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Immune
Response
 This is the paper version of a Science Bits multimedia learning unit.
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Shao-Chun Wang, ©123rf.com (girl sneezing, pages 1, 6-7); didesign021, ©gettyimages.com (vaccination, pages 8-9); Andriy Popov, ©123rf.com (having a
cold, page 9); PAN XUNBIN, ©123rf.com (microscope, page 9); PAN XUNBIN, ©123rf.com (taking blood pressure, page 9); Jean-Paul CHASSENET, ©123rf.com
(vaccination, page 10); Felix Nadar, Wikimedia Commons (Louis Pasteur, page 12); Wilhelm Fechner, Wikimedia Commons (Robert Koch, page 12); Jarun Ontakrai,
©123rf.com (Petri dishes, page 13); Samo Trebizan, ©123rf.com (runner, page 14); Saiyood Srikamon, ©123rf.com (having a temperature, page 14); Shannon
Fagan, ©123rf.com (sore throat, page 14); Saiyood Srikamon, ©123rf.com (chicken pox, page 15); yellowderevo, ©123rf.com (cholera, page 15); Mohd Hairul Fiza
Musa, ©123rf.com (mosquito, page 15); Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Wikimedia Commons (Salmonella, page 15); Trypanozomy by CDC/Dr. Myron
G. Schultz, Wikimedia Commons (protist, page 16); Macroconidia of the dermatophytic fungus by CDC/Dr. Libero Ajello, Wikimedia Commons (fungi, page 16);
Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Wikimedia Commons (Escherichia coli, page 16); gekaskr, ©123rf.com (karate fighter, page 17); Diego Cervo, ©123rf.
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jarun011, @gettyimages.com (cells, page 19); Kirill Vorobyev, ©123rf.com (cat, pages 21-22); hriana, ©123rf.com (elbow, pages 21-22); “Chronic Lymphocytic
Leukemia” flickr photo by euthman https://flickr.com/photos/euthman/2869815349 shared under a Creative Commons (BY) license (leukemia, pages 21-22);
Cathy Yeulet, ©123rf.com (doctor, page 22); natulrich, ©123rf.com (images of the stages of an infectious disease, page 23); flickr photo by DFID - UK Department
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page 23); Apatcha Muenaksorn, ©123rf.com (washing one’s hands, page 23); ximagination, ©123rf.com (vaccination, page 24); Emil Valerica Genes, ©123rf.com
(serum, page 25); Parinya Binsuk, ©123rf.com (oral vaccination, page 26); Rafael Ben-Ari, ©123rf.com (baby, pages 27-28); Ian Allenden, ©123rf.com (girl chatting,
page 28); Cathy Yeulet, ©123rf.com (teamwork, page 29); dolgachov, ©123rf.com (teamwork, page 29); obencem, ©123.com (having a temperature, page
30); Vadim Guzhva, ©123rf.com (blood pressure, page 30); Levente Gyori, ©123rf.com (rapid pulse, page 30); Montian Noowong, ©123rf.com (skin rash, page
30); Sherry Yates Young, ©123rf.com (blood cells, page 30); dolgachov, ©123rf.com (pain, page 30); georgerudy, ©123rf.com (drowsiness, page 30); Katarzyna
Bialasiewicz, ©123rf.com (lack of hunger, page 30); CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer, Wikimedia Commons (Influenzavirus, page 31); Ding, J., Smith, A.D., Geisler, S.C., Ma,
X., Arnold, G.F., Arnold, E, Wikimedia Commons (Rhinovirus, page 31); C. Goldsmith, Wikimedia Commons (HIV, page 31); Eric Erbe, ©123rf.com (Escherichia coli,
page 31); NIAID, Wikimedia Commons (Mycobacterium tuberculosis, page 31); CDC/Dr. Lucille K. Georg, Wikimedia Commons (Absidia corymbifera, page 31);
United States Department of Health and Human Services, Wikimedia Commons (Entamoeba histolytica, page 31); NIAID, Wikimedia Commons (Koch’s bacillus,
page 31); CDC / Janice Haney Carr, Wikimedia Commons (Giardia lamblia, page 31); CDC/Dr. Myron G. Schultz, Wikimedia Commons (Leishmania sp., page 31);
volke, ©123rf.com (oral mucosa, page 31); Axel Bueckert, ©123rf.com (skin, page 31); PAN XUNBIN, ©123rf.com (eyelashes, page 32); Ferli Achirulli, ©123rf.com
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2 science-bits.com
 Life Sciences

Unit

Immune
Response
Unit Structure

Cover Page
The unit title is highlighted and the lear-
ning objectives presented. An index of
the contents according to the 5-E Model
is also provided. The digital version also
includes an activity to review the skills
and knowledge required to undertake
the unit.

Engage
A video and a related activity are available
with the digital version. Both versions
have a summary on page one. Different
activities are proposed for the video;
some of these may be interactive in the
digital version, but they all contain open-
ended questions.

Explore
This exploratory and discovery activity is
devised to mobilize prior knowledge and
check it against the results obtained from
the experience. The digital version con-
tains the necessary multimedia resources
required for this activity: simulators, videos,
interactivities, etc.
 Unit Structure

Explain
The unit’s key concepts are formally and
systematically addressed. The digital ver-
sion includes a wide range of multimedia
resources to facilitate understanding of
the ideas presented. The printable version
includes all basic graphical elements and
references to the digital resources availa-
ble. The digital version may also include
reinforcement or enrichment activities.

Elaborate
In this section, the newly acquired
knowledge can be applied in a practical
way. Thus, a problem-solving activity is
proposed, one which requires the applica-
tion of the concepts, attitudes, and pro-
cedures learned throughout the unit. The
digital version may provide multimedia
tools (such as simulators or videos) to help
develop and solve the activity.

Exercises
Each of the concepts addressed in the
“Explain” section is related to interactive
or open-ended exercises with the aim of
consolidating the topics covered through
practice. The printable version includes all
the exercises except for reinforcement or
enrichment activities, and they are orga-
nized in accordance with the contents
from the “Explain” section.
 Immune Respons
Index
· Engage
· Infectious Diseases 08
· Explore
· How Do Vaccines Work? 10
· Explain
· Health and Disease 14
· Infectious Diseases 15
· Pathogens 15
· Pathogens and Disease 16
· The Body’s Defenses 17
· First Line Defenses: Barriers 17
· 2nd and 3rd Lines: The Immune System 18
· The Immune Response 19
· Nonspecific Immunity 19
· Specific Immunity 20
· Immune Response Disorders 21
· Stages of Infectious Disease 22
· Preventing Infectious Diseases 23
· How Do Vaccines Work? 24
· Treating Infectious Diseases 24
· Elaborate
· Vaccines and Society 26
· Exercises 30

In this unit you will learn:

Why some diseases are infectious.
About the agents causing infectious diseases.
How your body protects itself against infectious diseases and
what you can do to help it protect you.
Why a wound gets infected, swells, and turns red.
That your body remembers the infectious diseases it has
encountered.
Why vaccines are useful to prevent infectious diseases.
About antibiotics and the diseases they help your body fight
against.
se
 Engage

Infectious Diseases
Video When someone gets sick, they’re not usually the only ones. Before
they decide to stay at home the disease is passed on to other people.

Normally, after a few days with a fever, feeling tired, and in pain, we
heal ourselves.

Unfortunately, some infectious diseases are very serious and may be

fatal.

At different times during history, terrible epidemics have ravaged hu-

man populations.

Today, however, we can fight off many of these infectious diseases:

We know what causes them. We know how they spread. And we know
how to treat them.

However, we suffer when we’re sick and that’s something we want to

avoid.

Fortunately, we can often spare ourselves that suffering... thanks to

vaccinations.

With just a little bit of discomfort, vaccines make us immune to a dis-

ease forever.

But, how do vaccines work?

8 science-bits.com
Questions

a. We’ve all been infected with a disease at some

point in our lives.
What examples of infectious diseases do you
know?

b. How does one infectious disease differ from

another?

c. In contrast with what has occurred throughout

most of human history, today we know what causes
infectious diseases.
What causes an infectious disease?

d. Influenzas are a very common infectious disease.

When someone comes down with the flu, they
often infect some of the people around them.
What could be done to minimize the impact of this
infection?

e. Do you know examples of noninfectious diseas-

es? Give three examples.

f. Thanks to the use of vaccines we can avoid suffer-

ing many infectious diseases. You’ve probably been
given some vaccines at some point in your life.
What diseases do you know that you’ve been vac-
cinated against?

g. Adequately used, vaccines provide you with al-

most complete immunity against diseases. In a way,
it is like you are prepared to fight off diseases even
before coming down with them.
How do you think vaccines work?

science-bits.com 9
 Exploramos
Explore

How Do Vaccines Work?

Vaccines prevent us from getting infected with certain diseases. But,
what is a vaccine? How does it manage to allow your body to be pro-
tected against a possible future attack?

Before answering these questions, you need to know how infectious dis-
eases come to occur.

To do that, you will reproduce experiments that resemble ones carried

out in the mid-nineteenth century by the pioneers in the study of dis-
Simulator eases.

These experiments were performed on farm animals such as chick-

en, sheep, and rabbits. Because you will be using a simulator to
Healthy sheep emulate the experiments, no real animals will be harmed.

What Causes an Infectious Disease?

Observe the three groups of sheep in the simulator in the digital
version. The first group has healthy sheep, the second is made up
Disease A
of sheep with an infectious disease, and the third group has sheep
with a different infectious disease.
Pay attention to the sheep in each group and the descriptions
of the signs and symptoms of the infected animals, and analyze
blood and saliva samples of various animals under the microscope.
Disease B
a. What are the differences in the blood and saliva samples across the
three groups of sheep?

Blood sample b. Indicate whether these statements are true or false.

If necessary, check the samples one more time.
T he samples from the sick sheep contain certain microscopic
elements that are not present in those of the healthy sheep.
 ll the sheep suffering disease A consistently have the same
A
Disease A particular features in the same type of sample.
sheep 3

10 science-bits.com
 All the sheep suffering disease B consistently have the same particular
features in the same type of sample.
T he samples of the two groups with sick sheep have the same particu-
lar features.

c. Therefore, there is a correlation between the presence of minuscule ele-

ments—each with characteristic shapes—in the biological samples from
the sick sheep and the fact that they suffer a specific disease.
But, what are those elements? Are they the cause of a disease or one of its
consequences?
What experiment could be done to ensure whether these elements have
caused the two diseases?

d. Next, an experiment similar to the ones carried out in the mid-nineteenth

century is proposed to find out whether the characteristic microscopic ele-
ments in the samples from the sick sheep have caused the disease.
In this experiment, groups of healthy sheep that have never suffered the
diseases are administered the following treatments:
It is important that all sheep involved in the experiment are the same type
and have been bred under the same conditions.

Treatment 1: inoculation of sheep with a saline solution containing the
characteristic elements of disease A.

Treatment 2: inoculation of sheep with a saline solution containing the Simulator
characteristic elements of disease B.

Treatment 3: inoculation of sheep with a saline solution not containing
any microscopic element.
Use the simulator in the digital version to perform the experiment and indi-
cate in the table whether the sheep become sick or not.

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3

Do the sheep [Yes (disease A) / [Yes (disease A) / [Yes (disease A) /

become sick? Yes (disease B) / No] Yes (disease B) / No] Yes (disease B) / No]

e. Treatment 3 may surprise you. What’s the point in following this treat-
ment? Do you think you would reach the same conclusions if the sheep in
treatment 3 became sick?

f. In light of these results, can we affirm that the characteristic elements in

the samples from sick sheep are responsible for the diseases?
o, they are a result of the diseases.
qN
q
Yes, they are.

science-bits.com 11

Portraits of Louis Pasteur (left) and
Robert Koch (right) taken at the end
of the nineteenth century.
Simulator
12
Studies by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910),
among others, made it possible to understand that the microscopic ele-
ments causing diseases were actually microorganisms.
Infectious or contagious diseases occur when an infectious micro-
organism manages to penetrate through the tissues of the body
and multiply there.
These scientists also developed the earliest techniques to isolate and ob-
tain cultures of infectious microorganisms—mainly bacteria—, which
allowed for advances in the study of diseases.
What Doesn’t Kill You Makes You Stronger
Infectious diseases can be very serious. If infectious microorganisms
multiply inside an infected body and harm its tissues and vital organs,
they can eventually cause death.
However, the infected body responds to the presence of microorgan-
isms and fights to destroy them. The best proof of this is that many times
it destroys and eliminates them and recovers from the disease.
a. Farms had noticed that the sheep that overcame a disease did not seem
to become infected with the same disease anymore.
What experiment would you propose to check this? How would you check
whether this immunity also protected the organism against other infec-
tious diseases?
b. This new version of the simulator provides three serums. The first one
contains the bacteria causing disease A, the second one the bacteria caus-
ing disease B, and the third one doesn’t contain any bacteria.
Use the simulator in the digital version to perform the experiments you
proposed in the previous step.
c. Indicate whether these conclusions match the results obtained from your
experiments.
T he sheep that have overcome an infectious disease become immune
to that disease.
T he sheep that have overcome an infectious disease become immune
to that disease and to all other infectious diseases.
Despite having overcome an infectious disease, the sheep can be-
come infected with the same disease in the future.
science-bits.com
Chance
The possibility to cultivate infectious microorganisms (mainly bacteria) Image
in culture dishes pushed the research into infectious diseases much
further.
Among the countless culture dishes in his lab, by chance Louis Pasteur
discovered a dish where the infectious bacteria appeared to be weak-
ened and unable to cause the disease when inoculated into individuals.
It was not long before Pasteur realized how beneficial these bacteria
could be: despite not causing the disease, the bacteria still served the
individuals inoculated with them to develop immunity against the infec-
tious disease.
a. In what way can these weakened bacteria be useful in protecting against
infectious diseases?

Culture dishes with different bacte-

b. Use the simulator in the digital version to carry out an experiment to find ria cultures.
out whether the weakened forms of the bacteria causing diseases A and B
induce immunity against these diseases.

c. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.

 sheep becomes immune against a disease if the animal comes into
A
contact with a weakened form of the microorganism causing the Simulator
disease.
T he immunity obtained when overcoming a disease is greater than
the one obtained from coming into contact with a weakened form of
the microorganism that causes it.
The only way to prevent a sheep from developing a disease is to have
previously suffered the disease.
Inoculating a sheep with a weakened form of the microorganism caus-
ing a disease triggers immunity against any infectious disease.

Conclusions
Infectious diseases are diseases caused by
certain pathogens thriving and diversifying
inside an infected body.
Human beings share a defense system with
sheep—and with all other vertebrates—called
the immune system. This system protects the
body in a specialized way against each patho-
gen and has a special feature: after overcom-
ing an infectious disease, the body becomes
immune against possible future attacks by the
pathogens that cause that disease.
This is the same immunity that is activated by
using vaccines.
A vaccine is a preparation containing
weakened forms of a pathogen. De-
spite not being able to cause the dis-
ease, these inactive forms do trigger
the body’s immune response, allow-
ing the body to develop an immunity
against future attacks of virulent forms
of the same pathogen.

science-bits.com 13
 Explicamos
Explain

Health and Disease

It is a common misconception to think that being healthy means not
being sick. But the concept of health is not as simple as that. According
to the World Health Organization (WHO):

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-be-

ing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

So, a person’s health is determined by his or her physical and mental

characteristics, lifestyle, surrounding social environment, and the health
care that the individual has access to.

A disease is an impairment of a normal physiological function af-

fecting an organism.

Generally, the causes of diseases are known. Diseases tend to evolve in

Gallery a predictable manner, and are manifested through characteristic signs
and symptoms.

Signs
Signs are objective evidence of the presence of a disorder in the
functioning of an organism. Signs can be measured objectively by
health care personnel. In the image: a fever is a sign that the body is
fighting a disease.
Symptoms
Symptoms are subjective evidence of a physical disturbance or dise-
ase that can only be perceived by the individuals experiencing them.
Symptoms can’t be measured objectively by health care personnel.
In the image: pain and fatigue can be symptoms of a disease.

14 science-bits.com
Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases are diseases caused by infectious agents or

pathogens—mainly microorganisms and viruses—that multiply
damaging the cells and tissues of the organisms they infect.

Infectious diseases are contagious because the pathogens causing

them may be transmitted, through contact, from one infected person
to a susceptible person and cause the disease.

There are two types of contact transmission: direct and indirect. Gallery

Direct Infection
A direct infection occurs when the pat-
hogen is transmitted to a healthy person
through direct physical contact with the
skin, mucosa, blood, or secretions of an in-
fected person.
In the image: chickenpox is transmitted
through direct physical contact with the skin
rashes or saliva of an infected person, who are
infected with the virus causing the disease.
Indirect Infection through the Environ-
ment. An indirect infection occurs when
there’s no direct human-to-human contact.
Instead, a pathogen present in the envi-
ronment comes into contact with a healthy
person. Untreated waters, spoiled food, soil,
and objects that have been in contact with an
infected person may contain disease-causing
microorganisms. In the image: cholera is
transmitted through food or water contami-
nated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
Indirect Infection through Other Ani-
mal Species
An indirect infection can also be transmit-
ted through contact with animals carrying
pathogens. The animals transporting infec-
tious disease-causing pathogens are called
vectors.
In the image: the malaria-causing protozoa
hides in the saliva of mosquitoes and is trans-
mitted by bites.

Pathogens
Infectious agents—or pathogens—are the organisms or viruses
that parasitize an organism’s body and cause an infectious dis-
ease.

Most pathogens are microscopic life forms commonly classified into

four groups:
Gallery

Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms. They are only a few micrometers in length, have no nu-
cleus, and are covered by a cell wall. It is estimated that the number of bacteria in the human body is
larger than the number of human cells. Most of these bacteria normally inhabit the skin, intestines, and
the surface of mucosa.
Disease-causing bacteria, in contrast, colonize the organism’s tissues and destroy their cells, either di-
rectly or by means of toxins.
1 µm
The organisms that cause diseases such as cholera (Vibrio cholerae), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculo-
sis), tetanus (Clostridium tetani), and salmonella (Salmonella typhimurium) are bacteria.
In the image: Salmonella typhimurium (in red) in a culture of human cells seen under the scanning electron
microscope.

science-bits.com 15
 A virus is a fragment of genetic material encased within a structure formed by proteins. Viruses are too
virus
small to be seen under the light microscope. They are hardly larger than a tenth of a micrometer.
Since viruses are not formed of cells, they are not considered living organisms. In addition, they cannot
perform any life process by themselves. They need to infect compatible cells and use their mechanisms
compatible cell to reproduce. After that, the cells become damaged and this causes disorders in the infected organism.
The pathogens causing diseases such as chicken pox (varicella zoster virus), dengue fever (Flavivirus), rabies
(Rhabdovirus), and smallpox (Orthopoxvirus) are viruses.

Most protists are one-celled eukaryotic organisms, measuring up to various tenths of a micrometer. Dise-
ase-causing protists reproduce and colonize the tissues of the infected organism, disturbing or destroying
its cells.
The organisms causing diseases such as malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma
brucei), and toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) are protists.
In the image: three specimens of Trypanosoma brucei (in fuchsia) in a blood sample under the light mi-
10 µm
croscope.

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with a cell wall containing chitin. Many fungi form multicellular filamentous
structures, whereas some are single-celled. Pathogenic fungi parasitize the tissues of the infected organisms,
disturbing or destroying its cells and resulting in diseases. Some species of unicellular fungi are naturally found
in the skin and intestines, and are not harmful. However, in certain specific conditions, these species can prove to
be virulent and cause diseases.
The organisms causing diseases such as candidiasis (Candida albicans), tinea versicolor (Malassezia furfur), and
10 µm athlete’s foot (Epidermophyton floccosum) are fungi.
In the image: Epidermophyton floccosum, the multicellular fungi causing athlete’s foot, seen under the light
microscope.

Some agents of disease can also be animals, such as parasitic flukes and
intestinal worms for example.
Out of the vast number of microorganisms and viruses in the environ-
ment, only a small portion are pathogenic to human beings.

Pathogens and Disease

Each particular pathogen causes a specific infectious disease, with its
Image own symptoms and signs.

The ability of a pathogen to damage the health of an organism is

called virulence.

A pathogen’s virulence depends on its toxic and invasive ability.

Only some strains of Escherichia coli
are virulent: they produce proteins
that disturb the functioning of the
intestines and cause diarrhea.

Toxic ability is a pathogen’s ability to cause disorder or destroy the
cells of the infected organism, either directly or through the use of
toxins.
Invasive ability is a pathogen’s ability to partially or completely colo-
nize the host organism.

16 science-bits.com
The Body’s Defenses
Your body has defenses that prevent pathogens from entering and
fight off the ones that make it through.
There are two types of defenses:

First line defenses, also called surface barriers, prevent disease-
causing pathogens in the outside environment from entering your
body.
econd and third line defenses, which form the immune system,
S
are activated when a pathogen enters the body. The response con-
sists in eliminating the pathogen and preventing it from multiplying.

The immune system prevents any pathogen that gets through

the body’s external defenses from causing an infectious disease. If
you contract an infectious disease, the immune system directs the
body’s response that leads to healing.

In spite of this system, medical assistance is needed at times to over-

come a disease.

First Line Defenses: Barriers

Your body has different types of external defenses. They all work together
to prevent the entry of infectious pathogens. Gallery

Physical Barriers Biochemical Barriers

Skin and mucous membranes cover the external surface of your
body and line the digestive, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts,
forming the body’s first line of defense. Hair is also a barrier. In your
nostrils or eyelids, it prevents dust particles or microorganisms from
entering the body.
Some substances found in the body’s secretions—such as saliva,
tears, mucus, sweat, and gastric juices—destroy the pathogens they
come in contact with.
Lysozyme is a protein found in tears, saliva, and mucus that destroys
components of the bacterial cell wall.

1 µm

Mechanical Barrier Biological Barriers

These barriers are reflex movements and secretions that remove
pathogens from body openings. Mucous membranes lining the res-
piratory tract contain cells with cilia, which sweep mucus towards
body openings to remove it. Disease-causing agents and other foreign
particles are trapped in the mucus secreted by mucosa cells. Coughing,
sneezing, and vomiting are all mechanical barriers.
A large number of diverse nonpathogenic microorganisms flou-
rish on human skin and in certain mucosa, thus forming a biological
barrier. By using up space and food, they prevent pathogens from
thriving as they compete for the same resources. Escherichia coli
inhabits the large intestine and is part of the intestinal flora (or mi-
crobiota).

science-bits.com 17

Interactivity
Lymphatic Organs
Lymph nodes are masses of lymphoid tissue
distributed across the body and connected via lym-
phatic vessels.
Lymph nodes store lymphocytes, ready to respond
to the presence of infection-causing pathogens.
18
2nd and 3rd Lines: The Immune System
The immune system is the set of organs, tissues, and specialized cells
that protect us from the action of disease-causing pathogens present in
the human body.
The immune system is also in charge eliminating cancerous cells and the
remains of dead cells.
The immune system consists of:
Immune Cells
White blood cells or leukocytes are the body’s immune cells. There are multiple types of white
blood cells, classified into two broad types: phagocytes and lymphocytes. All white blood cells are
produced in bone marrow.
Lymphocytes are white blood cells in charge of identifying pathogens and
coordinating a specific response to their presence. Lymphocytes are stored in
lymph nodes, traveling through blood and lymphatic vessels.
Phagocytes are various types of white blood cells specialized in ingesting for-
eign microorganisms and cell remains through the process of phagocytosis.
They travel through blood vessels and are found in all human body tissues.
Lymphatic vessels are a network that runs Tonsils, like lymph nodes, are masses of
through the body’s tissues and links together the lymphoid tissue that protect against the
lymphatic organs where white blood cells mature entry of foreign substances and microor-
and are stored. These vessels drain excess liquid ganisms into the respiratory tracts and
from tissues, collect the fats digested in the intes-
digestive tube, two of the main entry
tine, and end in the venous bloodstream. passages for pathogens. For this reason,
lymphocytes in the tonsils often become
The fluid running through these vessels is called
activated.
lymph, a transparent substance similar to blood
plasma—richer in fats—that contains white
blood cells. The lymph can also contain pathogens,
which are eliminated as they pass through the
lymph nodes.
science-bits.com
The thymus gland is an organ located
between the heart and the sternum.
Some of the lymphocytes mature in
this organ.
Red bone marrow is the spongy tissue
found inside some bones, where all blood
cells are produced, including leukocytes
or white blood cells. Some lymphocytes
are transported to the thymus gland,
where they develop fully.
The spleen is a lymphatic organ located
in the left side of the abdominal cavity,
behind the stomach and under the dia-
phragm. This organ stores lymphocytes
that can become activated due to the
presence of infectious pathogens in the
blood flowing through it.

The Immune Response

If a disease-causing pathogen manages to pass through the
external barriers and enter the body, the next line of defense
comes into action: the immune system.
FIRST LINE DEFENSES
An immune response is triggered when the body de-
tects the invasion of a foreign pathogen. 1

Nonspecific
There are two types of complementary immune responses: immune response

Nonspecific immunity is the body’s first reaction to the
presence of a foreign substance. 2

pecific immunity is triggered by the detection of a par-

S Specific
ticular pathogen. This response, which is selective, is acti- immune response
vated when the nonspecific response no longer protects
against infection.

Nonspecific Immunity

Nonspecific immunity protects the organism against invasions by

potential disease-causing pathogens.

The main components of this defense are:


Phagocytes, white blood cells that engulf and destroy foreign micro-
organisms.
Inflammation of the damaged tissue due to increased blood flow to
the infected site, which attract phagocytes to the location of infection.

A serious infection may be accompanied by fever, an overall increase of

body temperature.

science-bits.com 19
 Under certain conditions, infection-causing
pathogens can enter the body. For example,
when there’s a wound on the skin.
Animation
The entry of pathogens triggers the nonspecific
immune response: the damaged site swells, it
turns red and its temperature increases because
the injured tissue releases histamine, a chemi-
cal that causes an increase in temperature
around the damaged site and dilation of the
blood vessels passing through it.

Vasodilation causes an increase in blood flow,
favoring the transport of phagocytes. In ad-
dition, the increase in temperature improves
their performance.
The phagocytes that have penetrated
through the walls of the blood vessel ingest
the pathogens and destroy them. Pus, which
is the remains of phagocytes containing
pathogens, is either reabsorbed or elimi-
nated by the organism.
If the infection is serious, or if it affects various
sites across the body, there may be an overall
increase in temperature, known as fever. The
rise in temperature is thought to favor the ac-
tion of the immune system, provided that the
temperature does not increase too much.

Specific Immunity
If nonspecific immunity cannot fight off the infection, the specific immune
response comes into action: a specialized response before the presence of
a pathogen.

This response is led by lymphocytes, which carry out three functions:


Producing antibodies, proteins that specifically bind to the patho-
gen or its toxins to deactivate or destroy them.
Destroying the cells infected by the pathogen.


Inducting memory of the infection, the body’s ability to remember

and respond more quickly and effectively when re-exposed to the
same pathogen.

20 science-bits.com
When pathogens penetrate an organism’s The immune system has countless different
body, they attack the tissues and multiply. For lymphocytes prepared to specifically detect Animation
example, viruses infect the cells and use them the endless pathogens that are liable to attack
to replicate. the body.

When a lymphocyte specifically recognizes the Some of the activated lymphocytes are stored To fight off the pathogen, some activated
pathogen, it activates and produces a specific in the lymph nodes. These cells, called mem- lymphocytes begin to produce antibodies,
immune response. ory lymphocytes, are in charge of activating proteins that specifically bind to the patho-
the body’s immune memory against future gens to help destroy them.
infections by the same pathogen.

All other lymphocytes—cytotoxic lympho-
cytes—attack the cells infected or damaged by
pathogens and destroy them.
Finally, phagocytes engulf the pathogens
marked by antibodies, together with the cell
remains produced.
In the likelihood of a potential future attack by
the same pathogen, the existence of memory
lymphocytes makes it possible for the spe-
cific immune response to be activated rapidly
and much more effectively. Thanks to this, the
development of the disease is usually inhibited.

Immune Response Disorders

The immune response is a complex process that can sometimes show
disorders affecting its function in the body.

The defects in the immune system are grouped into three categories:

science-bits.com 21
 Gallery

Immunodeficiency Diseases Autoimmunity Allergy

An immunodeficiency disease Autoimmunity is an impairment An allergy is an abnormal immune

is a failure in the body’s immune of the immune response by which response to the presence of a foreign
system that results in a poor or in- the immune system acts against microorganism, which might not
effective immune response. the body’s own cells. even be a pathogen.

People suffering immunodeficiency are more
likely to develop an infectious disease. Furt-
hermore, the effect of an infectious disease on
their health is likely to be more serious.
Poor nutrition, obesity, and the use of drugs, as There is a wide range of autoimmune di-
well as the later stages of life, are all linked to a sorders that can affect different organs or
certain degree of immunodeficiency.
Some major diseases are all associated to se-
vere immunodeficiencies, as is the case of AIDS
and leukemia, a type of cancer affecting the
bone marrow.
In the image: people with serious immunode-
ficiencies need protection against infection-
causing pathogens.
Autoimmune disorders occur when the im-
mune cells identify other cells from the same
body as foreign microorganisms and attack
them as if they were pathogens.
tissues, interfering with their function, or,
in some serious cases, gradually destroying
them. Examples of these disorders are type
I diabetes, lupus, or psoriasis.
In the image: psoriasis is a noninfectious
autoimmune disease affecting the skin and
mucosa.
The environmental agents that trigger
an allergic reaction are called allergens.
People are allergic to a wide range of allergens,
such as dust mites, different types of pollen,
peanuts, and certain medications, for example.
The allergic response can be triggered when
touching, breathing in, or swallowing the
allergen. When the body detects an aller-
gen, the immune system produces hista-
mine, followed by signs such as skin rashes,
stuffy nose, inflammation, or blockage of
the airway. In some severe cases, the allergic
response may result in death if not treated
quickly.
In the image: a substance present in cat’s saliva
triggers an allergic response in some people.

Stages of Infectious Disease

After infection, infectious diseases develop in three broad stages:

Incubation is the time between when the pathogen enters the body
and the appearance of the first symptoms and signs of a disease. Dur-
ing this period, the pathogen multiplies and spreads across the in-
fected body, without the infected individual being aware.

Illness is the time from the onset of symptoms and signs of a disease,
causing discomfort to the patient, who is now aware of being sick. In
this stage, as the pathogen thrives, the immune system tries to fight
it off. In some cases, medical treatment is required.

nce the pathogen has been eliminated, the patient enters the
O
convalescence period, the time taken by the body to repair the dam-
age caused by the infection.

22 science-bits.com
 Animation
The different stages of infection in
chickenpox can be observed easily.

Incubation: after infection, the virus begins to At the end of the incubation period—last-
replicate in the lymph nodes near the airways ing two weeks in chickenpox—, the patient
and spreads to other organs, eventually reaching can already infect other people, even before
the skin. knowing that he or she is ill.

Illness: fever and pain begin to manifest, fol- Convalescence: the vesicular lesions evolve
lowed by vesicular lesions on the skin. Direct into crusts, which are not infectious. The skin
contact with the lesions can transmit the dis- begins to repair and the patient gradually
ease. This state usually lasts one week. feels better. This stage can also last one week.

Preventing Infectious Diseases

The spread of infectious diseases is a serious global public health issue.
Prevention is the best possible response.
Infectious diseases are one of the main causes of mortality in countries
with poor environmental health.

The existence of structures and strategies of environmental sani-

tation—especially water treatment—and access to a high-quality
healthcare system are essential conditions to prevent the spread of
infectious diseases.

Beyond environmental health conditions, preventing infectious disease is

based on two strategies: Gallery

Adopting Healthy Habits

Healthy habits in our daily life can help prevent infectious diseases.

Some healthy habits include minimizing exposure to pathogens, for example, having good per-
sonal hygiene—especially hand hygiene—, maintaining a clean environment, and using specific
protection to prevent contact with pathogens in potentially contaminated environments.
Other important healthy habits include maintaining and boosting the immune system. Having
a healthy diet and an active lifestyle, sleeping sufficient hours, and avoiding drug use are just a few
examples.

science-bits.com 23

Fragments of pathogens can activate
the lymphocytes and form immune
memory cells.
Gallery
3-D model of the amoxicillin molecule.
24
Administering Vaccines
Systematic vaccination of the world’s population has saved countless lives.
A vaccine is a biological preparation that typically provides immunity against a specific in-
fectious disease. Vaccines are typically injectable preparations.
Healthcare officials draw up a specific immunization schedule based on the population’s spe-
cial characteristics. Most vaccinations are given during childhood, although some vaccinations are
given to adults or patients under special conditions, such as older individuals and pregnant wo-
men. On the other hand, some travelers also have to be vaccinated before visiting certain regions.
How Do Vaccines Work?
Vaccines’ action mechanism consists of inducing immune mem-
ory against a specific pathogen without the organism developing
the disease.
Vaccines are preparations containing fragments or nonvirulent forms of
a pathogen. Each particular vaccine is useful against a specific pathogen.
When an individual is given a vaccine, he or she does not develop the dis-
ease because the pathogen is attenuated or weakened. However, its very
presence triggers the specific immune response. Lymphocytes recognize
the pathogen and become activated, generating memory lymphocytes
that produce antibodies.
Faced with a future infection by a virulent form of the same pathogen,
the generated memory lymphocytes ensure an effective, quick immune
response. This way, the vaccine prevents the disease from developing or
mitigates the effects.
Treating Infectious Diseases
When a patient develops an infectious disease, they need to go to a health
center and get the medical staff to assess their condition and decide on
the treatment to follow.
The medical staff assesses the patient’s immune response ability before
determining the most appropriate treatment.
Treating certain infectious diseases typically includes prescribing drugs.
Some drugs directly fight the disease-causing pathogen, thus making
the specific immune response more effective. The following are the most
commonly used drugs:
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are drugs that attack bacteria, destroying them or preventing them from
multiplying.
Antibiotics can be specific for a single type of bacteria or attack several different types—called
broad-spectrum antibiotics.
science-bits.com
 Amoxicillin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic. It is the first line treatment for, among others, ear
and throat infections, and tonsillitis.

Antibiotics have no effects on diseases that are not bacteria-related.

Antivirals

Antivirals are drugs that disrupt the replication cycle of a virus and limit its prolife-
ration in the body.

In general, antiviral drugs are specific medications. Each antiviral acts against a specific type of
virus. It is effective only when administered within a certain time frame before or after exposu-
re. That’s why their use is less common than antibiotics.
Acyclovir is the antiviral drug used in treating infections by the varicella-zoster virus or the
herpes simplex virus. It is most effective if administered during the first stage of infection. 3-D model of the acyclovir molecule.

Antiserum

Antiserum is blood serum containing large amounts of antibodies for a specific infec-
tious pathogen.

Antiserum is extracted from organisms developing the specific immune response to a specific
pathogen.
The antiserum injection contains an urgent dose of antibodies needed to specifically fight pat-
hogens. However, it does not activate the patient’s production of antibodies and it therefore
doesn’t provide the patient with immunity in the long run.
Tetanus, rabies, and Ebola are diseases treated with antiserums.

Some other medicines do not directly fight the disease-causing patho-

gen, but mitigate the signs or symptoms of the infection:

Symptomatic Treatment
Although these drugs do not fight the cause of a disease, they help the patient cope with its
signs and symptoms, including the following:

Antipyretics, substances that reduce fever.
A nalgesics, substances that reduce or eliminate pain.

Anti-inflammatories, substances that reduce or prevent the swelling of
tissues.
Ibuprofen is a widely used antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory drug.
3-D model of an ibuprofen molecule.

science-bits.com 25
 Elaborate

Vaccines and Society

Two News Reports
Read these two recent news articles about people’s increasing reluc-
tance to receive vaccination and the reaction of various governments to
this standpoint.

Obama Tells Parents to Get Kids Vaccinated to Stem Measles

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - President Barack Obama is urging parents to get
their children vaccinated in the face of a measles outbreak that has infected
more than 100 people in the United States.
In excerpts from an interview with NBC News that will air on Monday, Oba-
ma said measles was a preventable disease.
He said that while he understood there were families concerned about the
effect of vaccinations, he said the science was “pretty indisputable.” “We’ve
looked at this again and again. There is every reason to get vaccinated,
but there aren’t reasons to not,” he said, adding: “You should get your kids
vaccinated.” He said the larger the group of unvaccinated people, the more
vulnerable it made small infants and people who cannot get vaccinations
because of health issues.
There have been 91 measles cases in California, with at least 58 of those
epidemiologically linked to a cluster that began at Disneyland in December.
More than a dozen other cases have been confirmed in 13 other US states
and in Mexico. No deaths have been reported in connection with the out-
break, which public health officials suspect began when an infected person
from outside the United States visited Disneyland in Anaheim, California,
between December 15 and December 20.
The measles outbreak has renewed a debate over the so-called anti-vacci-
nation movement in which fears about potential side effects of vaccines,
fueled by now-debunked research suggesting a link to autism, have led a
small minority of parents to refuse to allow their children to be inoculated.
Adapted from Peter Cooney, “Obama Tells Parents to Get Kids Vac-
cinated to Stem Measles,” Reuters website, http://www.reuters.
com/article/us-usa-measles-obama/obama-tells-parents-to-get-
kids-vaccinated-to-stem-measles-idUSKBN0L606T20150202,
February 2, 2015

26 science-bits.com
 Europe’s Vaccine Nightmare
France’s Prime Minister Édouard Philippe has announced that the gov-
ernment will make the 11 vaccines universally recommended by health
authorities mandatory from 2018 onward. The announcement comes in
response to measles outbreaks across Europe, with 79 cases reported in
France in January and February alone. Philippe branded the state of affairs
“unacceptable.”
The resurfacing of diseases like measles is believed to be caused by people
believing less and less in the power of vaccines. In France, a recent survey
found that three in 10 people don’t trust vaccines, with only 52 percent stat-
ing they believed that the benefits outweighed the risks. Italy has also seen a
worrying increase in measles infections—the number of cases in April was
five times higher than the same month in 2016. Beatrice Lorenzin, the Italian
health minister, said that the rapid increase was “an emergency generated
by fake news.”
The shift in public perception in Italy and France is symptomatic of a Europe-
wide trend that has been attributed to the growing anti-vaccine movement.
The genesis of the skepticism was Andrew Wakefield, who stated in a 1998
research paper that there was a link between the measles, mumps, and ru-
bella vaccine and the development of autism. The claim has been irrefutably
debunked, although dubious science and scare tactics are perpetuating the
findings of the report.
In response, many countries have taken measures to increase the use of vac-
cines. Italy has made 12 vaccinations obligatory for children, while Australia
has introduced a financial incentive by offering parents $129 for every child
who meets recommended vaccination levels between the ages of 18 months
and 24 months, with the payment being repeated if the same requirements
are met between the ages of four and five.
Adapted from Tom Ward, “France Just Announced a New Law Making
11 Vaccines Mandatory,” News, Health & Medicine, Futurism website,
https://futurism.com/france-just-announced-a-new-law-mak-
ing-11-vaccines-mandatory/, July 6, 2017

Task

a. What do you think about the surge of anti-vaccination movements? Why

do you think it has some governments seriously worried?

b. Do you think that the people who decide not to be vaccinated and not
give vaccines to their children have a point in doing so?

science-bits.com 27
 Arguments and Fallacies

Without a shadow of a doubt, there is enough scientific evidence

to assert that vaccines save many lives around the world.

However, anti-vaccination movements that have become popular over

the last few decades provide all sorts of arguments to try to justify their
decision not to give vaccines to children.
But, what are their arguments? Are their arguments based on scientific
facts and sound reasoning?
In this activity, you will analyze some of their arguments and build argu-
ments to counter those which are fallacies.

Against a social and scientific controversy such as vaccination, it is im-

portant to be able to distinguish solid arguments based on scientific
evidence from fallacies.

A fallacy is an argument that looks valid, but which is not.

An argument turns out to be a fallacy if:

It is based on opinions or false assumptions, instead of objective data.

lthough it may be based on objective data, the argument leads to a
A
conclusion that does not follow the data.

This list shows some of the main arguments posed by anti-vaccination

activists.
Argument 1
The immunity induced by suffering a disease is better than the one obtained
by administering vaccines. It is only when we experience signs and symp-
toms of a disease that our body responds with the adequate intensity to fight
it off and provide us with immunity.

Argument 2
There are vaccines for some infectious diseases that have been almost com-
pletely eradicated in the region where I live. Therefore, there’s no reason
why I or my children should get vaccinated against them.
Argument 3
Some vaccines trigger harmful side effects. They may cause long-term
disorders or even death. It is therefore better to run the risk of suffering
a disease than the disorders resulting from vaccination against them.
Argument 4
Vaccines are not that necessary because infectious diseases can be
better controlled by having strict hygiene and sanitation measures in
place.
Argument 5
In 1988, a scientific study linked the MMR vaccine with autism, prov-
ing that the use of the vaccine led to developing autism.

a. Carefully read the following list and select one of the five arguments to
analyze it thoroughly, with the aim of:
1. Assessing whether it is a consistent argument or a fallacy; and
2. Building counter arguments.

28 science-bits.com
b. Analyze the argument you selected and prepare a document with your
conclusions:
To do so, follow these steps:
1. Distinguish the conclusion of the argument from the premises it is
based on.
2. When looking at the premises, distinguish between objective data
and opinions. Then, ensure that the data is backed by the scientific com-
munity. (For example, are they gathered from reliable scientific studies?
Have they been rebutted by subsequent studies?)
3. Assess to what extent the conclusion reached by the argument can
be inferred unequivocally from the premises.

c. If the argument you analyzed is a fallacy, build another one that counters it:
To do so, follow these steps:

1. Indicate whether the proposed arguments are valid or not. If the latter
is the case, back it up with objective arguments and indicate the scien-
tific source you used to obtain these data.
2. From the new data presented, and in line with the current scientific
model, draw a conclusion that is well reasoned that counters the incon-
sistent and false argument.
3. Gather the materials needed to support your counter argument (dia-
grams, tables, graphs, etc.)
4. Write your argument on the basis of the existing evidence, setting it
against the original argument each point responds to, resorting to the
scientific model whenever necessary.

d. To end the activity, present your counter argument to the rest of the class.
Listen to your classmates’ presentations, making sure they are substanti-
ated and clearly refute the original argument.

science-bits.com 29
 EXERCISES
Health and Disease 3. Flu or a Cold?
Flus—influenzas—and colds are two common
1. Facts about Health and Disease types of infectious diseases. Although their signs
Indicate whether the following statements are and symptoms may be similar at times, they are
true or false. not the same disease and need to be differenti-
ated to be able to treat them adequately.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is the
international organization that coordinates the Typically, a cold is a not a serious disease,
development and application of policies fa- whereas the flu is more likely to lead to more seri-
vorable to the health of the world’s population. ous complications.
Heath is only a medical concern. a. Complete the following table, indicating
A disease-free person is always a healthy whether the signs and symptoms listed are more
person. typical of flu patients or cold patients.
High blood pressure is a sign that health If necessary, look up the information.
personnel can assess in order to diagnose a
disease. Symptom or sign Flu Cold
The difference between signs and symptoms is A high fever [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
that only the former are real.
Loss of appetite [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
A headache is a sign doctors can draw on to
diagnose a disease. General muscle pain [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
A person’s health partly depends on the envi- Abundant nasal secretions [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
ronment surrounding him or her.
Sneezes and at itchy nose [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
2. Symptom or Sign?
Chills [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Classify the following typical manifestations of a
disease into signs or symptoms. Fatigue [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
A sore throat [Yes / No] [Yes / No]

b. Indicate whether the following statements

about signs and symptoms of a disease are true or
false.

Fever High blood pressure

As a whole, signs are helpful in diagnosing a
disease, whereas symptoms are not.
As a whole, symptoms are helpful in diagnos-
ing a disease, whereas signs are not.
To correctly diagnose—identify—a disease, a
patient’s signs and symptoms need to be as-
sessed as a whole.
Racing pulse Skin rashes
Each sign or symptom is indicative of a differ-
ent disease.
The same sign and symptom can be mani-
fested in different diseases.

Low blood cell count Aches

Drowsiness Loss of appetite

30 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
Infectious Diseases
4. Some Examples of Diseases
Look up information and indicate whether the fol-
lowing diseases are infectious or not, then indicate
the type of contact transmission involved if any.
Type: [infectious / noninfectious] Entamoeba histolytica
Infection: [mainly direct / it’s not infectious /
mainly indirect]. Pathogens and Disease
Breast cancer 6. Pathogen and Disease
Type: .......... Infection: ........... a. Match these diseases with the pathogens
Dengue Fever causing them.
Type: .......... Infection: ...........
[Giardiasis (beaver fever) / Tuberculosis
Malaria / Flu / Common cold / Leishmaniasis]
Type: .......... Infection: ...........
Cholera
Type: .......... Infection: ...........
AIDS
Type: .......... Infection: ...........
Alzheimer’s Disease
Type: .......... Infection: ........... Giardia lamblia Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Diabetes
Type: .......... Infection: ...........

Pathogens
5. Classifying Pathogens
Classify the following infectious agents into vi- Influenzavirus Rhinovirus
ruses, bacteria, protists, or fungi.

Leishmania sp.

Influenzavirus Rhinovirus b. This time, classify the pathogens from the previ-
ous step into viruses, bacteria, protists, or fungi.

First Line Defenses: Barriers

7. Types of Barriers
Classify the following barriers into physical, bio-
HIV Escherichia coli chemical, mechanical, or biological.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Absidia corymbifera

Oral mucosa Skin

science-bits.com 31
 EXERCISES
Eyelids
Tears
Intestinal flora Removal of mucus
Nonpathogenic bacteria
of the skin
2nd and 3rd Lines: The Immune System
8. Parts of the Immune System
Match these components of the immune system
and their names:
[Bone marrow / Thymus / Spleen / Lymph
nodes / Lymphatic vessels]
9. Immune System Processes
a. Where are white blood cells produced?
q In the bone marrow
q In tonsils and lymph nodes
q In the thymus gland
Sweat q In lymphatic vessels
q In the spleen
b. Some of the lymphocytes mature in a lymphatic
organ. Which one or ones?
q In the bone marrow
q In tonsils and lymph nodes
Sneezing q In the thymus gland
q In lymphatic vessels
q In the spleen
c. Which lymphatic organs store white blood cells?
qIn the bone marrow
qIn tonsils and lymph nodes
qIn the thymus gland
qIn lymphatic vessels
qIn the spleen
d. Which lymphatic organs transport white blood
cells?
q In the bone marrow
q In tonsils and lymph nodes
q In the thymus gland
q In lymphatic vessels
q In the spleen
Nonspecific Immunity
10. Stages of the Nonspecific Response
Rank the stages of nonspecific immunity after a
pathogen enters the body.
A. Pus forms from the remains of phagocytes
and pathogens.
B. The blood vessels dilate and body tempera-
ture increases.
C. The phagocytes penetrate through the walls
of the blood vessels.
D. The number of phagocytes traveling to the
damaged site increases.
E. The phagocytes engulf the pathogen and
destroy it.
F. The cells of the injured tissues release hista-
mine.

32 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
11. Facts about the Nonspecific Immune The pathogen enters the cells and uses them
Response to replicate. ..........
Indicate whether the following statements about
Lymphocytes detect the pathogen. ..........
the body’s nonspecific immune response are true
or false. Some lymphocytes are stored in the lymph
nodes as immune memory. ...........
The nonspecific immune response is a type of
defense barrier. Some lymphocytes produce antibodies. ...........
The nonspecific immune response occurs only Some lymphocytes attack the infected cells
in the skin. where the pathogen is replicating. ..........
Leukocytes do not participate in the nonspe-
cific response. 13. Facts about the Specific Immune Response
Indicate whether the following statements about
The dilation of the blood vessels triggers the
the specific immune response are true or false.
release of histamine.
Lymphocytes do not participate in the nonspe-
cific immune response.
The nonspecific immune response is different
for each type of pathogen.
Phagocytes participate in the nonspecific im-
mune response.
Histamine triggers the production of phago-
cytes in the bone marrow.

Specific Immunity
12. Specific Response against Bacteria
a. Rank the stages of the specific immune response
against the entry of a pathogenic bacterium in the
body in the order in which they occur.
A. Phagocytes engulf and destroy the bacteria
marked for destruction by antibodies.
B. Antibodies specifically bind to the bacteria.
C. The lymphocyte activates and triggers the
production of lymphocytes to give a specific
response to this type of bacterium. Memory lymphocytes allow the immune
D. Some lymphocytes begin to produce spe- response to be faster and more effective when
cific antibodies against the bacteria, and some faced with any pathogen.
others are stored as memory lymphocytes. Once the pathogen has been eliminated, all
E. The invasive bacterium is specifically identi- lymphocytes produced during the specific
fied by a specialized lymphocyte. response are destroyed.
F. A bacterium enters the body and begins to For this immune response to occur, a specific
replicate. lymphocyte specifically identifies the pathogen.
b. Indicate whether the following statements refer Lymphocytes participate in the specific im-
to the specific immune response against viral infec- mune response.
tions, bacterial infections, or both.
Phagocytes participate in the specific immune
[Viral infections / Bacterial infections / Viral and response.
bacterial infections]
Some of the antibodies produced are stored
The pathogen penetrates through the external in the lymph nodes, ensuring the immune
barriers and enters the body. .......... memory in this way.

science-bits.com 33
 EXERCISES
14. The Immune Response The antibodies produced during the second
Antibodies are specific proteins that allow an organ- infection are more effective against viruses
ism’s body to fight infections effectively. However, than those produced during the first infection,
for the production of antibodies to start, the body because they have memory.
needs to have a sufficient number of activated
Viruses replicate to the same degree during
lymphocytes.
both the first and second infection.
a. These two graphs represent the evolution of
Thanks to the promptness of the second re-
viral concentration in the blood and the concen-
sponse, a virus is less likely to proliferate and the
tration of antibodies combating it over time.
disease may not develop.
Which of the two graphs corresponds to the first
infection by the virus? Which one corresponds to Immune Response Disorders
a second infection?
15. Some Disorders
The following body disorders are disturbances of
Graph A the immune response.
Concentration of antibodies

Look up information and indicate whether they

Viral concentration

are immunodeficiencies, autoimmune diseases, or

allergies.
[immunodeficiency / allergy / autoimmunity]
Rash: ..........

0
Type 1 diabetes mellitus: ..........
0 7 14 21 28 35 Systemic lupus erythematosus: ..........
Time (in days)
Asthma: ..........
AIDS: ..........
Graph B
Concentration of antibodies

Celiac disease: ..........

Viral concentration

Leukemia: ..........
Eczema: ..........
Chronic granulomatous disease: ..........

16. Food Allergies

Some people are allergic to certain foods. If these
0
0 7 14 21 28 35 people eat those foods, even in very small quanti-
Time (in days) ties, they experience allergic reactions that can be
especially severe and cause their blood pressure to
drop and airways to become blocked.
First infection: [Graph A / Graph B]
It is particularly important for these individuals
Second infection: [Graph A / Graph B] to know the composition of the prepared foods
they eat.
b. Determine which of the following statements
about the difference between the first and sec- Look up information about food allergies and
ond responses of the specific immune system are write a list with 5 foods commonly related to al-
true or false. lergies.
The second immune response against the virus
is quicker because the organism’s body already
has memory lymphocytes.
The second immune response against the virus
is faster because the organism’s body already has
antibodies for this virus.

34 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
17. HIV What is HIV?
Read the following text and answer the questions in a. What is HIV?
the following pages.
HIV is a [virus / bacterium / protist / fungus]
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) de- that results in the development of an [allergy
stroys the immune cells and impairs the normal / immunodeficiency / autoimmunity] in the
function of the immune response, the infected infected organism.
person gradually becomes immunodeficient.
Immunodeficiency increases the risk of numerous b. What part of the body does HIV attack?
opportunistic infections and cancers that people q
The immune system
with healthy immune systems can fight off. The
most advanced stage of HIV infection is Acquired q
The reproductive system
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which can q
The circulatory system
take 2 to 15 years to develop.
q
The body as a whole
Signs and Symptoms
The symptoms of HIV infection vary depending on c. Which of the following are symptoms of infec-
the stage they are at when first treated. tion by HIV?
In the first few weeks following infection, the Diarrhea
individual does not present any symptoms or may Appearance of characteristic blisters on the skin
experience an influenza-like illness including fever,
headache, rash, or sore throat. Development of infections by opportunistic
microorganisms
As the infection progressively weakens the immune
system, an individual may have other signs and Transmission
symptoms, such as swollen lymph nodes, weight Indicate whether the following actions are a form
loss, fever, diarrhea, and cough. of HIV infection, and the type of infection.
In the absence of treatment, opportunistic infec- [Direct infection / Indirect infection / It’s not an
tions and severe cancers may develop. infection]
Transmission Shaking hands with an infected individual: ..........
HIV is transmitted through the exchange of certain
body fluids from infected individuals: blood, breast Receiving a blood transfer with infected blood:
milk, semen, and vaginal secretions. It is not pos- ............
sible to become infected in ordinary day-to-day
contact such as kissing, hugging, or shaking hands, Being breastfed by an infected mother: ..........
or sharing personal objects, water, or food. Using the same towel as an infected individual:
Diagnosis ............
Serological tests can detect HIV antibodies that are
Being operated on with non-sterile surgical
generated as part of the immune response, but they
equipment used previously with an infected
can’t detect HIV itself.
patient: ..........
Most individuals develop antibodies to HIV within
28 days of infection and therefore antibodies may Having unprotected sex with an infected indi-
not be detectable early. This window period is the vidual: ..........
time when the virus is most infectious, although this
Sharing a glass of water with an infected indi-
can occur during all stages of the infection.
vidual: ..........
Adapted from World’s Health Organization,
“HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet,” WHO website, Kissing an infected person: ..........
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/
factsheets/fs360/en/, July 2017

science-bits.com 35
 EXERCISES
HIV Impact 18. The Immune System and Transplants
a. Observe this map and indicate the region that is
most affected by HIV. Organ transplantation is a medical pro-
cedure in which an organ or tissue that is
damaged or missing is replaced by another
one from a different body.

The main problem that an organ recipient must

face is transplant rejection. In such cases, the pa-
<0.1% tient’s body has an immune response to the cells
0.1-0.5% of the transplanted organ, leading to transplant
0.5-1%
1-5% failure.
5-15%
15-50%
No data a. How can you describe the role of the immune
system in transplant rejection?
HIV prevalence in the world’s countries in 2009. q
The immune system acts against the cells and
tissues of the transplanted organ because it
q
North America.
acts against all eukaryotic cells.
q
Southeast Asia.
q
The immune system acts against the trans-
q
Europe. planted organ because it identifies its cells
q
Eastern and Southern Africa. and tissues as foreign bodies.
q
Latin America. q
The immune system acts against the trans-
planted organ because it contains patho-
b. How many people are estimated to be infected
genic bacteria.
by HIV around the world?
Look up the information. b. The first ever successful transplant was a kid-
ney transplant made between two twin brothers
q
About 36.7 million people.
in 1954. Up until then, all transplants had suffered
q
About 19.5 million people. rejection a few days after the operation.
q
There’s no reliable data available.
Why do you think the transplanted organ wasn’t
q
Less than 19.5 million people. rejected in this case?
Diagnosis qBecause the cells of two family members are
a. What do diagnostic tests for HIV look for? genetically identical.

q Because the immune system was not func-
q
HIV in the patient’s blood.
tional in the recipient’s kidney.
q
HIV antibodies in the patient’s blood.

q Because there is no immune response from the
q
Disease-causing pathogens that trigger op-
body when the transplant involves a kidney.
portunistic infections in the patient’s blood.

q Because the twins have identical cells and
q
Lymphocytes in the patient’s blood.
the immune system of the recipient did not
b. Why is there a waiting period after HIV expo- recognize the cells of the transplanted organ
sure to perform the diagnostic tests? as a foreign body.

q F or the virus to be detected, it needs time to
replicate and be noticeable.
q It is the time the body needs to produce
antibodies.
q Because the patient does not detect any
symptoms right after the infection and is not
aware of being infected.
q Because the body needs time to develop op-
portunistic diseases.
c. Medicine has found ways in which to reduce
the rate of transplant rejection. The main strategy
involves finding donors whose cells are as similar
as possible to those of the recipient. This is done
by means of compatibility tests.
However, there are always incompatibilities that
must be addressed by administering immu-
nosuppressant drugs. This medication acts
by inhibiting the immune response to a certain
degree.

36 science-bits.com

What effects can these drugs have on the health of
the individuals who have had an organ transplant?
q
The recipient’s immune system is more pre-
pared to respond quickly and effectively to an
infection.
q T
he recipient is more vulnerable to allergies.
q The recipient is more likely to suffer infectious
diseases.
Stages of Infectious Disease
19. Facts about the Stages of an Infectious
Disease
Determine whether the following statements
about the developmental stages of a disease are
true or false.
During the incubation period, the pathogens
thrive and diversify in the infected body.
During the incubation period, the patient
shows the first symptoms and signs of the
disease.
After the incubation period, the disease is no
longer infectious during the other stages.
During the convalescence period, the number
of pathogens in the body is zero or insignifi-
cant.
During the illness period, the pathogen keeps
multiplying.
The incubation period for all infectious diseas-
es lasts approximately one week.
20. Incubation Period for Infectious Diseases
Look up information and indicate how long the
incubation period is for the following infectious
diseases.
Mononucleosis: not more than [2 days /
8 weeks / 5 days].
Cholera: less than [5 days / 3 weeks /
2 months].
Smallpox: between [1 and 2 days / 1 and
2 weeks / 1 and 2 months].
Flu: about [3 days / 15 weeks / 2 months]
Scarlet fever: less than [2 hours / 2 days /
2 weeks]
Ebola: not more than [1 day / 5 days /
3 weeks].
science-bits.com
EXERCISES
Preventing Infectious Diseases
21. Healthy Habits
Determine the aim of the following healthy
habits to prevent the development of infectious
diseases.
[maintains the immune system in good shape
/ minimizes contact with pathogens / does
not help prevent the development of infec-
tious diseases]
Washing your hands: .......... .
Maintaining a balanced diet: .......... .
Sleeping sufficient hours: .......... .
Using a mask to protect you against the trans-
mission of airborne pathogens: .......... .
Having a healthy lifestyle: .......... .
Bundling up when it’s cold: ............ .
22. The Importance of Hand Cleansing
Carefully read the text and answer the questions in
the following pages.
Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician
whose work demonstrated that hand-washing
could drastically reduce the number of women
dying after childbirth. This work took place in
the 1840s, while he was Director of the maternity
clinic at the Vienna General Hospital in Austria.
We all now know how important it is to wash our
hands. In hospitals, antibiotic-resistant strains
of bacteria are wiped out by the simple act of
hand-washing. Wards are supplied with anti-
septic hand gel which medical staff and visitors
use before they see patients who are vulnerable
to infection. The routine of ‘scrubbing up’ by
surgeons before an operation is, of course, a well-
established practice.
But this was not always the case. Until the late
1800s surgeons did not scrub up before surgery
or even wash their hands between patients,
causing infections to be transferred from one
patient to another. Doctors and medical students
routinely moved from dissecting corpses to ex-
amining new mothers without first washing their
hands, causing death by puerperal or ‘childbed’
fever as a consequence.
Semmelweis realized that mothers whose birth
had been assisted by a midwife instead of a
doctor were much less likely to become infected
with puerperal fever. Semmelweis considered the
37
 EXERCISES
many differences in practice by midwives and
doctors and, after discarding many other expla-
nations, realized that midwives did not carry out
dissections.
His proposal of rigorous hand-washing rules in
the maternity ward was wildly successful. Deaths
were drastically reduced and Semmelweis be-
came known as the ‘savior of mothers.’
However, many doctors took offense at what
they felt was an accusation about their practices:
they were at fault for the deaths of many new
mothers. Sadly, Semmelweiss was later shunned
and died, ironically, at an insane asylum due to
an infection.
Adapted from “Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-65),”
Brought to Life, Science Museum’s History
of Medicine website, http://www.science-
museum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/
ignazsemmelweis, October 11, 2017
a. State whether the following statements about
the text are true or false.
Mothers whose childbirth were not assisted by
midwives were more likely to become sick be-
cause they did not have the necessary medical
knowledge to carry out deliveries.
By setting up a protocol in which doctors had to
wash their hands before carrying out deliveries,
Semmelweis saved many lives.
In births assisted by midwives, new mothers
were less likely to be infected because they
hadn’t been in contact with sick people or per-
formed dissections.
Among doctors, the habit of hand washing
became widespread during the seventeenth
century.
Hand washing does not eliminate the pres-
ence of microorganisms unless it is done using
an antibiotic gel.
b. Who were more likely to get infected as a result
of doctors not washing their hands after dissec-
tions?
The doctors themselves.
Anybody the doctors were in contact with.
The new mothers, during childbirth.
38
c. What type of pathogens usually cause puerperal
infections?
If necessary, look up the information.
q
Viruses q
Bacteria
q
Fungi q
Protists
d. The text explains that during the first half of the
nineteenth century, doctors did not wash their
hands before an operation, or in between attend-
ing to patients.
Why didn’t they practice this healthy habit?
q
At the time, they thought that the use of
soap did not eliminate pathogenic microor-
ganisms.
q
At the time, they didn’t know that infectious
diseases were caused by microscopic patho-
gens that spread by hand contact.
q
At the time, they did not consider puerperal to
be an infectious disease.
23. Immunization Schedule
Healthcare officials in countries create an immuni-
zation schedule for their population. Designing
these schedules is based on various criteria and can
greatly vary across countries.
In some countries, most vaccines are mandatory,
whereas in others they are only recommended. De-
pending on the country, vaccination can be funded
by healthcare providers, purchased through private
insurance, or privately purchased by the patients
themselves.
In most countries, vaccination is given during child-
hood.
Next, let’s study the immunization schedule for two
European countries: Italy and Spain.
a. Study the tables and indicate whether the fol-
lowing statements are true or false.
If necessary, look up the information.
Vaccines are administered at the same age in
both countries.
Whereas most vaccines are mandatory in Italy,
they are only recommended in Spain.
All vaccines are funded by the public health
department.
science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
The two countries’ schedules include the Spain

same vaccines. Months Years

2 3 4 5 6 7 11 12 13 14 15 3 6 12
The same doses are administered in both Rotavirus infection
countries. Diphtheria
Tetanus
b. The MMR vaccine is a mixture of three vac- Whooping cough
cines against three diseases. Poliomyelitis
Hib infection
Look up the information and complete the Hepatitis B
sentence below. Pneumococcus disease
Meningococcal group B disease
[diphtheria / tetanus / whooping cough /
Meningococcal group C disease
hepatitis B / measles / mumps / rubella / Measles
chickenpox / poliomyelitis] Mumps
Rubella
The diseases are .........., .........., and .......... .
Chickenpox
c. Look up information about the vaccine HPV infection
against the human papillomavirus. Who is it Mandatory and funded. Recommended and unfunded.
administered to? Recommended and funded. If the previous vaccines haven’t been given and the
individual hasn’t contracted the disease yet.
qOnly to boys
Italy
qOnly to girls
Months Years
qTo boys and girls 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 12 13 14 15 3 6 12
Rotavirus infection
d. Some vaccines against infectious diseases Diphtheria
such as tuberculosis are neither adminis- Tetanus
tered nor recommended in either of the two Whooping cough
countries. Poliomyelitis
Hib infection
Look up information and try to explain why Hepatitis B
this vaccine is not included in the vaccination Pneumococcus disease
schedule. Meningococcal group B disease
Meningococcal group C disease
e. Vaccines against rotavirus and meningo- Measles
coccus B are recommended in both coun- Mumps
tries, but only Italy provides funding for them. Rubella
Chickenpox
What factors do you think determine whether HPV infection
a country should use one vaccination sched- Mandatory and funded. Recommended and unfunded.
ule or another? Recommended and funded. If the previous vaccines haven’t been given and the
individual hasn’t contracted the disease yet.

How Do Vaccines Work?

24. Vaccines and Mice

First Experiment
A lab is investigating the effect of a vaccine roup 1 is injected with a virulent strain of the
G
against a pathogen called A. pathogen.
The study involves a series of experiments with roup 2 is injected with an inactive strain of the
G
lab mice that have never been exposed to patho- same pathogen.
gen A. roup 0 is injected with a serum without any
G
In the first experiment, three groups of mice are pathogens.
subject to the following treatment:

science-bits.com 39
 EXERCISES

Inactive
Pathogen pathogen Pathogen

Healthy mouse

Healthy mouse

Inactive Inactive Pathogen

pathogen pathogen

Healthy mouse
Healthy mouse

Noninfectious Inactive Noninfectious

serum pathogen serum

Healthy mouse
Healthy mouse
First experiment. Second experiment.

a. What do you think will happen with the mice
in group 1?
q 
They will contract disease A.
q 
They will not contract the disease.
b. What do you think will happen with the mice
in group 2?
q
They will contract disease A.
q
They will not contract the disease.
c. What do you think will happen with the mice in
group 0?
q
They will contract disease A.
q
They will not contract the disease.
Second Experiment
The results from the first experiment confirm the
hypothesis concerning the virulence of the patho-
gen.
Next, three groups are formed from the mice that
were injected with an inactive strain of the patho-
gen. These groups are subjected to the following
treatments:
roup 2.1 is injected with a virulent strain of
G one of the mice injected with virulent patho-
pathogen A.
roup 2.1 is injected with a virulent strain of a
G e. What would the results of the second experi-
different pathogen called B.
roup 2.0 is injected with a serum without any
G with mice in group 0 from the first experiment?
pathogens.
a. What do you think will happen to the mice in
group 2.1?
q
They will contract disease A.
q
They will not contract the disease.
b. What do you think will happen to the mice in
group 2.2?
q
They will contract disease B.
q
They will not contract the disease.
c. What do you think will happen to the mice in
group 2.0?
q
They will contract disease A.
q
They will contract disease B.
q
They won’t contract the disease.
d. What would the results of the second experi-
ment be if the experiment had been carried out
with mice in group 1 from the first experiment?
q
All of the mice injected with virulent pathogens
(A or B) would have become ill.
q
Exactly the same.
qN
gens (A or B) would have become ill.
ment be if the experiment had been carried out

40 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
ll of the mice injected with virulent pathogens
qA
(A or B) would have become ill. Graph A

Concentration of antibodies
q
Exactly the same.

Viral concentration
q
None of the mice injected with virulent patho-
gens (A or B) would have become ill.

f. Could you affirm that the mice in one of the

groups in the first experiment were vaccinated
against the disease caused by pathogen A?
0

qYes, those in experimental group 1. 0 7 14 21 28 35
Time (in days)

qYes, those in experimental group 2.

qYes, those in experimental group 0. Graph B

Concentration of antibodies
o, there is no vaccination in either of the two
qN

Viral concentration
experiments.
o, vaccination occurs in the second experi-
qN
ment.

g. Complete the following text:

A vaccine is a preparation containing [an 0
inactive / a virulent] form of a pathogen that 0 7 14 21 28 35
triggers the [specific immune response / Time (in days)
nonspecific immune response / disease] in an
organism. This is the way to prevent the organ-
ism from becoming ill when in contact with Graph C

Concentration of antibodies
[an inactive / a virulent] form [of the same / of
Viral concentration

any] pathogen.

25. Vaccines and Immune Response

The specific immune response of an organism
can be detected by measuring the concentration
of antibodies in their blood.
0
a. Observe these graphs showing how viral con- 0 7 14 21 28 35
centration and concentration of antibodies in the Time (in days)
blood varies over time. Indicate the situation that
each of these graphs corresponds to: q
Because the organism is fighting a particularly
Immune response caused by a vaccine: .......... virulent form of the virus.
Response against a virus by a person who has q
Because the organism is fighting a nonactive
been vaccinated: .......... form of the virus.
Response against a virus by a person who has 26. Why Is Vaccination Important?
not been vaccinated: .......... We Can’t All Be Vaccinated
Certain vaccines cannot be administered to people
b. Compare the three immune responses. In which whose immune system is immature or weakened.
case does the subject reach a high concentration In these cases, the pathogen contained in the
of antibodies in the blood first? vaccine, despite being a weakened form, may still
In the situation represented in .......... . cause the disease and have serious consequences.
For this reason, doctors are especially cautious
c. Why?
when it comes to administering vaccines to certain
q
Due to the existence of memory lymphocytes. groups of people.

science-bits.com 41
 EXERCISES
Which of the following groups do you think doc-
tors refer to?
 no unvaccinated individuals becoming infected.
q People suffering food allergies.
q 
People suffering autoimmune diseases.
Newborns.
 could not be vaccinated against an infection because
q
q 
People suffering immunodeficiencies.
Herd Immunity
Although they cannot be given vaccines, people
with immunodeficiencies are indirectly protected
if they live in societies where most people are vac-
cinated against certain diseases.
What occurs is that this group is not in contact
with pathogens because the population that has
been vaccinated fight them and eliminate them
quickly, so they do not suffer nor infect others with
the disease.
This ability not to suffer a disease thanks to
the immunity provided by all the people
surrounding us is called herd immunity.
To understand the conditions under which herd
immunity is effective, the following resource simu-
lates the contagion of an infectious disease.
a. You can use the simulator in the digital version
to set the percentage of vaccinated individuals in
a population and observe how a disease spreads
from a single infected person.
Observe how the spread of a disease changes
when different percentages of a population are
vaccinated.
For a given percentage, activate the simulator a
few times. Remember that both vaccinated and
unvaccinated individuals are distributed random-
ly every time you restart the simulator.
b. Activate the simulator eight times with each of
the following percentages of vaccinated popula-
tion: 30%, 50%, 70%, 85%, and 95%. Briefly describe
what occurs with each of the percentages.
c. What percentage of the population do you think
must get vaccinated for the unvaccinated popula-
tion to be safe from the disease?
42
Consider the number of attempts at each percent-
age of vaccinated population that have resulted in
d. Suppose that, at one point, 1.5% of the population
it would pose a risk to their health.
Suppose also that you had access to the vaccine and,
although in your case the disease would not entail
death, it would still be serious and therefore health
officials in your country would recommend you to be
vaccinated.
Do you think it would be a responsible choice not to
be vaccinated?
q
Yes, because all other people would be vacci-
nated in any case, so there would be nothing to
worry about.
q
No, because if several people decided not to
be vaccinated, your health would be at risk and
in turn you would be endangering the health
of those with immunodeficiencies.
No, because even if everybody else were vac-
q
cinated, you would still be infected with the
disease.
Treating Infectious Diseases
27. Facts about the Treatment of Infectious
Diseases
Indicate whether the following statements are true
or false.
A specific antiserum is effective against all
types of pathogens.
If you become ill, a treatment should be
followed as soon as possible, even before
knowing the appropriate guidelines given by
medical staff.
Antiviral efficiency depends largely on the time
when antivirals are administered.
Ibuprofen and amoxicillin are drugs used
against the flu virus.
Antibiotics such as penicillin fight off all infec-
tious diseases.
Symptomatic treatments do not fight off the
cause of infectious diseases.
Antiserum contains antibodies.
28. HIV Prevention and Treatment
Read the following text about the prevention and
treatment of HIV and answer the questions on the
following pages.
science-bits.com

HIV is transmitted through the exchange of certain
body fluids from infected individuals: blood, breast
milk, semen, and vaginal secretions. It is not pos-
sible to become infected in ordinary day-to-day
contact such as kissing, hugging or shaking hands,
or sharing personal objects, water, or food.
Individuals can reduce the risk of HIV infection by
limiting exposure to risk factors. Also, there are
several methods for HIV prevention when exposure
is inevitable.
HIV can be suppressed through treatments using
antiretroviral drugs (ART). ART does not cure HIV
infection but suppresses viral replication within a
person’s body and allows an individual’s immune
system to strengthen and regain the capacity to
fight off infections. By stopping virus replication, not
only is the disease controlled, but the likelihood of
spreading it to others is minimized.
However, the effect of these antiretrovirals disap-
pears if they stop being taken. It is therefore recom-
mended to provide this lifelong treatment to all
infected individuals.
In addition, one in three people living with HIV
present to care with advanced disease, at high risk
of serious illness and death. To reduce this risk, the
WHO recommends that these patients receive a
treatment that includes, apart from antiretrovirals,
testing for and prevention of the most common
serious infections.
Adapted from World’s Health Organization,
“HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet,” WHO website, http://
www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/
fs360/en/, July 2017
a. What is the main strategy to prevent HIV infec-
tion?
q Taking antiretrovirals as a preventive measure.
qV accination.
q Avoiding exposure to the virus.
b. Indicate whether the following body fluids of a
person infected with HIV can contain the HIV virus.
Blood. Breast milk.
Semen and vaginal secretions.
Saliva and tears.
c. Indicate whether the following statements
about HIV are true or false.
Some antiretrovirals are used to fight off HIV
infection.
science-bits.com
EXERCISES
Some antibiotics are used to fight off HIV
infection.
Infection by HIV can be treated.
HIV infection can be cured.
d. What is the effect of the medication adminis-
tered to HIV patients?
It slowly destroys the virus.
The likelihood of the patient spreading the
disease is reduced.
The patient’s immune system experiences a
mild recovery.
It hinders virus replication and prolongs its
latency period.
29. Breastfeeding and Immunity
Carefully read the following text and answer the
questions on the following pages.
How Breastfeeding Helps Support and Develop a
Baby’s Immune System
It is well known that breastfed babies are less likely
to get infections than are formula-fed babies.
Breast milk contains many factors that help to
support a baby’s immune system such as antibod-
ies, that work against infections when a mother
breastfeeds her baby.
When a mother comes into contact with germs
in her environment, she makes antibodies to fight
those germs. These antibodies pass into the breast
milk and therefore into the baby. Since a mother
and her baby are generally in contact with the
same germs, this helps to protect her baby from
the illnesses they are both exposed to. The main
type of antibody in breast milk is IgA. IgA antibod-
ies protect the internal surfaces of the body, such
as the mouth, stomach, intestines and lungs. They
are not digested by the baby, they just coat the
gut and block the entry of infections that could
otherwise cause illness.
In addition, there are a number of other factors
in breast milk that help a breastfed baby develop
a more efficient immune system. For example,
breastfed babies tend to have a larger thymus
gland than those fed infant formula.
Breastfeeding and Immunization
Although breastfeeding often reduces the severity
of illness in a baby, it is important to understand
that breastfeeding does not provide a substitute
for immunization. In other words, breastfeeding
does not provide total immunity to your baby to
43
 EXERCISES
vaccine-preventable diseases. Vaccines developed
against severe, life-threatening diseases—polio,
diphtheria, measles, and others—are another
important way to protect our children’s health.
Breastfeeding may improve a baby’s response to
some immunizations. When breastfed babies are
vaccinated, they produce higher levels of antibod-
ies in response to some vaccinations compared to
formula-fed babies.
Adapted from “Breastfeeding and Immunity,”
Australian Breastfeeding Association website,
https://www.breastfeeding.asn.au/bfinfo/
breastfeeding-and-immunity, June, 2016
a. In what way does breast milk help support the
baby’s immune system?
Breastfeeding provides temporary protection
to the baby since it contains antibodies from
the mother.
Breast milk contains memory lymphocytes that
are stored in the babies’ lymph nodes.
Breast milk contains weakened pathogens that
stimulate the baby’s immune system to produce
antibodies.
Thanks to breastfeeding, babies develop im-
mune memory from the first day.
Breastfeeding favors the immune system over
time, enhancing the development of lymphoid
organs such as the thymus gland.
b. This way, breastfeeding can be considered a
natural form of…
q 
administering antibiotics.
 many countries it is recommended to give vac-
q administering retroviral drugs.
q 
vaccination.
q 
administering antiserum.
c. What diseases does breastfeeding provide pro-
tection against?
gainst infectious diseases the mother (and,
qA
most likely, the baby) is exposed to around
the breastfeeding period.
gainst any infectious disease the mother has
qA
been exposed to throughout her life.
gainst any infectious disease.
qA
d. The baby’s immune system at birth is still im-
mature, so babies are more vulnerable to all types
of infections up until the age of 2. That’s why the
44
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends
breastfeeding.
Exclusive breastfeeding consists of exclusively
feeding the baby with breast milk, using no oth-
er food or water.
Combined breastfeeding consists of feeding

the baby with breast milk, along with other
food that is gradually included under the su-
pervision of medical staff.
Look up information and complete the text about
infant nutrition:
WHO recommends [exclusive / combined]
breastfeeding for the first ........... months of life and
[exclusive / combined] breastfeeding at least up
to .......... months.
e. Why must all babies (even those who are breast-
fed) be vaccinated according to the vaccination
schedule established by health officials?
Because breast milk does not protect against
all infectious diseases.
Because vaccines and breastfeeding both pro-
tect against different infections.
Because breastfeeding only protects the baby
temporarily.
Because only vaccines protect against noninfec-
tious diseases.
Because only vaccines stimulate the baby’s
immune memory and provide long-term
protection.
f. During pregnancy, the mother transfers antibod-
ies to the baby through the placenta. That’s why in
cines to the mother during pregnancy. One such
example is the vaccine against whooping cough.
If a woman has already been given the whooping
cough vaccine, does she have to be vaccinated
again when she is pregnant?
o, because the mother already has antibod-
qN
ies against the whooping cough virus that
can be passed on to the baby.
q
Yes. Even though the mother already has im-
mune memory against this infection, expo-
sure to the pathogen is necessary to produce
antibodies that will be transferred to the baby.
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 ANNOTATIONS

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 ANNOTATIONS

46 science-bits.com
 Immune Response

Related units:

The Living Cell Human Nutrition

Human Responses to the Environment Human Reproduction

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