1.

Control surface flutter can develop as a result of an oscillation of the control surface
coupled with an oscillation in bending or twisting of the wing, tailplane or fin. A control
surface oscillation can result from backlash (free play) in the control system or from a
disturbance (gust). Flutter can develop if the CG of the control surface is behind the hinge
line, so that the inertia of the control surface causes a moment around the hinge. The rapid
and uncontrolled oscillation of a surface resulting from imbalance. Flutter normally leads to a
catastrophic failure of the structure.

2. Flutter modes of aircraft:

Tail plain, Wing, Fin, Control surfaces, which will include also the tabs.

3. Wing flutter can be delayed to a higher speed, for a given structural stiffness (weight), by
mounting the engines on pylons beneath the wing forward of the leading edge. The engines
act as ‘mass balance’ for the wing by moving the flexural axis forward, closer to the AC.

4. The possibility action in case of flutter in flight reduce speed and reduce control column
movement

Aileron reversal

1. Aileron reversal is a situation occurs at some high speed when the moment is so large that
there is total loss of lift when the aileron is deflected downward, and the aircraft rolls in the
reverse direction. An adverse effect when an aircraft roll in the reverse direction of the
aileron input. To counter-act aileron reversal we have two Ailerons on the wing leading edge:
outboard Ailerons and inboard ailerons. At low speed we use inboard ailerons and outboard
aileron for Hight speed.

2. The reversal of the flight controls can occur either at very high speed, approaching or
exceeding VNE or Vno or when the aircraft is close to the stalling speed. Firstly, the control
reversal at high speed is a result of aerodynamic twisting of the wing, caused by the ailerons.
This effect may reduce, neutralize or reverse the direction of the lift produced by the wing
and generally manifests at near sonic speeds. Secondly, the control reversal can manifest at
lower speeds. This is because the descending aileron increases the local angle of attack,
resulting in the stall of the wing which should be the ascending wing and causing it to drop.
 Landing gear /flap operating

1. During flight, the flaps and landing gear is susceptible to high stress as a result of the
oncoming airflow. As the airspeed increase, so does the stress. For this reason,
maximum operating speeds are defined, as exceeding these can cause damage or
critical failure of theaircraft components.
2. (VL0) the landing gear operating speed.
3. (VLE) landing with maximum speed.
4. The difference between Vlo and Vle : VLO is the airspeed at which the landing gear
can be safely operated(extended or retracted). VLE is the maximum speed at which
you can fly with the gear extended. It creates a lot of drag and is one sure way to slow
your progress toward VNE so you can regain control of the aircraft.
(VFE) : the maximum flap extended speed.
5. A valve in the flap system that prevents the flaps from being lowered at speeds that
may cause structural damage. If the pilot tries to lower the flaps at higher than
permissible speeds, causing excessive air loads on the flap, the valve acts to prevent
the flaps from being lowered. Also known as a blow-back valve.

MMO

1. Vmo is the maximum operating IAS and Mmo is the maximum operating Mach number.
This speed is that which, allowing for moderate upsets ensures the aircraft will remain free
from buffet or other undesirable flying qualities associated with compressibility. It must not
exceed Vc. When climbing at Vmo, the TAS and the Mach number are increasing, so care
must be taken to ensure that Mmo is not exceeded. Conversely, when descending at Mmo, the
TAS and IAS increase, and care must be taken not to exceed Vmo.
 Manoeuvring envelope & Manoeuvring Load Diagram
1. An aeroplane is designed for the minimum strength required in its role. This ensures that
the mass of the aeroplane is as low as possible compatible with its role. The minimum
strength required for a transport aeroplane is such that it can safely withstand a positive force
equal two and a half times the force of gravity (+2.5g) and a safe negative force equal to the
force of gravity (–1g). These values are usually factorised by approximately 50% so that
structural failure will not occur until +3.75g and –1.5g are reached, however, lesser damage
may happen at lower force values than these. Exceeding the normal maximum g limit is
hazardous, up to the 50% safety margin beyond which it is catastrophic. +2.5 and does not
need to be greater than +3.8 and represents the upper limit of the envelope: Lowest limiting
load factor = 2.1 + 24 000 (M + 10 000) .C S 25.337(b) where M is the design maximum
take-off mass in pounds. The negative limiting manoeuvre load factor may not be less than –
1.0 for speeds up to Vc (the design cruise speed) and must vary linearly with speed from the
value at Vc to zero at Vd (the design dive speed). These are drawn as straight lines and are
the lower limit of the manoeuvre envelope. CS 25.337(c)

2. The maximum EAS that an aeroplane is permitted to fly is Vd. There is a safety factor of
5% to 10% included in this speed. Exceeding the maximum speed limitation could result in
damage to the weakest panels of the aircraft’s structure or possibly control reversal and is
deemed as hazardous up to the 5% or 10% safety margin and catastrophic at speeds faster
than this. Vd is plotted as a vertical line on the manoeuvre envelope and is the right extremity
of the envelope.

3. VA. Is the design manoeuvring speed and is the maximum speed at which it is possible to
safely use maximum up elevator; if this speed is exceeded with the elevator deflected fully
upward then the aeroplane may suffer permanent distortion. VA is the highest speed at which
the aeroplane will stall before exceeding the manoeuvre maximum load factor and does not
need to exceed Vc.

VC is the design cruising speed. The minimum value of Vc must exceed Vb by a sufficient
margin to allow for inadvertent speed increases that may be caused by severe turbulence. Vc
may not be less than [Vb + (1.32 × the reference gust velocity)] EAS. It need not exceed Vc
or the maximum speed in level flight at the maximum continuous-thrust setting appropriate to
the altitude. Vc is limited to a specific Mach number at altitudes at which a Mach number
limits Vd.
VD is the design diving speed, which is never greater than Vne and at high altitude may be
limited to a specific Mach number.

4. Vmo is the maximum operating IAS and Mmo is the maximum operating Mach number.
This speed is that which, allowing for moderate upsets ensures the aircraft will remain free
from buffet or other undesirable flying qualities associated with compressibility. It must not
exceed Vc. When climbing at Vmo, the TAS and the Mach number are increasing, so care
must be taken to ensure that Mmo is not exceeded. Conversely, when descending at Mmo, the
TAS and IAS increase, and care must be taken not to exceed Vmo

5. VA has a load factor of +2.5. VA = VS1g√n = VS √2.5. Because of this, a change of mass
causes the value of VA to alter by a percentage amount equal to approximately half of the
percentage mass change.

6. . VA has a load factor of +2.5. VA = VS1g√n = VS √2.5. Because of this, a change of

mass causes the value of VA to alter by a percentage amount equal to approximately half of
the percentage mass change.

6. VA is not shown on the ASI, but it should be placarded close to the ASI. For a normal
category light

aeroplane having a maximum load factor of 3.8g then Va = Vs1g √3.8 = 1.95 Vs1g. If only
one

value of Va is quoted then it is the speed at which the aeroplane will stall at the manoeuvring
load

factor at the MTOM.

7. A.
B. In other words, for an aeroplane flying at a speed equal to twice the stalling speed, if the
angle of attack is regulated to attain the maximum lift possible at that speed, it will
experience a maximum load factor equal to four times the force of gravity or ‘4g’. Any
aeroplane flying at a multiplicand of Vs and at the angle of attack to attain the maximum lift
will experience a load factor equal to the square of the multiplicand as a ‘g’ force, e.g. 1.3Vs
creates ‘1.69g,’ 3Vs creates ‘9g,’ 4Vs creates ‘16g’ and so on.

C. Another way to understand the relationship between aircraft weight and maneuvering
speed is to talk about angle of attack and limit load factor. The lighter an aircraft is, the less
lift it will require to achieve straight and level flight, as shown by the equation: A lower lift
requirement means the ability to fly at a smaller angle of attack. If an aircraft’s speed stays
the same, but its weight decreases, the required angle of attack will decrease. The problem is
that at a smaller angle of attack, it is possible for a wind gust or full deflection of the elevator
control to increase the G-force beyond the aircraft’s limit load factor (+3.8Gs for normal
rated aircraft) while still remaining below the critical AoA needed for the wings to stall.
Increased aircraft mass increases the drag due to increased induced drag (greater lift required)
and increased profile drag (higher speed at the same angle of attack). ... Flying at higher
speeds then the best endurance speed increases the drag and the fuel flow, and therefore
reduces the endurance

8. Manoeuvring speed is defined as the highest speed at which full deflection of the controls
about any one axis are guaranteed not to overstress the airframe. This is a dynamic limitation
on the forces imposed on the airframe. Again Mr. Newton helps us out: Force = Mass x
Acceleration or Acceleration = Force / Mass. Mass is the weight of the airplane and
acceleration is the imposed load. Take two identical airplanes, one light and one fully loaded.
If we apply a force on the controls manoeuvring the light airplane the acceleration is much
more than the same force applied to the heavy airplane.

9. A maximum speed needle on the ASI shows Vmo up to the altitude at which Vmo = Mmo
and above which the datum becomes Mmo. Because it is possible for Vmo/Mmo to be
inadvertently exceeded and for the aeroplane to encounter high-speed buffet, as a result of
speed excursions caused by turbulence or by making an emergency descent, a high-speed
aural warning device is fitted that will sound 10 kt above Vmo or 0.01M above Mmo to
prevent any further unintentional excursion. The maximum cruise altitude is limited by the
minimum load factor. If this altitude is exceeded when there is turbulence present the
aeroplane could experience high-speed buffet.

10. At high altitude, this also limits the manoeuvring load factor. Inadvertent excursions
beyond the buffet-envelope boundaries do not necessarily result in unsafe operations, but it
will certainly reduce the safety margin.
11. At altitudes where VD is limited by Mach number, VC may be limited to a selected Mach
number. (b) Design dive speed, VD. VD must be selected so that VC/MC is not greater than
0.8 VD/MD, or so that the minimum speed margin between VC/MC and VD/MD is the
greater of the following values: (1) From an initial condition of stabilized flight at VC/MC,
the airplane is upset, flown for 20 seconds along a flight path 7.5° below the initial path, and
then pulled up at a load factor of 1.5g (0.5g acceleration increment). The speed increase
occurring in this maneuver may be calculated if reliable or conservative aerodynamic data is
used. Power as specified in §25.175(b)(1)(iv) is assumed until the pullup is initiated, at which
time power reduction and the use of pilot controlled drag devices may be assumed; (2) The
minimum speed margin must be enough to provide for atmospheric variations (such as
horizontal gusts, and penetration of jet streams and cold fronts) and for instrument errors and
airframe production variations. These factors may be considered on a probability basis. The
margin at altitude where MC is limited by compressibility effects must not less than 0.07M
unless a lower margin is determined using a rational analysis that includes the effects of any
automatic systems. In any case, the margin may not be reduced to less than 0.05M

GUST ENVELOPE
1.

2. The maximum speed for flight in turbulence or rough air (Vra) can be derived from
the gust envelope. See Figure above. It must be within the range of requirements
imposed to determine Vb but it must be low enough to ensure that any gust will not
cause the speed to exceed Vmo.

Vb: is the design speed for maximum gust intensity If a gust is experienced at speeds
in excess of Vb then the aeroplane may be overstressed. At altitudes where a Mach
number limits Vc, Vb is chosen by the manufacturer to provide the optimum margin
between the low-speed buffet and the high-speed buffet and need not be greater than
Vc to ensure that there is no danger of an inadvertent stall.

3. In severe turbulence the limiting factors are the stall and the structural limitation. A
heavy aeroplane has a high Cl and a small load factor but unless the speed is reduced
to Vra in any turbulence the limiting load factor may be exceeded and structural
failure could result. The effect of variations of mass, altitude and speed must be
accounted for and require separate gust envelopes to be drawn up for every
combination of factors to be considered.
4. A gust is a localised sudden and rapid change to the speed of the air in the atmosphere
that can be either horizontal or vertical. The horizontal gust is of little importance
because it causes a change to an aeroplane’s dynamic pressure that results in an
insignificant change to the load factor. The vertical gusts are far more important
because they change the effective angle of attack, total lift and the load factor. The
gust load is the extra load imparted to the aeroplane by vertical gusts or turbulence. Its
magnitude is unaffected by increased altitude but is increased with increased aspect
ratio and/or decreased mass. The load factor for any given angle of attack can be
derived from the basic load factor for the normal cruise angle of attack because it is
increased by the same percentage as the increase of angle of attack. The vertical
component of a gust increases the effective angle of attack, and therefore the lift and
the load factor, by the same percentage. The load factor deriving from a gust is
determined by the magnitude of the vertical velocity of the gust and the forward speed
of the aeroplane. To determine the new load factor resulting from a gust divide the
new Cl by the original Cl. The speed usually used for these purposes is VB, which is
defined as the design speed for maximum gust intensity. CS 25.335(d). The
instantaneous load factor during a gust can be calculated as follows:
Example 13.2 Given: In steady horizontal flight the Cl of an aeroplane is 0.45. A one-
degree increase in the AoA increases the Cl by 0.09. A vertical gust of air instantly
changes the AoA by two degrees. Calculate the new instantaneous load factor.

Solution 13.2 Increase of Cl = 2 × 0.09 = 0.18 New Cl = 0.45 + 0.18 =0.63 New load
factor = 0.63 ÷ 0.45 = 1.4

To avoid stalling and exceeding the limiting load factor an aeroplane must be
operated within the limitations imposed by the gust envelope, which is graphically
constructed by using the arbitrary values of gust speed against the EAS of the
aeroplane originating from a load factor value of +1.0 and specified in CS 25.341(a)
(5)(I)