara Kudus Jawa Tengah, Indonesia, 1549
(photo: PL09Puryono, CC0 1.0)

The three mosque types described above are the most common, and most historically
significant, in the Islamic world. Despite their common features, such as mihrabs and
minarets, one can see that diverse regional styles account for dramatic differences in the
colors, materials, and the overall decoration of mosques. The bright blue and white tiled
mihrabs of fourteenth-century Iran are a world apart from the muted colors and stone
inlay of an Egyptian mihrab of the same century.
Even more regional differences appear when one looks beyond the central Islamic lands
to the architecture of Muslims living in places like China, Africa, and Indonesia, where
local materials and regional traditions, sometimes with little influence from the
architectural heritage of the central Islamic lands, influenced mosque architecture.

The minaret at Kudus, Indonesia, for instance, reflects the influence of Hindu
architecture. The Djingarey Berre Mosque of Timbuktu, in Mali, similarly responds to
the pre-Islamic traditions of its own region, utilizing a unique West African style and
using earth as the primary building material.

Djingarey Berre Mosque, Timbuktu, Mali, 1327 (photo: MINUSMA/Marco Dormino,

CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Djingarey Berre Mosque, Timbuktu, Mali, 1327 (photo: MINUSMA/Marco Dormino, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

An early mosque in Xian, China, uses a very clearly Chinese style of architecture
(below, left), but also incorporates more typical Islamic elements, like squinches and a
distinctly Islamic-style arched mihrab (below, right).
 Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392 (photo: chensiyuan, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392 (photo: chensiyuan, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Contemporary mosque architecture

Mihrab, Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392 (photo: Syed Husain Quadri, CC BY-NC-
SA 2.0)
Mihrab, Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392 (photo: Syed Husain Quadri, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Contemporary mosque architecture often represents a remarkable blending of styles,

drawing from diverse architectural traditions to create something recognizably
“Islamic,” that fulfills all the architectural requirements of a communal mosque and is
contemporary in style. In Pakistan, the King Faisal Mosque, 1986 blends contemporary
architecture with visual references to traditional forms. The building is strikingly
modern, yet plays with the form of the tent structures of Bedouin nomads. This large
mosque also incorporates Ottoman-influenced pencil-thin minarets into its modern
design.

Vedat Dalokay, Shah Faisal Masjid, Islamabad, 1986 (photo: Fraz.khalid1, CC0 1.0)
Shah Faisal Masjid, Islamabad, 1986 (photo: Fraz.khalid1, CC0 1.0)

Studying the Art of the Islamic world is challenging, partially because of the large
geographic and chronological scope of Islam. Islam has been a major religion and
cultural force for over fourteen centuries and continues to be so today. At present the
Arts of the Islamic World Section is organized into three chronological periods: Early,
Medieval and Late. These chronological divisions are modern creations that help
scholars to organize information and works of art to interpret them better. It also helps
students to understand how works of art and architecture relate to each other in time and
space. There were dynasties and empires that controlled different lands and whose
periods of rule stretched across these chronological divisions.

The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof,
decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-
2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo:
Orientalist, CC BY 3.0)
The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile,
mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem
(photo: Orientalist, CC BY 3.0)

Early Period (c. 640-900 C.E.)

After Muhammad’s death in 634, there were four caliphs later referred to by the Sunni
as "rightfully guided," who succeeded Muhammad. However, from 656 there were
conflicts over succession, and two civil wars (656-661 and 680-692) broke out within
the community of Muslims. Out of these wars emerged the Umayyad Dynasty, whose
capital was Damascus in modern-day Syria. Responsible for the first great monuments
of Islamic art and architecture, Umayyad rulers built the Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem, the Great Mosque of Damascus, and the so-called Desert Palaces in Syro-
Palestine . The Umayyads ruled as caliphs until 750 C.E., when they were overthrown
by the Abbasids. The Abbasids, like the Umayyads before them, ruled as caliphs over
much of the Islamic world until 861. Their capital was at Baghdad, and later they ruled
from the palace-city of Samarra in Iraq for parts of the ninth century. After 861, the
Abbasids lost control of large parts of their empire through a series of uprisings in
which provincial governors asserted their independence. A series of local dynasties,
such as the Aghlabids (800-909) and Tulunids (868-905) in North Africa, and the
Buyids (945-1055) in Central Asia, emerged and ruled, developing regional artistic
styles.

Medieval Period (c. 900-1517 C.E.)

Court of the Lions, The Alhambra, Sabika hill, Granada, Spain begun 1238 (Photo: Jim
Gordon)
Court of the Lions, The Alhambra, Sabika hill, Granada, Spain, begun 1238 (Photo: Jim Gordon)

By the tenth century, there was fragmentation and individual dynasties sprang up. These
dynasties had varying degrees of control over different parts of the lands where Islam
was the dominant or a major religion.
In North Africa and the Near East, certain major dynasties, such as the Fatimids (909-
1171), emerged and ruled an area that includes present-day Egypt, Sicily, Algeria,
Tunisia, and parts of Syria. It is also at this time that some of the major Turkic
dynasties and people from Central Asia came to the forefront of politics and artistic
creativity in the Islamic world. The Seljuqs were Central Asian nomads who ruled
eastern Islamic lands and eventually controlled Iran, Iraq and much of Anatolia,
although this empire was short-lived. The main branch of the Seljuqs, the Great Seljuqs,
maintained control over Iran.

It was also the time of the European Christian crusades, which aimed to retake the Holy
Land from the Muslims. A series of small Christian Kingdoms emerged in the twelfth
century, as did Muslim dynasties, such as the Ayyubids (1179-1260), whose most
famous leader, Salah al-Din (r.1169-93), known in Europe as Saladin, ended the
Fatimid dynasty. Eventually the slave soldiers, upon whom the Ayyubid dynasty
depended for their military protection, overthrew the last Ayyubid sultan in 1249/50.
These slaves, known in Arabic as mamluk, literally meaning “owned,” became known
as the Mamluks and they controlled Syria and Egypt until 1517.

The Mamluks also had to face one of the greatest threats to their reign early on: The
invading Mongols. The Mongols and their great leader, Genghis Khan (c. 1162-1227),
are almost always associated with blood-thirsty conquest and destruction, but his legacy
included the Yuan dynasty in China (1279-1368), the Chaghatay khanate in Central
Asia (c. 1227–1363), the Golden Horde in southern Russia, extending into Europe (ca.
1227–1502), and the Ilkhanid dynasty in Greater Iran (1256–1353). The Pax Mongolica
("Mongolian Peace") includes a great flowering of the arts.

The Ilkhanids, who ruled over Iran, parts of Iraq and Central Asia, oversaw great
artistic development in manuscripts, such as those that recounted the Shahnama (or
Book of Kings), the famous Persian epic. They were important patrons of
architecture. The Ilkhanid dynasty disintegrated in 1335 and local dynasties came to
power in Iraq and Iran.
In 1370, the last great dynasty emerged from Central Asia: the Timurids (c. 1370-1507).
They were named for their leader, Timur (also known as Tamerlane), who conquered
and controlled all of Central Asia, greater Iran, and Iraq, as well as parts of southern
Russia and the Indian subcontinent. The Timurids were outstanding builders of
monumental architecture. Herat, in present-day Afghanistan, became the capital and
cultural center of the Timurid empire.

While artistic production and architecture flourished in Asia under different Islamic
dynasties, it also bloomed in the western Islamic lands. The most famous of these
dynasties is probably the Nasrids (1232-1492) of the southern Iberian Peninsula and
western North Africa, whose most important artistic achievement is the remarkable
Alhambra, a palace-fortress complex in Granada, in present-day Spain.

Taj Mahal, Agra, India (photo: David Castor)

Taj Mahal, Agra, India (photo: David Castor)

Later Period (c. 1517 –1924 C.E.)

This period is the era of the last great Islamic Empires. The Ottoman Empire, which had
started as a small Turkic state in Anatolia in the early fourteenth century, emerged in
the second half of the fifteenth century as a major military and political force. The
Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 and the Mamluk Empire in 1517. They
dominated much of Anatolia, the Balkans, the Near East and North Africa until the
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. The Ottomans are famous for
their domed architecture and pencil minarets, many of which were built by the great
architect, Sinan (1539-88) for Sultan Süleyman (r. 1520–66). This period is considered
the peak of Ottoman art and culture.

The Safavids, who established Shia Islam as the dominant faith of Iran, ruled from
1501–1722 and were the greatest dynasty to emerge from Iran. Architecture, paintings,
manuscripts and carpets all flourished under the Safavids. Shah ‘Abbas (r. 1587–1629)
was the greatest patron of the arts and the Safavid Dynasty’s most outstanding ruler. In
the eighteenth century, a period of turmoil in Persia, the Qajar dynasty (1779–1924)
rose to power and established peace and their rule saw the beginning of modernity in
Iran.

The other great dynasty that oversaw a remarkable artistic and architectural output was
the Mughals. Founded by Babur, the Mughals (c. 1526–1858) ruled over the largest
Islamic state in the Indian subcontinent. While there had been earlier sultanates in what
is today northern Indian and Pakistan, the emperors of the Mughal dynasty were patrons
of some of the greatest works of Islamic art, such as illuminated manuscripts and
painting, and architecture, including the Taj Mahal.

The Caliphates
The umbrella term "Islamic art" casts a pretty big shadow, covering several continents
and more than a dozen centuries. So to make sense of it, we first have to first break it
down into parts. One way is by medium—say, ceramics or architecture—but this
method of categorization would entail looking at works that span three continents.
Geography is another means of organization, but modern political boundaries rarely
match the borders of past Islamic states.

A common solution is to consider instead, the historical caliphates (the states ruled by
those who claimed legitimate Islamic rule) or dynasties. Though these distinctions are
helpful, it is important to bear in mind that these are not discrete groups that produced
one particular style of artwork. Artists throughout the centuries have been affected by
the exchange of goods and ideas and have been influenced by one another.
Umayyad (661-750)
Four leaders, known as the Rightly Guided Caliphs, continued the spread of Islam
immediately following the death of the Prophet. It was following the death of the fourth
caliph that Mu’awiya seized power and established the Umayyad caliphate, the first
Islamic dynasty. During this period, Damascus became the capital and the empire
expanded West and East.

The first years following the death of Muhammad were, of course, formative for the
religion and its artwork. The immediate needs of the religion included places to worship
(mosques) and holy books (Korans) to convey the word of God. So, naturally, many of
the first artistic projects included ornamented mosques where the faithful could gather
and Korans with beautiful calligraphy.
Dome of the Rock, 687, Jerusalem. Photo: author

Because Islam was still a very new religion, it had no artistic vocabulary of its own, and
its earliest work was heavily influenced by older styles in the region. Chief among these
sources were the Coptic tradition of present-day Egypt and Syria, with its scrolling
vines and geometric motifs, Sassanian metalwork and crafts from what is now Iraq with
their rhythmic, sometimes abstracted qualities, and naturalistic Byzantine mosaics
depicting animals and plants.
These elements can be seen in the earliest significant work from the Umayyad period,
the most important of which is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. This stunning
monument incorporates Coptic, Sassanian, and Byzantine elements in its decorative
program and remains a masterpiece of Islamic architecture to this day.

Base of the dome, Dome of the Rock, 687, Jerusalem

Remarkably, just one generation after the religion’s inception, Islamic civilization had
produced a magnificent, if singular, monument. While the Dome of the Rock is
considered an influential work, it bears little resemblance to the multitude of mosques
created throughout the rest of the caliphate. It is important to point out that the Dome of
the Rock is not a mosque. A more common plan, based on the house of the Prophet,
was used for the vast majority of mosques throughout the Arab peninsula and the
Maghreb. Perhaps the most remarkable of these is the Great Mosque of Córdoba (784-
786) in Spain, which, like the Dome of the Rock, demonstrates an integration of the
styles of the existing culture in which it was created.

Abbasid (750-1258)

The Abbasid revolution in the mid-eighth century ended the Umayyad dynasty, resulted
in the massacre of the Umayyad caliphs (a single caliph escaped to Spain, prolonging
Umayyad work after dynasty) and established the Abbasid dynasty in 750. The new
caliphate shifted its attention eastward and established cultural and commercial capitals
at Baghdad and Samarra.

The Umayyad dynasty produced little of what we would consider decorative arts (like
pottery, glass, metalwork), but under the Abbasid dynasty production of decorative
stone, wood and ceramic objects flourished. Artisans in Samarra developed a new
method for carving surfaces that allowed for curved, vegetal forms (called arabesques)
which became widely adopted. There were also developments in ceramic decoration.
The use of luster painting (which gives ceramic ware a metallic sheen) became popular
in surrounding regions and was extensively used on tile for centuries. Overall, the
Abbasid epoch was an important transitional period that disseminated styles and
techniques to distant Islamic lands.

Bowl, 9th century, Susa, Iran, Earthenware, metal lustre overglaze decoration, opaque glaze

The Abbasid empire weakened with the establishment and growing power of semi-
autonomous dynasties throughout the region, until Baghdad was finally overthrown in
1258. This dissolution signified not only the end of a dynasty, but marked the last time
that the Arab-Muslim empire would be united as one entity.
 The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof,
decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-
2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo:
Orientalist, CC BY 3.0)
The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile,
mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem
(photo: Orientalist, CC BY 3.0)

The Dome of the Rock is a building of extraordinary beauty, solidity, elegance, and
singularity of shape… Both outside and inside, the decoration is so magnificent and the
workmanship so surpassing as to defy description. The greater part is covered with gold
so that the eyes of one who gazes on its beauties are dazzled by its brilliance, now
glowing like a mass of light, now flashing like lightning.
—Ibn Battuta (14th century travel writer)

A glorious mystery
One of the most iconic images of the Middle East is undoubtedly the Dome of the Rock
shimmering in the setting sun of Jerusalem. Sitting atop the Haram al-Sharif, the
highest point in old Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock’s golden-color Dome and Turkish
Faience tiles dominates the cityscape of Old Jerusalem and in the 7th century served as
a testament to the power of the new faith of Islam. The Dome of the Rock is one of the
earliest surviving buildings from the Islamic world. This remarkable building is not a
mosque, as is commonly assumed and scholars still debate its original function and
meaning.
 Interior of the Dome of the Rock (photo: Robert Smythe Hitchens, public domain)
Interior of the Dome of the Rock (photo: Robert Smythe Hitchens, public domain)

Between the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632 and 691/2, when the Dome of the
Rock was completed, there was intermittent warfare in Arabia and Holy Land around
Jerusalem. The first Arab armies who emerged from the Arabian peninsula were
focused on conquering and establishing an empire—not building.

Thus, the Dome of the Rock was one of the first Islamic buildings ever constructed. It
was built between 685 and 691/2 by Abd al-Malik, probably the most important
Umayyad caliph, as a religious focal point for his supporters, while he was fighting a
civil war against Ibn Zubayr. When Abd al-Malik began construction on the Dome of
the Rock, he did not have control of the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in Islam, which is
located in Mecca.

The Dome is located on the Haram al-Sharif, an enormous open-air platform that now
houses Al-Aqsa mosque, madrasas and several other religious buildings. Few places are
as holy for Christians, Jews and Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif. It is the Temple
Mount, the site of the Jewish second temple, which the Roman Emperor Titus destroyed
in 70 C.E. while subduing the Jewish revolt; a Roman temple was later built on the site.
The Temple Mount was abandoned in Late Antiquity.

The Rock in the Dome of the Rock

At the center of the Dome of the Rock sits a large rock, which is believed to be the
location where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Ismail (Isaac in the
Judeo/Christian tradition). Today, Muslims believe that the Rock commemorates the
night journey of Muhammad. One night the Angel Gabriel came to Muhammad while
he slept near the Kaaba in Mecca and took him to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest
mosque) in Jerusalem. From the Rock, Muhammad journeyed to heaven, where he met
other prophets, such as Moses and Christ, witnessed paradise and hell and finally saw
God enthroned and circumambulated by angels.
 K.A.C. Creswell, Sectional axonometric view through dome, ©Creswell Archive,
Ashmolean Museum, Image courtesy of Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library
K.A.C. Creswell, Sectional axonometric view through dome, ©Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, Image courtesy of
Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library

The Rock is enclosed by two ambulatories (in this case the aisles that circle the rock)
and an octagonal exterior wall. The central colonnade (row of columns) was composed
of four piers and twelve columns supporting a rounded drum that transitions into the
two-layered dome more than 20 meters in diameter.

The colonnades are clad in marble on their lower registers, and their upper registers are
adorned with exceptional mosaics. The ethereal interior atmosphere is a result of light
that pours in from grilled windows located in the drum and exterior walls. Golden
mosaics depicting jewels shimmer in this glittering light. Byzantine and Sassanian
crowns in the midst of vegetal motifs are also visible.

The Byzantine Empire stood to the North and to the West of the new Islamic Empire
until 1453, when its capital, Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Turks. To the East, the
old Sasanian Empire of Persia imploded under pressure from the Arabs, but
nevertheless provided winged crown motifs that can be found in the Dome of the Rock.

Mosaics
Wall and ceiling mosaics became very popular in Late Antiquity and adorn many
Byzantine churches, including San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in
Constantinople. Thus, the use of mosaics reflects an artistic tie to the world of Late
Antiquity. Late Antiquity is a period from about 300-800, when the Classical world
dissolves and the Medieval period emerges.
 Mosaic detail from the Dome of the Rock (public domain)
Mosaic detail from the Dome of the Rock (public domain)

The mosaics in the Dome of the Rock contain no human figures or animals. While
Islam does not prohibit the use of figurative art per se, it seems that in religious
buildings, this proscription was upheld. Instead, we see vegetative scrolls and motifs, as
well as vessels and winged crowns, which were worn by Sasanian kings. Thus, the
iconography of the Dome of the Rock also includes the other major pre-Islamic
civilization of the region, the Sasanian Empire, which the Arab armies had defeated.

A reference to Burial Places

The building enclosing the Rock also seems to take its form from the imperial mausolea
(the burial places) of Roman emperors, such as Augustus or Hadrian. Its circular form
and Dome also reference the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The circular Church of the
Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem was built to enclose the tomb of Christ. The Church of the
Holy Sepulcher and the Dome of the Rock have domes that are almost identical in size;
this suggests that the elevated position of the Dome of the Rock and the comparable
size of its dome was a way that Muslims in the late 8th century proclaimed the
superiority of their newly formed faith over Christians.

The Inscription
The Dome of the Rock also contains an inscription, 240 meters long, that includes some
of the earliest surviving examples of verses from the Qur‘an – in an architectural
context or otherwise. The bismillah (in the name of God, the merciful and
compassionate), the phrase that starts each verse of the Qu’ran, and the shahada, the
Islamic confession of faith, which states that there is only one God and Muhammad is
his prophet, are also included in the inscription. The inscription also refers to Mary and
Christ and proclaim that Christ was not divine but a prophet. Thus the inscription also
proclaims some of the core values of the newly formed religion of Islam.

Below the Rock is a small chamber, whose purpose is not fully understood even to this
day. For those who are fortunate enough to be able to enter the Dome of the Rock, the
experience is moving, regardless of one’s faith.
 Great Mosque of Cordoba from the Air, photo: Ulamm, (CC BY-SA 3.0))
Great Mosque of Cordoba from the Air, photo: Ulamm, (CC BY-SA 3.0)

Known locally as Mezquita-Catedral, the Great Mosque of Cordoba is one of the oldest
structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled Al-Andalus (Muslim Iberia
including most of Spain, Portugal, and a small section of Southern France) in the late
8th century. Cordoba is a two hour train ride south of Madrid, and draws visitors from
all over the world.

Temple/Church/Mosque/Church
The buildings on this site are as complex as the extraordinarily rich history they
illustrate. Historians believe that there had first been a temple to the Roman god, Janus,
on this site. The temple was converted into a church by invading Visigoths who seized
Cordoba in 572. Next, the church was converted into a mosque and then completely
rebuilt by the descendants of the exiled Umayyads—the first Islamic dynasty who had
originally ruled from their capital Damascus (in present-day Syria) from 661 until 750.
A New Capital
Following the overthrow of his family (the Umayyads) in Damascus by the incoming
Abbasids, Prince Abd al-Rahman I escaped to southern Spain. Once there, he
established control over almost all of the Iberian Peninsula and attempted to recreate the
grandeur of Damascus in his new capital, Cordoba. He sponsored elaborate building
programs, promoted agriculture, and even imported fruit trees and other plants from his
former home. Orange trees still stand in the courtyard of the Mosque of Cordoba, a
beautiful, if bittersweet reminder of the Umayyad exile.

Hypostyle Hall, Great Mosque at Cordoba, Spain, begun 786 and enlarged during the
9th and 10th centuries
Hypostyle Hall, Great Mosque at Cordoba, Spain, begun 786 and enlarged during the 9th and 10th centuries

The Hypostyle Hall

The building itself was expanded over two hundred years. It is comprised of a large
hypostyle prayer hall (hypostyle means, filled with columns), a courtyard with a
fountain in the middle, an orange grove, a covered walkway circling the courtyard, and
a minaret (a tower used to call the faithful to prayer) that is now encased in a squared,
tapered bell tower. The expansive prayer hall seems magnified by its repeated
geometry. It is built with recycled ancient Roman columns from which sprout a striking
combination of two-tiered, symmetrical arches, formed of stone and red brick.

Mihrab, Great Mosque at Cordoba, photo: jamesdale10 (CC BY 2.0)

Mihrab, Great Mosque at Cordoba, photo: jamesdale10 (CC BY 2.0)

The Mihrab
The focal point in the prayer hall is the famous horseshoe arched mihrab or prayer
niche. A mihrab is used in a mosque to identify the wall that faces Mecca—the birth
place of Islam in what is now Saudi Arabia. This is practical as Muslims face toward
Mecca during their daily prayers. The mihrab in the Great Mosque of Cordoba is
framed by an exquisitely decorated arch behind which is an unusually large space, the
size of a small room. Gold tesserae (small pieces of glass with gold and color backing)
create a dazzling combination of dark blues, reddish browns, yellows and golds that
form intricate calligraphic bands and vegetal motifs that adorn the arch.

The Horseshoe Arch

The horseshoe-style arch was common in the architecture of the Visigoths, the people
that ruled this area after the Roman empire collapsed and before the Umayyads arrived.
The horseshoe arch eventually spread across North Africa from Morocco to Egypt and
is an easily identified characteristic of Western Islamic architecture (though there are
some early examples in the East as well).

The Dome
 Mihrab dome, Great Mosque at Cordoba, photo: bongo vongo (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Mihrab dome, Great Mosque at Cordoba, photo: bongo vongo (CC BY-SA 2.0)

Above the mihrab, is an equally dazzling dome. It is built of crisscrossing ribs that
create pointed arches all lavishly covered with gold mosaic in a radial pattern. This
astonishing building technique anticipates later Gothic rib vaulting, though on a more
modest scale.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a prime example of the Muslim world's ability to
brilliantly develop architectural styles based on pre-existing regional traditions. Here is
an extraordinary combination of the familiar and the innovative, a formal stylistic
vocabulary that can be recognized as “Islamic” even today.
 Courtyard, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Andrew Watson, CC BY-SA
2.0) Sahn and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, c. 836-75 (photo: Andrew Watson,
CC BY-SA 2.0)
Sahn (courtyard) and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia c. 836-75 (photo: Andrew Watson, CC BY-SA 2.0)

A new city
Seventh-century North Africa was not the easiest place to establish a new city. It
required battling Byzantines; convincing Berbers, the indigenous people of North
Africa, to accept centralized Muslim rule; and persuading Middle Eastern merchants to
move to North Africa. So, in 670 CE, conquering general Sidi Okba constructed a
Friday Mosque (masjid-i jami` orjami`) in what was becoming Kairouan in modern day
Tunisia. A Friday Mosque is used for communal prayers on the Muslim holy day,
Friday. The mosque was a critical addition, communicating that Kairouan would
become a cosmopolitan metropolis under strong Muslim control, an important
distinction at this time and place.
Three-dimensional representation of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia. From left
to right: zoom on the south wall (seen from the outside), global view of the mosque,
zoom on the minaret seen from the court by Tachymètre
Rendering of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia. From left to right: zoom on the south wall (seen from the outside),
global view of the mosque, zoom on the minaret seen from the court (graphic: Tachymètre)

Known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan, it is an early example of a hypostyle mosque

that also reflects how pre-Islamic and eastern Islamic art and motifs were incorporated
into the religious architecture of Islamic North Africa. The aesthetics signified the Great
Mosque and Kairouan, and, thus, its patrons, were just as important as the religious
structures, cities, and rulers of other empires in this region, and that Kairouan was part
of the burgeoning Islamic empire.

The Aghlabids
During the eighth century, Sidi Okba’s mosque was rebuilt at least twice as Kairouan
prospered. However, the mosque we see today is essentially ninth century. The
Aghlabids (800-909 C.E.) were the semi-independent rulers of much of North Africa. In
836, Prince Ziyadat Allah I tore down most of the earlier mudbrick structure and rebuilt
it in more permanent stone, brick, and wood. The prayer hall or sanctuary is supported
by rows of columns and there is an open courtyard, that are characteristic of a hypostyle
plan.
 Great Mosque of Kairouan prayer hall facade (photo: Damian Entwistle, CC BY-SA
2.0)
Great Mosque of Kairouan prayer hall facade (photo: Damian Entwistle, CC BY-SA 2.0)

In the late ninth century, another Aghlabid ruler embellished the courtyard entrance to
the prayer space and added a dome over the central arches and portal. The dome
emphasizes the placement of the mihrab, or prayer niche (below), which is on the same
central axis and also under a cupola to signify its importance.
 Dome interior, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Prof. Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Mihrab (left) and minbar (right), Interior view of the dome, Great Mosque of Kairouan

The dome is an architectural element borrowed from Roman and Byzantine

architecture. The small windows in the drum of the dome above the mihrab space let
natural light into what was an otherwise dim interior. Rays fall around the most
significant area of the mosque, the mihrab. The drum rests on squinches, small arches
decorated with shell over rosette designs similar to examples in Roman, Byzantine, and
Umayyad Islamic art. The stone dome is constructed of twenty four ribs that each have
a small corbel at their base, so the dome looks like a cut cantaloupe, according to the
architectural historian K. A. C. Creswell.
 Interior view of the dome above the mihrab, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Prof.
Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Interior view of the dome above the mihrab, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Prof. Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Exterior view of the mihrab dome in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo:
Chuck Moravec, CC BY 2.0)
Exterior view of the mihrab dome in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Chuck Moravec, CC BY 2.0)
Other architectural elements link the Great Mosque of Kairouan with earlier and
contemporary Islamic religious structures and pre-Islamic buildings. They also show
the joint religious and secular importance of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Like other
hypostyle mosques, such as the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, the mosque of Kairouan
is roughly rectangular. Wider aisles leading to the mihrab and along the qibla wall give
it a T-plan. The sanctuary roof and courtyard porticos are supported by repurposed
Roman and Byzantine columns and capitals.

View of lustre tiles that surround the mihrab (photo: Richard Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA
2.0)
View of lustre tiles that surround the mihrab (photo: Richard Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The lower portion of the mihrab is decorated with openwork marble panels in floral and
geometric vine designs. Though the excessively decorated mihrab is unique, the panels
are from the Syrian area. Around the mihrab are lustre tiles from Iraq. They also feature
stylized floral patterns like Byzantine and eastern Islamic examples.
 Prayer Hall, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Citizen59, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Prayer Hall, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Citizen59, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Since it was used for Friday prayer, the mosque has a ninth-century minbar, a narrow
wooden pulpit where the weekly sermon was delivered. It is said to be the oldest
surviving wooden minbar. Like Christian pulpits, the minbar made the prayer leader
more visible and audible. Because a ruler’s legitimacy could rest upon the mention of
his name during the sermon, the minbar served both religious and secular purposes. The
minbar is made from teak imported from Asia, an expensive material exemplifying
Kairouan’s commercial reach. The side of the minbar closest to the mihrab is composed
of elaborately carved latticework with vegetal, floral, and geometric designs evocative
of those used in Byzantine and Umayyad architecture.
 Minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Tab59, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Tab59, CC BY-SA 2.0)

The minaret dates from the early ninth century, or at least its lower portion does.
Perhaps inspired by Roman lighthouses, the massive square Kairouan minaret is about
thirty two meters tall, over one hundred feet, making it one of the highest structures
around. So in addition to functioning as a place to call for prayer, the minaret identifies
the mosque’s presence and location in the city while helping to define the city’s
religious identity. As it was placed just off the mihrab axis, it also affirmed the mihrab’s
importance.

The mosque continued to be modified after the Aghlabids, showing that it remained
religiously and socially significant even as Kairouan fell into decline. A Zirid, al-
Mu‘izz ibn Badis (ruled 1016-62 CE), commissioned a wooden maqsura, an enclosed
space within a mosque that was reserved for the ruler and his associates. The maqsura is
assembled from cutwork wooden screens topped with bands of carved abstracted
vegetal motifs set into geometric frames, kufic-style script inscriptions, and merlons,
which look like the crenellations a top a fortress wall. Maqsuras are said to indicate
political instability in a society. They remove a ruler from the rest of the worshippers.
So, the enclosure, along with its inscription, protected the lives and affirmed the status
of persons allowed inside.

Maqsura, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Professor Richard Mortel, CC

BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Maqsura, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (photo: Professor Richard Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

In the thirteenth century, the Hafsids gave the mosque a more fortified look when they
added buttresses to support falling exterior walls, a practice continued in later centuries.
In 1294, Caliph al-Mustansir restored the courtyard and added monumental portals,
such as Bab al-Ma on the east and the domed Bab Lalla Rejana on the west. Additional
gates were constructed in later centuries. Carved stone panels inside the mosque and on
the exterior acted like billboards advertising which patron was responsible for
construction and restoration.

An intellectual center
The Great Mosque was literally and figuratively at the center of Kairouan activity,
growth, and prestige. Though the mosque is now near the northwest city ramparts
established in the eleventh century, when Sidi Okba founded Kairouan, it was probably
closer to the center of town, near what was the governor’s residence and the main
thoroughfare, a symbolically prominent and physical visible part of the city. By the
mid-tenth century, Kairouan became a thriving settlement with marketplaces,
agriculture imported from surrounding towns, cisterns supplying water, and textile and
ceramic manufacturing areas. It was a political capital, a pilgrimage city, and
intellectual center, particularly for the Maliki school of Sunni Islam and the sciences.
The Great Mosque had fifteen thoroughfares leading from it into a city that may have
had a circular layout like Baghdad, the capital of the Islamic empire during Kairouan’s
heyday. As a Friday Mosque, it was one of if not the largest buildings in town.

Exterior of the Quibla Wall, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Gavinother, CC BY

2.0)
Exterior of the Qibla Wall, Great Mosque of Kairouan (photo: Gavinother, CC BY 2.0)

The Great Mosque of Kairouan was a public structure, set along roads that served a city
with a vibrant commercial, educational, and religious life. As such, it assumed the
important function of representing a cosmopolitan and urbane Kairouan, one of the first
cities organized under Muslim rule in North Africa. Even today, the Great Mosque of
Kairouan reflects the time and place in which it was built.

For many, the Muslim world in the medieval period (900-1300) means the crusades.
While this era was marked, in part, by military struggle, it is also overwhelmingly a
period of peaceable exchanges of goods and ideas between West and East. Both the
Christian and Islamic civilizations underwent great transformations and internal
struggles during these years. In the Islamic world, dynasties fractured and began to
develop distinctive styles of art. For the first time, disparate Islamic states existed at the
same time. And although the Abbasid caliphate did not fully dissolve until 1258, other
dynasties began to form, even before its end.

Fatimid (909-1171)

The Fatimid Caliphate at its peak, c. 969

In the tenth century, the Fatimid dynasty emerged and posed a threat to the rule of the
Abbasids. The Fatimid rulers, part of the Shi’ia faction, took their name from Fatima,
Muhammad’s daughter, from whom they claimed to be descended. The Sunnis, on the
other hand, had previously pledged their alliance to Mu’awiya, the founder of the
Umayyad dynasty. At the height of their power, the Fatimids claimed lands from
present-day Algeria to Syria. They conquered Egypt in 969 and founded the city of
Cairo as their capital.

The Fatimid rulers expanded the power of the caliph and emphasized the importance of
palace architecture. Mosques too were commissioned by royalty and every aspect of
their decoration was of the highest caliber, from expertly-carved wooden minbars
(where the spiritual leader guides prayers inside the mosque) to handcrafted metal
lamps.

The wealth of the Fatimid court led to a general bourgeoning of the craft trade even
outside of the religious context. Centers near Cairo became well known for ceramics,
glass, metal, wood, and especially for lucrative textile production. The style of
ornament developed as well, and artisans began to experiment with different forms of
abstracted vegetal ornament and human figures.

This period is often called the Islamic renaissance, for its booming trade in decorative
objects as well as the high quality of its artwork.

Saljuq (1040-1157/1081-1307)

The Saljuq Empire in 1092

The Saljuq rulers were of Central Asian Turkic origin. Once they assumed power after
1040, the Seljuqs introduced Islam to places it had not been heretofore. The Seljuqs of
Rum (referring to Rome) ruled much of Anatolia, what is now Turkey (between 1040
and 1157), while the Seljuqs of present-day Iran controlled the rest of the empire (from
1081 to 1307).

The Saljuqs of Iran were great supporters of education and the arts and they founded a
number of important madrasas (schools) during their brief reign. The congregational
mosques they erected began using a four-iwan plan: these incorporate four immense
doorways (iwans) in the center of each wall of a courtyard.

Mihrab (prayer niche), c. 1270, Konya, Turkey, now in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin (photo: author)

The art of the Anatolian Saljuqs looks quite different, perhaps explaining why it is often
labeled as a distinct sultanate. The inhabitants of this newly conquered land in Anatolia
included members of various religions (largely Buddhists and Shamen), other heritages,
and the Byzantine and Armenian Christian traditions. Saljuq projects often drew from
these existing indigenous traditions—just as had been the case with the earliest Islamic
buildings. Building materials included stone, brick, and wood, and there existed a
widespread representation of animals and figures (some human) that had all but
disappeared from architecture elsewhere in Islamic-ruled lands. The craftsmen here
made great strides in the area of woodcarving, combining the elaborate scrolling and
geometric forms typical of the Arabic aesthetic with wood, a medium indigenous to
Turkey (and rarer in the desert climate of the Middle East).

Mamluk (1250-1517)
The name ‘Mamluk’, like many names, was given by later historians. The word itself
means ‘owned’ in Arabic. It refers to the Turkic slaves who served as soldiers for the
Ayyubid sultanate before revolting and rising to power. The Mamluks ruled over key
lands in the Middle East, including Mecca and Medina. Their capital at Cairo became
the artistic and economic center of the Islamic world at this time.

Mosque lamp, Syria, 13th-14th century, (Brooklyn Museum)

The period saw a great production of art and architecture, particularly those
commissioned by the reigning sultans. Patronizing the arts and creating monumental
structures was a way for leaders to display their wealth and make their power visible
within the landscape of the city. The Mamluks constructed countless mosques,
madrasas and mausolea that were lavishly furnished and decorated. Mamluk decorative
objects, particularly glasswork, became renowned throughout the Mediterranean. The
empire benefitted from the trade of these goods economically and culturally, as
Mamluk craftsmen began to incorporate elements gleaned from contact with other
groups. The growing prevalence of trade with China and exposure to Chinese goods, for
instance, led to the Mamluk production of blue and white ceramics, an imitation of
porcelain typical of the Far East.

The Mamluk sultanate was generally prosperous, in part supported by pilgrims to

Mecca and Medina as well as a flourishing textile market, but in 1517 the Mamluk
sultanate was overtaken and absorbed into the growing Ottoman empire.

Courtyard, The Great Mosque or Masjid-e Jameh of Isfahan

Courtyard, The Great Mosque or Masjid-e Jameh of Isfahan, photo: reibai (CC BY 2.0)
Most cities with sizable Muslim populations possess a primary congregational mosque.
Diverse in design and dimensions, they can illustrate the style of the period or
geographic region, the choices of the patron, and the expertise of the architect.
Congregational mosques are often expanded in conjunction with the growth and needs
of the umma, or Muslim community; however, it is uncommon for such expansion and
modification to continue over a span of a thousand years. The Great Mosque of Isfahan
in Iran is unique in this regard and thus enjoys a special place in the history of Islamic
architecture. Its present configuration is the sum of building and decorating activities
carried out from the 8th through the 20th centuries. It is an architectural documentary,
visually embodying the political exigencies and aesthetic tastes of the great Islamic
empires of Persia.

Street view of the Grand Bazaar of Isfahan with the Great Mosque dome in the distance.
Photo: Saif Alnuweiri (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Street view of the Grand Bazaar of Isfahan with the Great Mosque dome in the distance, photo: Saif Alnuweiri (CC BY-NC-
ND 2.0)
Another distinctive aspect of the mosque is its urban integration. Positioned at the
center of the old city, the mosque shares walls with other buildings abutting its
perimeter. Due to its immense size and its numerous entrances (all except one
inaccessible now), it formed a pedestrian hub, connecting the arterial network of paths
crisscrossing the city. Far from being an insular sacred monument, the mosque
facilitated public mobility and commercial activity thus transcending its principal
function as a place for prayer alone.

The mosque’s core structure dates primarily from the 11th century when the Seljuk
Turks established Isfahan as their capital. Additions and alterations were made during
Il-Khanid, Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar rule. An earlier mosque with a single inner
courtyard already existed on the current location. Under the reign of Malik Shah I
(ruled 1072-1092) and his immediate successors, the mosque grew to its current four-
iwan design. Indeed, the Great Mosque of Isfahan is considered the prototype for future
four-iwan mosques (an iwan is a vaulted space that opens on one side to a courtyard).
Plan of the mosque from Monuments modernes de la Perse mesurés, dessinés et décrits,
éd. Morel, 1867
Plan of the mosque from Monuments modernes de la Perse mesurés, dessinés et décrits, éd. Morel, 1867

Linking the four iwans at the center is a large courtyard open to the air, which provides
a tranquil space from the hustle and bustle of the city. Brick piers and columns support
the roofing system and allow prayer halls to extend away from this central courtyard on
each side. Aerial photographs of the building provide an interesting view; the mosque’s
roof has the appearance of “bubble wrap” formed through the panoply of unusual but
charming domes crowning its hypostyle interior.

Mosque, Isfahan, imagery ©2014 DigitalGlobe. Map data ©2014 Google

Great Mosque, Isfahan, imagery ©2014 DigitalGlobe. Map data ©2014 Google

This simplicity of the earth-colored exterior belies the complexity of its internal decor.
Dome soffits (undersides) are crafted in varied geometric designs and often include an
oculus, a circular opening to the sky. Vaults, sometimes ribbed, offer lighting and
ventilation to an otherwise dark space. Creative arrangement of bricks, intricate motifs
in stucco, and sumptuous tile-work (later additions) harmonize the interior while
simultaneously delighting the viewer at every turn. In this manner, movement within
the mosque becomes a journey of discovery and a stroll across time.

View of the South Iwan from the Prayer Hall, Photo: Alan Cordova (CC BY-NC-ND
2.0)
View of the south iwan from the prayer hall, photo: Alan Cordova (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Given its sprawling expanse, one can imagine how difficult it would be to locate the
correct direction for prayer. The qibla iwan on the southern side of the courtyard solves
this conundrum. It is the only one flanked by two cylindrical minarets and also serves as
the entrance to one of two large, domed chambers within the mosque. Similar to its
three counterparts, this iwan sports colorful tile decoration and muqarnas or traditional
Islamic cusped niches. The domed interior was reserved for the use of the ruler and
gives access to the main mihrab of the mosque.
 Muqarnas, South Iwan
Muqarnas, South Iwan, Photo: Fulvio Spada (CC BY-SA 2.0)

The second domed room lies on a longitudinal axis right across the double-arcaded
courtyard. This opposite placement and varied decoration underscores the political
enmity between the respective patrons; each dome vies for primacy through its position
and architectural articulation. Nizam al-Mulk, vizier to Malik Shah I, commissioned the
qibla dome in 1086. But a year later, he fell out of favor with the ruler and Taj al-Mulk,
his nemesis, with support from female members of the court, quickly replaced him. The
new vizier’s dome (below), built in 1088, is smaller but considered a masterpiece of
proportions.
 Interior decoration of Taj-al-Mulk dome
Interior decoration of Taj-al-Mulk (north) dome, photo: Matt Werner (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

When Shah Abbas I, a Safavid dynasty ruler, decided to move the capital of his empire
from Qazvin to Isfahan in the late 16th century, he crafted a completely new imperial
and mercantile center away from the old Seljuk city. While the new square and its
adjoining buildings, renowned for their exquisite decorations, renewed Isfahan’s
prestige among the early modern cities of the world, the significance of the Seljuk
mosque and its influence on the population was not forgotten. This link amongst the
political, commercial, social, and religious activities is nowhere more emphasized than
in the architectural layout of Isfahan’s covered bazaar. Its massive brick vaulting and
lengthy, sinuous route connects the Safavid center to the city’s ancient heart, the Great
Mosque of Isfahan.