Thakar 2020 Mater. Res. Express 7 014002

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Mater. Res. Express 7 (2020) 014002 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab5c9c
PAPER
Optoelectronic and photonic devices based on transition metal

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dichalcogenides
RECEIVED
7 October 2019
Kartikey Thakar and Saurabh Lodha
REVISED
14 November 2019
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai—400076, India
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E-mail: kmtmicro@ee.iitb.ac.in and slodha@ee.iitb.ac.in
28 November 2019
Keywords: optoelectronics, photonics, 2D materials, transition metal dichalcogenides, photodetectors, photovoltaics, light emitting devices
PUBLISHED
6 January 2020
Original content from this Abstract

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Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are a family of two-dimensional layered materials
Commons Attribution 3.0 (2DLMs) with extraordinary optical properties. They present an attractive option for future multi-
licence.
functional and high-performance optoelectronics. However, much remains to be done to realize a
Any further distribution of
this work must maintain mature technology for commercial applications. In this review article, we describe the progress and
attribution to the
author(s) and the title of scope of TMDC devices in optical and photonic applications. Various photoresponse mechanisms
the work, journal citation
and DOI.
observed in such devices and a brief discussion on measurement and analysis methods are described.
Three main types of optoelectronic devices, namely photodetectors, photovoltaics and light-
emitting devices are discussed in detail with a focus on device architecture and operation. Examples
showing experimental integration of 2DLM-based devices with silicon photonics are also discussed
briefly. A wide range of data for key performance metrics is analysed with insights into future
directions for device design, processing and characterization that can help overcome present gaps
and challenges.
Introduction
Two-dimensional layered materials (2DLMs)

A large number of scientists and researchers has been attracted towards research on electronic devices based
on two-dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) in the last decade. Owing to some of their unique physical
properties and virtually endless possibilities to form heterostructures, 2DLMs can open the doors to a
plethora of novel devices and applications that are not easily executable with conventional 3D
semiconductors like Si, Ge or III-V materials. Flexible and transparent electronics are two such examples.
While the field is still in its infancy and requires significant efforts toward standardizing various approaches
towards a mature technology, it has already shown promising results in broader aspects of compatibility,
integration and performance for future electronics. Sensors are increasingly becoming an integrated part of
the global electronic eco-system with the rise of data-driven technologies. There is a growing need for
networks of cost-effective, robust and reliable sensors and their integration with present technologies.
Optoelectronic and photonic devices are of importance for both sensing as well as high-speed optical
communication applications. 2DLMs demonstrate significant light–matter interaction that is tunable with
external physical and electronic parameters such as pressure, strain, electric and magnetic field [1–6].
Moreover, 2DLMs show strong dependence of their band structure on thickness with a transition to direct
bandgap in monolayers in most of the known 2DLMs [7–9]. Graphene has been the most studied material
since its discovery in 2004 [10–12]. Apart from graphene, there are nearly 1500 possible 2DLMs with a wide
range of material properties as predicted by first principle simulations [13]. Transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDCs) are a family of 2DLMs in the form of MX2 compounds, where M is a transition metal (Mo, W, Re)
and X is a chalcogen (S, Se, Te). TMDCs are promising for electronic applications due to their semiconducting
behaviour as opposed to semi-metallic graphene, and better thermal stability than materials such as black
phosphorus and silicene [14–19].
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd

Mater. Res. Express 7 (2020) 014002 K Thakar and S Lodha
Figure 1. Number of published articles. Data is collected through keyword search from the Web of Science (www.webofknowledge.
com) in April, 2019. (a) Total number of articles published on graphene and other 2DLMs across various fields. (b) Pie charts showing
material-wise number of research articles published in the field of optoelectronics and photonics. (c) Year-wise number of articles
published for select set of materials. Different materials are color-coded. BP=black phosphorus, HS=heterostructure. (d) Number
of articles plotted for different materials for the same data as in (c).
Optoelectronic devices based on TMDCs

TMDCs have been the most studied 2DLMs, apart from graphene and black phosphorus, for electronic and
optoelectronic device applications [20, 21]. They have a sizeable bandgap in the visible and near infrared (NIR)
range (∼1–2 eV) that is optimal for optoelectronic sensors and light-emitting sources for short-range optical
communication [22, 23]. Moreover, alloying of the transition metals and chalcogens provides an additional
knob for tuning electrical and optical properties [24, 25]. Literature on optoelectronics based on TMDCs is
growing rapidly every year with reports on single material and heterostructure devices. Enhanced light–matter
interaction even at monolayer thickness along with a direct bandgap and mechanical flexibility gives clear
advantage over silicon (Si) technology [6, 26]. Optoelectronic devices such as photodetectors, photovoltaics,
light-emitting devices and optical modulators have been demonstrated using TMDCs across a wide range of
device architectures and measurement methodologies [4, 27, 28]. Figure 1 gives a picture of published reports on
TMDCs in the field of optoelectronics and photonics. The data has been collected through keyword search on
the Web of Science (www.webofknowledge.com) in April, 2019. It should be noted that the numbers are prone
to slight error due to the limitations of keyword search. Figure 1(a) shows the total number of articles published
on graphene and other selected 2DLMs. Number of articles on graphene clearly surpasses all other materials
combined. Figures 1(b)–(d) illustrate the number of published articles in the field of optoelectronics and
photonics for select 2DLMs (mainly TMDCs) categorized by publication year or material. Articles in the field of
optoelectronics and photonics are roughly 10% of the total published articles. Black phosphorus has been well-
studied due to its interesting material properties, but its technological relevance is low due to lack of air-stability
[15, 16]. It is interesting to observe that the number of reports on heterostructure (HS) devices is larger than that
for almost any single material. This is understandable since HS of different 2DLMs are a popular option to create
atomically thin and abrupt pn junctions. These trends indicate the research significance of each material and
potential opportunities or gaps. Further, the number of research articles coming out on optoelectronic devices is
set to grow with each coming year.
This review
It is crucial to study the fundamental mechanical, electrical and optical properties of TMDCs and several recent
articles have presented focused discussions on their synthesis and material-related properties which can have
significant impact on device performance [29–33]. In this article, however, we start with a basic introduction to
the physical mechanisms/phenomena in TMDC-based optoelectronic devices, followed by a brief discussion on
optoelectronic device characterization, analysis and performance evaluation. This is intended for a novice reader
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in the field. The field of optoelectronics is vast and literature on TMDCs is rich with studies on exciton physics,
substrate effects, and various material-level effects such as charge transfer [34–36]. While most studies on
optoelectronic devices mainly focus on performance improvement, they also employ a diverse range of device
architectures and physical mechanisms. This has resulted in a wide spread of uncorrelated performance
parameter values. In this article, we present a consolidated picture of this broad set of TMDC-based
optoelectronic devices, their architectures as well as their operational mechanisms. This enables us to compare
and benchmark their performance metrics. We cover three major types of devices—namely photodetectors
(PDs), photovoltaics (PV) and light-emitting devices (LEDs). We describe key recent works with an analysis on
their overall impact. We also briefly cover the integration of 2DLMs with Si photonics towards the end. Finally,
we end with concluding remarks and a discussion on future considerations for researchers working in this field.
Mechanisms in optoelectronic devices
In this section, we describe a few operational phenomena in 2DLM-based optoelectronic devices based on their
output characteristics and photoresponse behaviour.
Photoconduction (PC)
This is the most common phenomenon in photoactive materials [37]. Excess electron-hole (e-h) pairs are
generated upon absorption of light with energy higher than the bandgap of the material stack. The increased
carrier concentration results in a net increase in current under external applied electric field. Photocurrent (Iph)
is calculated as the increase in current from dark (Idark) to illumination (Ilight) conditions. Iph = Ilight - Idark.
The number of generated carriers per incident photon may depend on various factors such as excitation
wavelength, incident optical power, device operation, defects in the material and the material itself. Important
device design considerations include appropriate metal contacts, effect of the substrate and channel geometry.
Devices operating with this mechanism usually provide low-to-medium sensitivity with high speed of operation.
Photogating (PG)
Photogating is a specific case of PC [38]. One type of photogenerated carriers (electrons or holes) may get
trapped in the bulk material or material interfaces. This results in a net electrostatic voltage shift in the device.
Due to this, the device sees a pseudo electric field as if it were an external gate-field. This causes a net shift in the
transfer curve of the devices, especially in a field-effect transistor (FET) configuration. The trapped excess charge
carriers (for example, holes) induce the opposite polarity charges (electrons) in the channel which may be
thermally generated or provided from the contacts. Here multiple electrons can travel through the channel
before a single hole is de-trapped, contributing to the net output current. This results in a net gain in the output
as well, defined as the ratio of the lifetime of a trapped carrier (tlifetime ) to the time taken for free carriers to travel
through the channel (ttransit ). Gain (PG ) = tlifetime /ttransit . Here, a careful analysis of the underlying behaviour
and physics of defects and traps is of high importance [39–42]. A detailed discussion on the classification,
generation, properties and applications of defects and traps in TMDCs can be found in [43, 44].
Persistent photocurrent (PPC)

The current due to photogenerated carriers should ideally die down once the excitation source is turned off.
However, in some cases the photocurrent can retain the value that existed just before the light source was turned
off. This is called the persistent photocurrent (PPC) effect. This could be due to traps with a very long lifetime or
permanent changes in the channel. While PPC is not very useful for photodetection, it can prove to be beneficial
for non-volatile optical memory devices [45].
Avalanche photodetectors (APD)

If an excess charge carrier is subjected to a high electric field, either built-in or external, then it can induce
multiple charge carriers by impact ionization and increase the photocurrent. This results in a net multiplicative
gain (M). The channel may undergo a reversible soft breakdown in such devices. Avalanche devices are useful
specifically in weak light detection—such as a single photon detector [46, 47].
Photovoltaics (PV)
When a built-in electric field is present in the device, the photogenerated e-h pairs get separated in opposite
directions to give rise to a photovoltaic effect [48]. A built-in field can be achieved using pn junctions, chemical
or electrostatic doping, or metal work-function mismatch. The separated carriers can recombine through an
external circuit providing electrical power. Such devices usually operate under no applied bias, and hence are
3
crucial in energy harvesting applications. For their use as an energy generator, efficiency becomes a more
important parameter than speed in PV devices. However, fast switching PV devices can also work as efficient,
self-driven photodetectors (PDs).
Photothermoelectric (PTE) effect

Photothermoelectric effect arises due to local variation in temperature in the channel induced by light
irradiation [49, 50]. This could arise due to highly uneven light excitation or non-uniform absorption across the
active device area. For example, a focused laser spot smaller than the device area can locally heat the channel.
This could result in a temperature-driven current because of the thermoelectric voltage produced by Seebeck
effect. The current due to the PTE effect is self-driven and its polarity can be the same or opposite to the
photocurrent depending on the temperature gradient and the Seebeck coefficients of the materials involved.
Photobolometric (PB) effect

The resistance of the material may change with temperature induced due to light irradiation and absorption,
resulting in a change in the current, giving rise to a photobolometric effect [51, 52]. The current of the device can
increase or decrease with the PB effect for a fixed external bias. Unlike the PTE effect, an external bias is required
for current conduction in case of PB effect.
Electroluminescence (EL)
Electroluminescent devices work on the opposite principle to that of photogeneration. A highly doped pn
junction or quantum well device emits fixed wavelength photons when an e-h pair recombines radiatively in a
direct bandgap material. Due to the stringent requirement of a direct bandgap, mainly monolayer flakes of
TMDCs are used in EL devices. However, some of the 2DLMs such as ReS2, black phosphorus, and InSe have
direct bandgap in bulk as well [53–55]. The emitted light is characterized by material properties and operation
conditions. For example, an anisotropic material like ReS2 or black phosphorus can emit circularly polarized
light.
Valley or spin selection

2DLMs exhibit strong spin–orbit coupling (SOC) and valley spin polarization. Under an external magnetic field,
the recombination, generation and transport of carriers in such materials is spin polarized [56]. This allows us to
selectively populate carriers of a particular spin-type during both photogeneration as well as photoemission.
While proper operating conditions may be difficult to achieve for such devices, they do add an additional degree
of freedom to the available set of operational mechanisms.
Typical measurement and analysis methods
We describe a typical measurement system required for optoelectronic characterization of 2DLM-based devices,
figures of merit and specific measurements for performance evaluation.
Measurement setup
A typical optoelectronic characterization setup consists of three major components: (i) a light source and a
beam-steering assembly, (ii) a spectrometer, and (iii) an electrical measurement unit. Figure 2(a) shows a
standard setup with free space optical assembly. The sample is loaded under a microscope objective to focus
incident light selectively on the sample. Electrical connections are taken from the sample to the electrical unit. A
light source is not required for EL measurements, rather the light emitted from the sample is steered through the
same path to a spectrometer. This confocal assembly allows us to perform all standard experiments. All
equipment or parts can be collectively controlled by a program interface through a computer. Lastly, a vibration
proof optical table is required for placement of all the equipment. The same system can be used for physical
characterization such as photoluminescence (PL) and Raman spectroscopy with parts of appropriate
specifications. Next, we briefly describe each major part in the system.
Light source
The light source can vary depending on the measurement requirements in the study. A versatile, tunable,
continuum laser source is the most useful for recording the spectral response. The most common light source
used is a continuous wave (CW) single wavelength laser source with tunable power. A white light source or a
halogen lamp calibrated to the solar spectrum is required for photovoltaic characterization—however most
4
Figure 2. (a) Typical setup for free space optoelectronic characterization. Optical fibres can be used for the light path as well.
Microscope is used to probe selective area on the sample and can be omitted if large-area illumination is desired. (b) Typical plots for
2DLM-based photodetector characterization. (i) I-V characteristics of the device under dark and illumination. The response may vary
with device architecture and operating mechanisms. Photocurrent is calculated as Iph =Ilight – Idark. (ii) Responsivity (Rl = Iph /P. )
as a function of incident power at different excitation wavelengths. This is useful in determining the dynamic operating range of the
detector. (iii) Spectral response of the photodetector for different incident illumination power. This is important to determine what
spectrum can be probed with the device. (iv) NEP as a function of operating frequency. Noise floor is crucial in determining the
operating conditions as well as power loss in idle condition. Another important parameter is specific detectivity which can be
calculated as D* = R A /NEP. It indicates minimum detectable optical power for a given set of operating conditions. (v) Photo-
switching characteristics of the device allows us to extract the device response time. Temporal response is of utmost importance where
fast switching devices are desired – e.g., optical communication. (vi) Responsivity and response time are the two parameters of major
interest in 2DLM-based photodetector literature. R versus t plot for different devices iuseful to compare performance or suitability
for a given performance window. c Typical plots for 2DLM-based photovoltaic characterization. (i) I-V characteristics in the dark and
under illumination. For a realistic measurement, a source calibrated to the solar spectrum should be used. However, other light
sources could be used to show proof-of-concept device operation. 4th quadrant in the I-V curve is highlighted to show photovoltaic
action. (ii) Typically, 4th quadrant plot with absolute current values is used to evaluate the device performance. Isc and Voc indicate the
short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage, respectively. Output electrical power can be calculated as Pel =Ipv*Va. Fill factor is
calculated as the ratio of maximum power output to the maximum theoretical power output. FF = Pel, max /Ipv*Voc . (iii) Quantum
efficiency of the device as a function of wavelength. Both internal and external quantum efficiency values can be studied. The shown
curve is for near-ideal conditions where h is constant up to a l and starts decreasing after the bandgap edge since no e-h pair can be
generated. (d) Typical plots for 2DLM-based LED characterization. (i) Typical pn light emitting diode I-V curve. LED characterization
is carried out in constant current condition. (ii) EL spectra of the device for different current values. EL intensity usually increases with
increased current but need not follow a linear dependence. Systematic characterization allows calibration of the light intensity with
input current. (iii) EQE as a function of input current. It gives important information about what current window is best for LED
operation. Dummy data plots shown in b-d were created for the purpose of illustration.
5
reports on PV based on 2DLMs have used single frequency CW laser sources. FWHM and long-term power
stability are important parameters to consider in a laser source.
Optical assembly
The optical assembly consists of beam-steering and focusing equipment. Free space assembly is preferred to
minimize losses, while optical fibre delivery is preferred when freedom of routing (e.g. from a heavy, stationary
laser source) is required. The optical parts usually work for a specific range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Parts should be chosen as per the measurement requirements. Appropriate focusing and collimating apparatus
should be used in the light path to avoid losses. Usually a microscope is used for focused light and scanning
measurements.
Sample holder/stage
This is a crucial element in the system as it holds the most important thing in the whole setup—the device-
under-test (DUT). It can have capabilities such as holding vacuum, temperature control, motorized axis control
and even atmosphere control for humidity and gaseous compounds. Additionally, the stage may require the
ability to apply mechanical stress/strain for characterization of electromechanical stability of flexible
optoelectronic devices. Stages with one or more capabilities are available commercially, and can be custom-built
as well. Moreover, the sample holder should have capability to apply electrical signals to the DUT under a
microscope. Wire bonding the device allows for repeated measurements without harming the device
contact pads.
Electrical unit
Electrical unit provides the capability for various kinds of measurements. Standard commercially available
semiconductor measurement units (SMUs) are suitable for optoelectronic device measurements. All kinds of
steady-state current and voltage measurements can be easily carried out using SMUs. Data acquisition (DAQ)
systems are a possible low-cost alternative to SMUs with added complexity of control. Additional components
such as a function/signal generator, a lock-in amplifier and a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) are required to
generate and capture high frequency periodic signals.
Spectrometer
Spectrometer is an important instrument for spectroscopic measurements. Its specifications are crucial when a
very weak light source is being characterized—as is the case for many 2DLM-based LEDs. Grating, light input/
steering and camera are the main aspects to consider. Proper grating should be used for maximum output
efficiency. Slit for light input determines the light available for analysis and should be focused properly to
maximize the efficiency. A camera with a large dynamic range, high spatial resolution and high quantum
efficiency is required to get an accurate spectral signal from the sample.
Characterization, analysis, and figures of merit

Next, we describe typical measurements for PD, PV and EL characterization that can be performed using the
setup described here. We also describe, in brief, the figures of merit for each type of device. Dummy data plots
are shown in figures 2(b)–(d) for the purpose of illustration.
Photodetectors
TMDC-based photodetectors are the most studied amongst TMDC-based optoelectronic devices. Simple
steady-state dc current-voltage (I-V) measurements for the two-terminal device under dark and constant
illumination conditions is the first step (figure 2(b) (i)). Iph can be easily calculated from the I-V curves. The next
step is to calculate the steady-state photo-responsivity.
Responsivity (Rl )
Responsivity is calculated as Rl = Iph /Pin [A/W ], where Pin is the incident excitation power at a fixed
wavelength l. It is an important figure of merit for photodetectors that defines the number of excess carriers
collected in the external circuit for incident unit power. Rl depends on both Pin as well as l. Hence, the next
important analytic plots are Rl as a function of Pin and l (figure 2(b) (ii, iii)).
Gain (G)
Gain is defined as the number of photogenerated excess charge carriers per incident photon. It affects the net
responsivity value as R eff = Rl · hPD · G, where hPD is the efficiency of the device. Gain can be induced because
6
of many factors such as carrier trapping, avalanche effect and multiple e-h pair generation by a high energy
photon. Estimation of gain is one of the difficult tasks since the exact gain mechanism has to be identified
accurately and analysed.
Speed
Speed is another important parameter for PDs. High frequency photo-switching measurements are required to
estimate the response time (t ) (figure 2(b) (v)). Both rise-time and fall-time, usually calculated between 10%
and 90% levels, are extracted and the limiting number is used to define the maximum operating frequency as
fmax = 1/t . It is important to take note of the trade-off between speed and responsivity of a PD. Figure 2(b) (vi)
illustrates how a plot of R versus t for different PDs can be useful for benchmarking the device performance.
Spectral range
Spectral range defines the wavelength window for which the PD responds by generating Iph. This is important
when a PD with a certain wavelength range is required. The spectral range can be easily determined from
figure 2(b) (iii).
Noise equivalent power (NEP)

NEP is one of the most important figures of merit for a photodetector. It gives an estimate of signal power for
which the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) becomes unity for one Hz bandwidth. NEP estimation is crucial and
should be performed experimentally under different operating conditions (figure 2(b) (iv)). Dark current should
be kept as low as possible to reduce NEP.
Specific detectivity (D*)

D* is another important metric for sensitivity of the PD. It can be calculated as D* = Rl · A /NEP, where A is
the device area. D* indicates the minimum detectable power per unit area of the device and unity bandwidth. It is
useful for cross-platform performance comparison.
External quantum efficiency (EQE)

EQE indicates the number of carriers collected per incident photon. As a simple estimate it can be calculated
using the relation EQE = Rl · hc /el. Usually EQE estimated from the equation is erroneous due to the
complex nature of underlying mechanisms, and dedicated EQE measurements should be performed for a more
accurate estimate.
Linear dynamic range (LDR)

LDR is another important parameter for PDs. It gives the range of optical power over which the PD response is
linear. It is given in dB (e.g., 60 dB). LDR is mainly limited by noise at low-power range and non-linear effects in
the high-power range. Usually responsivity and LDR show a trade-off, meaning that the responsivity of the PD
suffers for large LDR and vice versa.
Photovoltaics
Photovoltaic devices have been studied extensively due to their importance in energy harvesting. 2DLM-based
devices also show promise for flexible PV applications. Various material stacks and device architectures have
been studied in the literature. Some of the important parameters are listed below.
Open-circuit voltage (Voc ) and short-circuit current (Isc )

Isc is defined as the current flowing through the device under short-circuit configuration, and Voc is the voltage
under open-circuit configuration. Figure 2(c) (i) shows I-V plots under dark and illumination conditions. Both
Isc and Voc are marked in the curve. Generated output electrical power is calculated as Pel = I · V in the desired
operation range.
Fill factor (FF)

Fill factor is a very important figure of merit for a PV device. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum generated
output electrical power to the maximum possible output power (figure 2(c) (ii)). FF = Pel, max /Isc · Voc. High FF
value (close to 0.7 or higher) is desirable.
Quantum efficiency (hPV )

Both internal and external quantum efficiency values are crucial for PV device optimization. External quantum
efficiency (hPV ) depends on the absorption of light, carrier generation, carrier lifetimes, collection efficiency and
7
losses in the channel. Figure 2(c) (iii) shows a plot of hPV as a function of wavelength. Different materials can be
combined to increase the absorption over different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Light emitting devices

LEDs are used in stand-alone sensory applications such as opto-couplers as well as in optical communication.
For EL characterization, a range of current values are selected from the device I-V characteristics (figure 2(d) (i)).
Further, EL spectra are recorded for each constant-current biasing point (figure 2(d) (ii)).
On-current (Ion)
Ion is the minimum (or threshold) current value required to get an EL response from the device. A smaller Ion is
desirable for low-power operation.
Luminescence
Intensity of the emitted light is measured in lumens (lm). For the purpose of experimentation, counts in the EL
peak serve the purpose of relative comparison. While we would like to achieve as high output light intensity as
possible, the input power increases rapidly with it. Hence an appropriate metric is lm/W (or here, counts/W)
for benchmarking of device efficiency.
Quantum efficiency (hEL )

It is defined as the ratio of number of emitted photons to the number of recombined e-h pairs in the device.
Figure 2(d) (iii) shows a plot of hEL as a function of device current. hEL depends on the carrier injection and non-
radiative recombination rates.
Photodetectors
Photodetectors have been by far the most studied optoelectronic device for TMDCs. The studies so far have
focused on a number of topics ranging from implementing novel device architectures and leveraging unique
physical properties to ways for improving performance [57–64]. FET and pn junction have been the most
preferred device architectures for a wide range of TMDCs. Large-area growth of TMDCs has been looked at for
wafer-scale fabrication processes [65]. Alloyed compounds based on TMDCs have also been studied for
improved optical device performance [66–70]. Many reports have studied various charge transfer mechanisms
and carrier dynamics to understand and exploit the rich physics of TMDC materials [71–76]. Moreover, mixed
dimensional heterostructures and plasmonic-, organic material- or quantum dot-enhanced structures have also
been studied for performance enhancement [77–81]. Some of the reports covering these topics have been
discussed below.
Figure 3(a) (i) shows the 3D schematic of supported and suspended channel FET architectures with ReS2 as
the channel material [82]. The two device architectures represent different trap densities that can be used to
probe the effect of traps on optoelectronic performance. Bulk traps in ReS2 are present in both devices, whereas
interface traps at the ReS2/SiO2 interface are absent in the suspended channel device and hence do not affect the
photoresponse. As discussed earlier, traps give rise to a PG effect and can provide gain in photocurrent while
reducing the speed. Figure 3(a) (ii) shows a series of plots of temporal photoresponse with increasing speed going
from left to right. The devices were slow (4.2 s) with high Iph (225 nA) when gate-bias (VG) was below threshold
voltage (Vth) of the FET (here VG =0 V) and the illumination was kept on for a long time (here 15 s). However,
when VG >Vth (here VG =80 V), the device response time improved drastically (∼50 ms) with reduced Iph
(∼45 nA) for the same period of laser-on time. The device response speed reached ∼13 m s with high frequency
(10 kHz) laser switching, independent of VG. Analysis of the data suggests that the effective trap density along
with the trap time constants play an important role in PD operation irrespective of the photoactive material.
Simple trap filling strategies (here with VG) can be used to exploit the underlying mechanism for tunable PD
performance.
Like many 2DLMs, ReS2 has been shown to have anisotropic band structure resulting in two major excitons
with unequal binding energy [85–89]. This allows control over polarized light absorption, and consecutively
polarization sensitive PD. Figure 3(b) (i) shows an ReS2 FET under illumination with a linearly polarized light
beam. Figure 3(b) (ii) shows the photocurrent as a function of polarization angle for different applied biases [83].
Appropriate calibration of such PDs allows detection of light intensity along with its polarization, thereby adding
the freedom of detecting polarization-encoded signals.
The high bandwidth photoresponse of a graphene-based PD (figure 3(c) (i)) is shown in figure 3(c)
(ii) [84]. A 1 dB bandwidth of ∼40 GHz was observed for a gate-bias of 80 V. In addition, responsivity in dc and
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Figure 3. (a) (i) Schematic of a supported (in contact with back-gate dielectric) and suspended (airgap between channel and back-gate
dielectric) channel ReS2 transistors under 633 nm focused laser excitation. (ii) Photocurrent versus time plots for different time scales
showing either photogating or photoconduction regime of operation for the same device. Unlike VG =80 V or high frequency cases
(PC regime), the photocurrent is not zero in photogating regime (VG =0 at very low frequency) after laser is switched off. Reprinted
(adapted) from [82] with permission. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society. (b) (i) 3D schematic view of the photodetection
device. Light is illuminated on the ReS2 channel, and the light polarization is controlled by a half wave plate, which is used for linear
dichroism detection later. (ii) Change of the photocurrent under different drain biases plotted as a function of polarization angle; the
data can be fitted very well using a power law function (black line). Reprinted (adapted) from [83] with permission from John Wiley
and Sons. Copyright © 2016. c (i) SEM and optical (inset) images of high-bandwidth graphene photodetectors. The graphene shown
here has two to three layers. Two types of wirings are shown: ground–signal (G–S) and ground–signal–ground (G–S–G). The high-
frequency results are from devices with G–S wirings. Scale bars: main panel, 2 mm; inset, 80 mm. (ii) Relative a.c. photoresponse
S21( f ) as a function of light intensity modulation frequency up to 40 GHz at a gate bias of 80 V. S21=20*log10(Ra.c. (amp/watt)/1
(amp/watt)) (dB), where Ra.c. = dIph /dPin (amp/watt). The curve is displaced vertically, so the response starts from 0 dB. A response
degradation of ∼1 dB is observed at 40 GHz, which is not due to the graphene photoresponse but instead is caused by the microwave
probes. Inset: peak d.c. and high-frequency (a.c.) photoresponsivity as a function of gate bias. Reprinted (adapted) from [84] with
permission. Copyright © 2009, Springer Nature. (d) (i) 3D schematics of MoS2 photodetectors before and after HfO2 encapsulation.
Plots show transfer curves and photocurrent temporal response for the corresponding devices. (ii) Spectral responsivity of the
monolayer MoS2 flake measured at VG =−32 V with an illumination intensity of 3.2 mW cm−2. The two exciton peaks A and B,
together with a sharp drop at 690 nm can clearly be resolved. (iii) Power-dependent responsivity for a wide dynamic range at VG
=−40 V until 0 V. The responsivity was measured with a pulsed laser at 635 nm with 1 Hz frequency. Two trends can be observed
namely a general reduction of responsivity with gate bias strength and a drop of responsivity at lower illumination power in the regime
of strongest gate voltage VG. Reprinted (adapted) from [41] with permission. Copyright © 2015, American Chemical Society.
high-frequency regimes is compared for different VG. While TMDCs cannot compete with graphene in speed,
reduced dark current due to a sizeable bandgap allows them to reach larger responsivity with higher detectivity.
Figure 3(d) shows an encapsulated MoS2 PD for improved time response [41]. figure 3(d) (i) shows 3D
schematics of MoS2 PDs with and without HfO2 encapsulation and their corresponding current plots under
dark and illumination conditions. A clear improvement in speed was achieved through passivation of traps
facilitated by HfO2 encapsulation. Figure 3(d) (ii, iii) show the spectral response of the device and trends in
responsivity with incident power for a range of VG values, respectively.
Figure 4(a) shows the photoresponse of a WSe2/Si pn junction with graphene quantum dots (GQDs) (shown
in inset) under dark and with 740 nm light illumination [90]. The heterostructure consisting of GQDs, physical
vapor deposition (PVD) grown monolayer (ML) WSe2 and n-type Si can reach a responsivity of ∼700 mA W−1
at a short response time of 0.2 ms. The technique is scalable due to PVD-grown large area ML WSe2 as opposed
to the mechanical exfoliation technique adopted in a majority of PD studies [91, 92].
Figure 4(b) illustrates the (i) schematic, (ii) photoresponse and (iii) transport mechanism of a nitrogen-
doped (N-)GQD/ML WSe2 heterostructure FET [93]. The N-GQDs helped improve the photoresponse due to
enhanced light absorption and efficient charge transfer. Figure 4(b) (iii) shows band alignment and charge
transfer mechanism under 405 nm excitation. Efficient generation of e-h pairs in N-GQDs along with transfer of
holes to p-type ML WSe2 results in enhanced Iph.
9
Figure 4. (a) I–V measurements of a WSe2/Si heterojunction before and after GQD treatment, either in the dark or under 740 nm
light illumination. (inset) Schematic of the GQDs/WSe2/Si heterojunction. Reprinted (adapted) from [90] with permission.
Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature. (b) (i) Schematic illustration of an ML WSe2/N-GQD photodetector; highly n-doped Si serves as
a back gate, and Cr/Au (5/50 nm) stack is used for drain (D) and source (S) contacts, respectively. (ii) Time-dependent photocurrent
of ML WSe2 (black line) and ML WSe2/N-GQD devices after fabrication (red line) and after 30 days under ambient (blue line) at VDS
=1 V and VG =0 V. (iii) Energy band diagram of N-GQDs and ML WSe2 before contact and after formation of the heterostructure
under 405 nm light illumination. Reprinted (adapted) from [93] with permission. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society.
(c) (i) Optical microscopy image of a 1L–2 L WSe2 interdigitated device. Scale bar: 20 μm. (ii) I-V curves of 1 L (squares) and 1L–2 L
(circles) WSe2 devices operating in the dark and under illumination. (iii) Photocurrent of the 1L–2 L WSe2 device as a function of
wavelength and the absorption spectrum of 2 L WSe2. Reprinted (adapted) from [94] with permission. Copyright © 2014, IOP
Publishing, Ltd (d) (i) Schematic illustration of a field effect transistor based on ZnPc-treated MoS2. The conductive Si substrate is
employed as back gate. (ii) Field effect transfer curves for an MoS2 device after varied ZnPc treatments (0, 10, 40 min) in the dark and
illumination (532 nm, 3.64 mW cm−2) conditions. (iii) Time-dependent photoresponse dynamics for the MoS2 device after varied
ZnPc treatments are plotted in (d) and (e) in log and linear scale, respectively. Reprinted (adapted) from [95] with permission.
Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society.
Since the band structure of TMDCs evolves with flake thickness, it is possible to design heterostructures of
different flake thicknesses of the same material. Figure 4(c) (i) shows one such example where a ML/2 L WSe2
heterostructure with interdigitated electrodes is used to improve carrier collection area [94]. The device behaves
as a pn junction due to flake-thickness dependent band alignment as opposed to a ML WSe2 FET (figure 4(c)
(ii)). The photocurrent spectral response and spectral absorption of the heterostructure are shown figure 4(c)
(iii). The absorption peaked near 750 nm which corresponds to the direct bandgap of ML WSe2. Another pn
heterostructure device consisting of CVD-grown ML MoS2 as the n-type material and organic zinc
pthalocyanine (ZnPc) as the p-type layer is shown in figure 4(d) (i) [95]. The structure was fabricated via
immersion of MoS2 in ZnPc solution for a fixed amount of time. ZnPc forms self-assembled layers on ML MoS2
with good coverage. Figure 4(d) (ii, iii) show dc transfer curves and transient photoresponse of MoS2 PDs with
10
Figure 5. (a) (i) Optical microscope image of a BP/ReS2 heterostructure with electrodes. (ii) Photoresponsivity of the heterostructure
as a function of gate voltage with various increased LBP values at an illumination power of 0.55 mW cm−2. (iii) Gate dependence of
photoresponsivity with various increased LReS2 values at an illumination power of 0.55 mW cm−2. Reprinted (adapted) from [96] with
permission. Copyright © 2009, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) (i) Schematic of a WSe2/BP/MoS2 heterojunction. (ii) Photo on/off
ratio between Iph and Idark of the WSe2/BP/MoS2 heterojunction under 637 nm illumination with different intensities. (iii) Schematic
and band diagrams of the WSe2/BP/MoS2 heterojunction under illumination, Vce =3 V. (iv) Wavelength-dependent photo-
responsivity and photogain of the WSe2/BP/MoS2 heterojunction device. Reprinted (adapted) from [97] with permission. Copyright
© 2017, American Chemical Society. c (i) Schematic and (ii) false-colored SEM image of a BJT device. G1, G2, and G3 are gates used to
dope the device electrostatically to create either an n−p−n or a p−n−p BJT. Source and drain electrodes contact the two ends of WSe2
while a narrow base electrode makes contact with the side to prevent shunting of the base current. In (ii), the three buried gates are
visible under the metal contacts. The thickness of the flake is between 3 and 6 nm, as measured by AFM. (iii) ID vs VDS for the n+−p−n
phototransistor (blue) and the n+−p−p photodiode (red) for varying VG2 at λ=590 nm (170 mW cm−2). Dotted curves on the
bottom are the Voc values for the corresponding configurations. (iv) Optical gain with varying VDS and VG2. Maximum gain is ∼40.
Reprinted (adapted) from [98] with permission. Copyright © 2016, American Chemical Society.
and without ZnPc immersion, respectively. The current in MoS2 FET decreased because of an increase in
resistance due to the p-type ZnPc layer, while the response time decreased significantly probably due to efficient
charge transfer.
Figure 5(a) (i) shows the optical image of a pn heterostructure of black phosphorus and ReS2 [96]. Type-III
band alignment between the two materials allows for tunnelling current depending on the biasing conditions.
Figure 5(a) (ii, iii) display the VG-dependent responsivity trends for varying channel length combinations for
each material. The responsivity was modulated with the channel length of both black phosphorus and ReS2, and
was higher for shorter channel lengths.
Figures 5(b), (c) show phototransistors working on the principal of current-amplification in bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs) [97, 98]. Open base BJT is a commonly available photodetector. The advantages of
making heterostructures and electrostatic doping in TMDCs allow for novel BJT architectures for improved
photodetection responsivity [99–106]. Figure 5(b) (i, ii) illustrate the schematic of the 2D heterostructure BJT
consisting of three materials (WSe2/black phosphorus/MoS2) and its band diagram under illumination
showing the amplification mechanism, respectively. Figure 5(b) (iii) shows photo on/off ratio of the device
under 637 nm illumination with varying incident power. Figure 5(b) (iv) shows responsivity and internal
current-gain in the device as a function of excitation wavelength. A maximum gain of ∼10 was achieved for
532 nm light. Figure 5(c) (i, ii) show the 3D schematic and false-colour secondary electron microscopy (SEM)
image of a WSe2 photo-BJT with electrostatic gating, respectively. The band alignment between different regions
can be tuned via appropriate choice of the gate-bias. Figure 5(c) (iii) shows the comparison between steady-state
photoresponse of the device in pn (red) and BJT (blue) configuration. In BJT configuration, the PV effect is
absent and a higher photocurrent (as compared to pn) was observed. Figure 5(c) (iv) shows the surface plot of
extracted photo-gain (bphoto ) for varying applied bias and gate-bias for the base region. Maximum bphoto value of
∼40 was achieved for a particular biasing combination.
11
Mater. Res. Express 7 (2020) 014002
Table 1. Summary of key reports on photodetectors and their performance parameters.
Sr No References Architecture Material Excitation source R (A/W) t (s) Detectivity (Jones) NEP Spectral response
1 [41] encapsulated FET MoS2/MoTe2 635 nm, 10–4 W cm−2 104 8 ´ 10–3 7 ´ 1011 10–10 A/ Hz <670 nm
2 [107] FET MoTe2 20 μW 6 160 ´ 10–6 — — —
3 [58] FET ReS2 532 nm, 6 pW 8.86 ´ 104 100 1012 1.2 ´ 10–18 W/ Hz —
4 [82] FET ReS2 630 nm, 140 mW cm−2 4 20 ´ 10–6 — — —
5 [80] FET ReS2 with CdSe-CdS-ZnS qDot 589 nm, 1.2 mW cm−2 654 3 — — —
6 [95] FET MoS2+organic molecules 532 nm, 3.64 mW cm−2 8 0.100 1011 — —
7 [62] hybrid FET MoS2 on Gr channel 633 nm, 0.645 μW 10 1.5 — — <750 nm
8 [108] vertical FET Gr-MoTe2-Gr 1064 nm, 1 μW 0.110 46 ´ 10–6 — — —
9 [109] FET WSe2 2D/2D contacts 740 nm, 0.46 μW 0.600 8 ´ 10–6 1013 — —
10 [93] FET N-doped GQD/WSe2 405 nm, 170 μW/cm2 0.240 1 — — —
12
11 [110] pn HS MoS2/MoTe2 637 nm, 2.43 nW 0.0436 60 ´ 10–6 1.06 ´ 108 — 750–1200 nm
12 [111] pn HS SnSe/MoS2 532 nm, 1 mW cm−2 100 15 ´ 10–3 — — —
13 [112] pn HS WSe2/SnS2 550 nm, 3.77 mW cm−2 11.5 0.25 1.29 ´ 1013 — 400–900 nm
14 [63] pn HS GaTe/MoS2 633 nm, 100 mW cm−2 1.365 <0.01 — — —
15 [61] pn HS WSe2/GaSe 520 nm, 0.2 μW 6 30 ´ 10–6 — — —
16 [60] pn HS (T=300 K) GaTe/MoS2 473 nm, 12.77 nW 21.83 7 ´ 10–3 8.40 ´ 1013 — —
17 [94] HS 1 L /2 L WSe2 532 nm 110 0.29 4.0 ´ 1011 — —
18 [65] CVD grown vertical pn HS SnS2/WSe2 520 nm, 10 mW cm−2 0.110 6 ´ 10–4 5 ´ 1010 — —
19 [113] HS Organic/Inorganic hybrid 532 nm, 0.225 W cm−2 0.7 0.095 8 ´ 1011 — —
365 nm, 0.5 W cm−2 4 0.08 4 ´ 1011 — —
20 [90] HS GQD/WSe2/Si 740 nm, 2.77 mW cm−2 0.707 2 ´ 10–4 4.51 ´ 109 — 350–950 nm
21 [114] HS BP-Si photonics 1550 nm, 12.6 μW 10 150 MHz — — —
22 [97] HS WSe2/BP/MoS2 532 nm, 13.5 nW 6.32 — 1.25 ´ 1011 10–12 A/ Hz up to 1550 nm
1550 nm, 13.5 nW 1.12 — 2.21 ´ 1010 10–12 A/ Hz up to 1550 nm
23a FDS010 pn Si 730 nm 0.44 10–9 — 5.0 ´ 10–14 W/ Hz 200–1100 nm
FDS015 pn Si 740 nm 0.36 200 ´ 10–12 — 8.6 ´ 10–15 W/ Hz 400–1100 nm
24b S1226–18BK pn Si 720 nm 0.36 1.5 ´ 10–7 — 1.6 ´ 10–15 W/ Hz 320–1000 nm
S8385 p-i-n Si 960 nm 0.48 25 MHz — 1.0 ´ 10–14 W/ Hz 320–1100 nm
K Thakar and S Lodha

Commercial photodiodes available at athorlabs.com, and bhamamatsu.com.
Table 1 lists key reports on PDs consisting of TMDC materials. The following conclusions can be made from
the listed data.
i. It is evident that a majority of the reports are on FET and pn heterostructures. However, novel device
operation and material processing methods have been used for increasing responsivity or improving speed.
ii. The excitation range used is mainly in the ultraviolet or visible range. Light in infrared range is rarely used.
This limits the analysis and hence possible applications in medium range infrared light communication.
iii. Incident power used is typically very low resulting in high responsivity values. This might not be feasible in
practical scenarios and hence characterization of responsivity for an appropriate range of incident optical
power is required to clearly establish the LDR along with nonlinear operation for higher optical power.
iv. The speed and responsivity values are spread over a wide range reflecting largely varying measurement
conditions. Benchmarking is difficult in such a scenario. Experimental determination of universal metrics
like gain bandwidth product (GBP) and detectivity (D) are much needed in future studies.
v. Detailed NEP characterization in dark state is present only in a handful of reports. Most reports calculate
NEP in shot-noise limited regime using the equation NEP = 2qIdark , which is not suitable for the entire
range of operating frequency.
vi. Lastly, spectral response of the detectors is important for probing the underlying physics as well as for
determining the suitable wavelength operation range.
The above-mentioned points bring out critical gaps that need to be incorporated while planning future
experiments and in the analysis of experimental data.
Flexible devices
TMDCs present a good alternative to the conventional semiconductors for flexible optoelectronics owing to
their better mechanical flexibility and robustness [26, 115, 116]. Flexible PDs on substrates like polyimide (PI),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) have been demonstrated using TMDC
materials. In addition to the measurements discussed so far, electromechanical flexibility and repeatability
measurements are also required as described in the following reports. The applied strain ( ) can be calculated as
 = t / (2r ), where t is the thickness of the sample and r is the bending radius.
Figure 6(a) shows results for a hybrid structure of organic graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and inorganic
MoS2 layered sheets [113]. A homogeneous mixture of the two materials was created by liquid phase exfoliation
method and carefully transferred onto a nylon membrane filter paper. As a result, a 1 m m thick film of
homogeneous non-aggregated mixture of both materials was achieved with desired weight ratio. The fabrication
process is illustrated in figure 6(a) (i, ii). Further, the optoelectronic performance was probed under 532 nm and
365 nm excitation. The results for Iph, R and D* are plotted in figure 6(a) (iii, iv) for a range of incident power
values. Good D* in the range of 1011 Jones was achieved with high R in the range of 1–10 A W−1 in both cases.
Furthermore, dependence of the on-off current ratio on bending radius (figure 6(a) (v)) and the number of
bending cycles (figure 6(a) (vi)) was low.
Figure 6(b) (i) shows flexible MoS2 PDs fabricated on a PI substrate [117]. High quality MoS2 layers were
grown by CVD directly on the PI substrate, followed by photolithography for contact patterning. Figure 6(b) (ii)
displays the setup used for bending the substrate with control over the bending radius. Stability of the PD arrays
was confirmed via data shown in figure 6(b) (iii). Photoresponse from a device before bending was compared
with its photoresponse after 105 cycles of bending at a radius of 5 mm. Little change in rise time or fall time was
observed with slight degradation in the saturation value of the photocurrent. Depending on the quality coverage
of the CVD process, this approach is well suited for bulk processing of PD arrays based on TMDCs. Similarly,
figure 6(c) (i) shows the optical image of a MoTe2/graphene heterostructure PD on flexible PEN substrate [118].
The individual flakes were mechanically exfoliated and the heterostructure was achieved by wet-transfer process.
Figure 6(c) (ii) shows good repeatability in the photoresponse (with 1064 nm, 378.2 μW) of the device after 5000
cycles of bending with applied strain of up to 1.2%.
Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics is advancing rapidly for application in energy harvesting as clean, renewable energy sources are
being investigated globally. Si PV technology holds more than 95% share worldwide with efficiencies reaching
13
Figure 6. (a) (i) Schematic representation of the crystal structure of MoS2 and g-C3N4 and the process for preparation of MoS2 and g-
C3N4 hybrid dispersions. (ii) Schematic illustration of a two-terminal, planar photodetector consisting of exfoliated MoS2 and g-C3N4
nanosheets. (iii,iv) Photocurrent, responsivity, and specific detectivity values of the photodetector as a function of (iii) visible and
(iv) UV light intensity at a bias voltage of −9 V. (v) Ratios of the photocurrent to the dark current of the photodetectors containing 5:5
hybrids as a function of the bending radius (inset: photographs of the flexible photodetectors measured at different bending radius).
(vi) Photocurrent and dark current ratio as a function of the number of bending cycles at a banding radius of ∼4 mm. 5:5 hybrid film
was investigated at both the wavelengths of 532 and 365 nm with a light intensity of 0.225 and 0.5 Wcm−2, respectively. Reprinted
(adapted) from [113] with permission from John Wiley and Sons. Copyright © 2017. (b) (i) Photograph of a homogeneous and
stoichiometric MoS2 layer synthesized directly on a polyimide film. (ii) Bending process of the MoS2 layer on a polyimide film with a
bending radius of 5 mm. (iii) Representative time-resolved photocurrents of the MoS2-based visible-light photodetectors recorded at
P=12.5 mWcm−2 and V=20 V before and after bending (105 cycles). Reprinted (adapted) from [117] with permission from John
Wiley and Sons. Copyright © 2016. c (i) Optical image of an MoTe2/graphene photodetector on a PEN substrate. (ii) Photoswitching
behaviour of the flexible MoTe2/graphene photodetector after different bending cycles. The photocurrent was measured under the
same illumination conditions (1064 nm, 378.2 μW). Reprinted (adapted) from [118] with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Copyright © 2017.
up to 26% [119]. Efficiency and cost have emerged as key metrics for any alternate technology. TMDC-based PV
devices with good performance and tunability have been demonstrated [110, 120–125]. The following
discussion on several studies on 2D-PV devices helps us get an idea of the current status and future path for
the field.
Figure 7(a) (i) shows the schematic and an optical image of a fabricated ReS2/ReSe2 PV heterostructure
[126]. The contacts for n-type ReS2 and p-type ReSe2 use different metals for better carrier selectivity. Figure 7(a)
(ii) shows the I-V under dark and illumination with varying white-light intensity in the voltage range of interest.
Various PV parameters extracted from the I-V for incident light intensity are plotted in figure 7(a) (iii).
Figure 7(b) (i) illustrates a novel p-g-n PV device where a graphene flake is sandwiched between n-type MoS2
and p-type WSe2 flakes to form an out-of-plane heterostructure [127]. Zero bandgap graphene helps in
extending the spectral absorption range of the device limited by semiconducting materials. The device was
shown to respond to a wide spectral range of 400–2400 nm. Efficient separation of e-h pairs in the hetero-
overlap area was achieved by the high electric field at the abrupt p-n junction across graphene. A fast response
time in the range of ∼50 μs was attributed to instantaneous separation of the excess charge carriers. Figure 7(b)
14
Figure 7. (a) (i) Schematic of an ReS2/ReSe2 heterostructure based device under illumination and an optical microscope image of the
heterostructure with electrodes. (ii) J-V curves of the ReS2/ReSe2 vdW heterostructure showing photovoltaic effect under various
light intensities. Inset image shows the band diagram of the heterojunction under illumination. (iii) Experimentally extracted
photovoltaic parameters (Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE) with respect to the incident light power density. Reprinted (adapted) from [126].
Copyright © 2017, Authors, under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. (b) (i) Schematic drawing of the p−g−n
heterostructure for photodetection. (ii) Photocurrent mapping results for a typical device at Vds =0 V with Vg =0 V. Measurements
were performed under an 830 nm laser at a power of ∼20.5 μW in ambient conditions. The photocurrent maps show the strongest
photoresponse within the overlapped p−g−n region (highlighted by gray dashed lines). (iii) Optical microscopy image of the device
with the measurements performed. MoS2, graphene, and WSe2 are highlighted by yellow, light gray, and green dashed lines,
respectively. Scale bar is 5 μm. Reprinted (adapted) from [127] with permission. Copyright © 2016, American Chemical Society. (c) (i)
Schematic illustration of a WSe2/MoS2 vertical heterojunction device that shows a transferred MoS2 flake on synthetic WSe2 forming
a vertical heterojunction. (ii) False colour SEM image of the WSe2/MoS2 vertical heterojunction device. The scale bar is 3 μm. (iii)
Experimental output characteristic of the vertical heterojunction device in the dark (black) and under illumination (wavelength:
514 nm; power, 5 μW). Inset: temporal response of the photocurrent under 514 nm illumination (10 μW). (iv) Power-dependent
EQE of the heterojunction device under 514 and 633 nm laser excitation wavelengths at Vds =0 V and VBG =0 V. A maximum EQE
of 12% was observed. Reprinted (adapted) from [128] with permission. Copyright © 2014, American Chemical Society. (d) (i) Device
schematic; and (ii) optical image of a WSe2 flake (outlined in red) on top of h-BN (outlined in green) on local gates. The leads, gates,
and different flakes are labelled for clarity. (iii) I−V characteristics in pn configuration under illumination with different incident
powers P on the device, ranging up to 4.8 W cm−2. Inset shows the electrical power Pel generated by the device, calculated as
Pel = Vds Ids. The maximum electrical power generated is around 170 pW. (iv) Open circuit voltage (Voc, left axis, red squares) and
short-circuit current (Isc, right axis, black circles) against power density P, extracted from the data in (iii). Isc follows a linear
dependence on the power (linear fit, black line), whereas Voc follows a logarithmic dependence (logarithmic fit, red line). Reprinted
(adapted) from [50] with permission. Copyright © 2014, American Chemical Society. (e) (i) Flow chart for fabricating PV devices with
plasma-treated MoS2 photoactive layers: 1. preparation of an untreated (pristine) MoS2 ingot stamp; 2. plasma-assisted treatment of
the top surface layers of the MoS2 stamp; 3. mechanical exfoliation printing of protrusive mesas (i.e., multilayer MoS2 flakes) with
plasma-treated surfaces in contact with the underlying Au electrodes; 4. fabrication of ITO electrodes in contact with the untreated
surfaces of the MoS2 flakes; 5. photovoltaic characterization using a standard AM1.5 G solar simulator. (ii) EQE measurements for
further confirming the high Jsc values measured using an AM1.5 G solar simulator: (a) EQE spectra, measured at wavelengths
λ=300–800 nm, of a CHF3 plasma-treated PV device (red circles) and an untreated PV device (blue triangles). Both devices have the
same MoS2 layer thickness of 120 nm. (iii) Integral of the overlap between the measured EQE data and the standard AM1.5 G
spectrum over a wavelength range of 300 to 800 nm, which yields calculated Jsc values of 18.7 mA cm−2 and 11.2 mA cm−2 for the
plasma-treated PV device and the untreated control device, respectively. Reprinted (adapted) from [129] with permission. Copyright
© 2014, American Chemical Society.
15
Mater. Res. Express 7 (2020) 014002
Table 2. Summary of key reports on photovoltaics and their performance parameters.
Sr No References Architecture Material Excitation source Voc Isc Pel,max (PEC) FF EQE/PCE
1 [121] pn HS MoS2/WSe2 Halogen lamp, 6400 W m−2 0.55 50 pA 14 pW 0.5 —

2 [57] pn HS BP/MoS2 633 nm, 8 μW 0.3 17 nA 1.7 nW 0.5 0.3% PCE
3 [110] pn HS MoS2/MoTe2 637 nm, 5.46 μW 0.51 1.09 μA — — —
4 [123] pn HS a -MoTe2/MoS2 800 nm, 120 mW 0.32 150 nA — — —
16
5 [128] pn HS MoS2/CVD WSe2 514 nm, 5 μW 0.27 0.22 μA — — 11% EQE

6 [60] pn HS (T=80 K) GaTe/MoS2 473 nm, 12.77 nW 0.22 1.8 nA 80 pW 0.21 —
7 [126] pn HS ReS2/ReSe2 633 nm, 3.34 W m−2 0.17 50 pA 3 pW 0.37 0.5% PCE
8 [122] pn HS ReS2/WSe2 405 nm, 12.7 W m−2 0.58 14 pA 4.5 pw 0.56 1.5% PCE
9 [120] pn HS WSe2/MoSe2 633 nm, 320 W cm−2 0.46 40 pA — — —
10 [59] pn HS BP/WS2 600 nm, 1.2 μW 0.35 0.6 μA — — —
11 [130] pn HS p-MoS2/n-MoS2 530 nm, 14 mW cm−2 0.57 250 pA 75 pW 0.52 —
12 [129] vertical pn homojunction p-MoS2/n-MoS2 AM1.5 G, 100 mW cm−2 0.28 20.9 mA cm−2 — 0.47 80% EQE, 2.8% PCE
13 [124] g-p-n vertical HS WSe2/MoS2 633 nm, 740 W cm−2 0.35 10 μA <2 uW 0.6 3.4% PCE
14 [127] p-g-n MoS2-g-WSe2 830 nm, 20.5 μW 0.2 50 nA — — —
15 [50] electrostatic pn WSe2 640 nm, 4.8 W cm−2 0.7 0.5 nA 170 pW 0.5 0.14% PCE
16 [131] — multicrystalline Si global AM1.5 spectrum (1000 W m−2) 0.6742 41.08 mA cm−2 — 0.805 22.3% EQE
cell Perovskite global AM1.5 spectrum (1000 W m−2) 1.125 24.92 mA cm−2 — 0.745 20.9% EQE
K Thakar and S Lodha

(iii) shows a 2D scan of the Isc values for the device shown in figure 7(b) (ii). It is evident that the Isc is generated
only in the hetero-overlap area.
Figure 7(c) (i, ii) show the 3D schematic and a false-colour SEM image of a pn heterostructure PV device
[128]. Here, a thin MoS2 flake was transferred onto a CVD-grown WSe2 flake to make the heterostructure.
Steady-state I-V data in dark and under 514 nm illumination is shown in figure 7(c) (iii) along with the dynamic
photoresponse. Figure 7(c) (iv) plots the calculated EQE for two different excitation wavelengths. Experimental
determination of EQE over a wide spectral range should be considered in future studies. Figure 7(d) (i, ii) show
the schematic and an optical image of an electrostatically defined pn homojunction PV device on WSe2 [50].
2DLM hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) was used as the gate dielectric. This makes it possible to fabricate the
entire structure on flexible substrates for all-2D devices. Figure 7(d) (ii, iii) show steady state I-V under dark and
640 nm illumination and the extracted Voc and Isc values as a function of incident laser power, respectively. It
should be noted that these values can further be controlled by the two bottom gates (lg and rg in figure 7(d) (i))
for a tunable PV device.
The PV devices discussed so far need lateral current transport that increases recombination probability in
the quasi-neutral region. Device efficiency can be enhanced by improving carrier collection using completely
vertical pn junctions. Figure 7(e) (i) shows the fabrication process flow for such a device architecture that relies
on selectively doping the upper surface of patterned n-type MoS2 flakes p-type using CHF3 plasma treatment
[129]. Indium tin oxide (ITO) was used as a transparent top contact to facilitate light absorption. Thus, the
device doesn’t suffer from the shadow effect due to metal contacts, and at the same time, a uniform built-in
electric field helps collect the charge carriers efficiently throughout the device area. Figure 7(e) (ii, iii) compare
the EQE and integrated current density of the MoS2 devices with and without plasma treatment.
Table 2 lists key performance parameters from several reports on PV devices based on TMDCs. The
following observations help benchmark and provide guidance for achieving performance similar to state-of-the-
art PV devices.
i. While a large number of combinations can be achieved by making pn heterostructures, ways for scalable
manufacture should also be considered.
ii. Novel material combinations can lead to augmented capabilities such as fully transparent PV devices. The
structures should facilitate series-connected operation for high power-output in real-life use.
iii. A standard light source calibrated to the solar spectrum that can provide better-suited, area-normalized
performance analysis is rarely used for PV characterization. This will also allow for more accurate EQE
determination.
iv. Other aspects of PV devices such as contacts, carrier lifetime and transport behaviour, and ways to improve
light absorption are less studied in 2D PV devices. These can be easily adapted from the well-developed Si
PV industry, and would help in achieving higher quantum and power conversion efficiencies for high
performance, flexible PV devices.
Light emitting devices
Light emitting devices have been relatively less studied because of difficulty in handling and processing
monolayer TMDCs—where they exhibit a direct bandgap necessary for radiative carrier recombination.
Atomically thin, flexible and transparent LEDs for use in suitable applications will drive the efforts further. There
are significant opportunities for novel device architectures as discussed below.
Figure 8(a) (i) shows the 3D schematic and an optical image of an electrostatically controlled pn
homojunction on a ML WSe2 channel with all parts marked [132]. Monolayer WSe2 has a direct bandgap of
∼1.65 eV. The device operates as a light emitter when the two gates were biased with appropriate voltage to form
a pn junction. Figure 8(a) (ii) shows the EL spectra of the device for varying device current. A peak at ∼1.58 eV
was observed with near-linear dependence on the input current. Figure 8(b) (i, ii) show an optical image and a
schematic of a mixed-dimensional pn heterostructure [133]. An n-type ML MoS2 flake was transferred onto a
p-type Si substrate to form a 2D-3D pn heterostructure. Here, direct bandgap ML MoS2 acts as a carrier
recombination site in the hetero-overlap region. Figure 8(b) (iii) shows the integrated EL intensity as a function
of input current and electrical power (inset). It is evident that the light intensity varies linearly with input power.
EL spectrum of the device with multi-peak analysis is shown in figure 8(b) (iv). The peaks at 644 and 694 nm
correspond to B and A excitons, respectively, along with an A- trion resonance peak at 721 nm.
As mentioned earlier, TMDCs can exhibit valley and spin selective interaction with light. WSe2 is one such
example which has spin-polarized valleys [137–140]. For example, all the electrons in the K-valley are spin-up
and in the K’-valley are spin-down in ML WSe2. This is due to broken inversion symmetry in monolayer flakes.
17
Figure 8. (a) (i) Schematic of device structure and coloured microscope image of the dual-gate WSe2 device. Between the gate
electrodes and the WSe2 flake there is a 100-nm-thick gate dielectric. The anode electrode is made of Pd/Au and the cathode of Ti/Au.
The gap between the gates is 460 nm wide. (ii) Electroluminescence emission spectra recorded for gate voltages as shown in the left
inset and constant currents of 50, 100 and 200 nA (blue symbols, measurements; black lines, Gaussian fits). Curves are offset for
clarity. The green curve demonstrates that no light emission is obtained under unipolar (n-type) conduction. Right inset: Emission
amplitude versus current on a double-logarithmic scale. Symbols, measurements; dashed line, data fit by a power-law I a, with a close
to one (a =0.95). Reprinted (adapted) from [132] with permission. Copyright © 2014, Springer Nature. (b) (i) Optical image of the
mixed-dimensional heterostructure device in an intermediate state of fabrication. Monolayer MoS2 is placed across the sidewall of a
square window etched into an SiO2 layer exposing the underlying p-doped silicon. Scale bar is 10 μm. (ii) Cross-sectional view of the
device structure together with electrical connections used to induce light emission from the heterojunction. Electrons are injected
from n-type MoS2, while holes are injected from the p-Si substrate. (iii) Integrated light intensity as a function of device current. Inset
shows the emitted light intensity as a function of electrical power. The threshold current for light emission is ∼100 nA, corresponding
to a threshold power intensity of 3.2 W cm−2 for a device with an active area of 19 μm2. (iv) Electroluminescence spectrum acquired
under a forward bias of V=15 V and a current of 1.8 μA. The spectrum is fitted with three Lorentzian lines, which correspond to A
and B excitons at 694 and 644 nm and the A trion resonance at 721 nm. Reprinted (adapted) from [133] with permission. Copyright ©
2014, American Chemical Society. (c) (i) Device structure of a TMDC electric-double-layer transistor (EDLT) under ambipolar charge
accumulation. (ii) Schematic band structure of EDLT-induced p-i-n junction under equilibrium. (iii) Circularly polarized EL spectra
from the device for two opposite current directions schematically indicated in the top illustration. Bottom illustrations represent the
contribution to EL from two valleys. Reprinted (adapted) from [134] with permission from. Copyright © 2014, The American
Association for the Advancement of Science. (d) (i) Schematic of the transient EL (t-EL) device. An ac voltage is applied between the
gate and source electrodes and emission occurs near the source contact edge. (ii) Optical and EL image of a WSe2 device, showing that
emission is only observed near the grounded source contacts. Scale bar is 10 μm. (iii) EL and PL spectra measured for MoSe2, WSe2,
MoS2, and WS2 monolayer devices. Reprinted (adapted) from [135] with permission. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (e) (i)
Schematic of the SQW hBN/GrB/2hBN/WS2/2hBN/GrT/hBN heterostructure. (ii) EL spectra as a function of applied bias (Vb) for
the same device as in (i). White curve: its J–Vb characteristic (J is the current density). (iii) Comparison of the PL and EL spectra for the
same device. (iv) Schematic of the MQW hBN/GrB/2hBN/MoS2/2hBN/MoS2/2hBN/MoS2/2hBN/MoS2/2hBN/GrT/hBN
heterostructure. (v) Comparison of the EL (taken at Vb =8.3 V) and PL (taken at Vb =4.5 V) spectra for MQW device. Reprinted
(adapted) from [136] with permission. Copyright © 2015, Springer Nature.
In addition, ML WSe2 can behave as an ambipolar transport channel allowing to accumulate/inject both
electrons and holes in the channel. Figure 8(c) (i) shows an electric-double-layer transistor (EDLT) under
ambipolar charge accumulation at high applied bias [134]. Figure 8(c) (ii) displays a schematic band diagram of
the EDLT-induced p-i-n junction. Carrier recombination in ML WSe2 is spin selective and can be probed by
controlling the direction of current flow (figure 8(c) (iii)). As shown, the contribution to EL intensity from either
spin-up or spin-down valley can be modulated by changing the current-flow direction resulting in circularly
polarized light output.
18
Table 3. Summary of key reports on LEDs and their performance parameters.
Emission wave-
Sr No References Architecture Material length (nm) EQE On current
1 [135] M-S-I-M ML WSe2 738 1% —

superacid treated ML 620 3% —
WS2
2 [133] pn MoS2-p+Si 694 — 109 nA
3 [128] pn HS ML MoS2/ML WSe2 792 — 100 μA
4 [141] electrostatic pn ML MoS2 690 — 100 μA
5 [132] electrostatic pn ML WSe2 801 0.10% 50 nA
6 [142] electrostatic pn ML WSe2 752 1% 100 nA
7 [136] HS SQW ML MoS2 670 1% 0.72 μA/μm2
HS MQW ML MoS2 670 8.40% 1.8 nA m−2
HS MQW ML MoS2, ML WSe2 690 6% 40 μA
8 [134] EDLT NL WSe2 747 0.01% 5 μA
9 [143] split-gate MoTe2 with Si Bilayer MoTe2 1175 5% 2.3 μA
photonics
10a LED555L TO‐18 package with a spherical GaP 555 — 20 mA
glass lens
LED750L TO‐18 package with a spherical AlGaAs 750 — 50 mA
glass lens
LED1550L TO‐18 package with a spherical InGaAsP/InP 1550 — 50 mA
glass lens
LED SW30 surface mount GaN white LED — 150 mA
a
Commercial LEDs available at thorlabs.com.
Another interesting way to realize an EL signal through ML TMDCs is by transient switching as shown in
figure 8(d) [135]. The device schematic (figure 8(d) (i)) and a map of normalized EL counts for varying biasing
condition (figure 8(d) (ii)) is shown for WSe2 as an example. Figure 8(d) (iii) shows the PL and EL spectra for four
ML TMDCs with the same device architecture. Charge accumulation due to high frequency (∼MHz) switching
in ML TMDCs near Schottky metal contacts enables sufficient carrier lifetime (∼ns) for radiative recombination.
Quantum well structures using ML TMDCs can be used to enhance the quantum yield in the EL signal.
Figure 8(e) (i, iv) show the schematics of single quantum well (SQW) and multi quantum well (MQW) vertical
structures, respectively, using only 2DLMs [136]. ML TMDCs were used as light emitting layers, whereas hBN
was used as dielectric and graphene was used for metallic contacts. Figure 8(e) (ii, iii) show the I-V and EL
intensity map and a comparison of PL and EL spectra for the SQW device with ML WS2 as the light emitting
layer. The SQW device emitted light at ∼2.0 eV corresponding to bandgap of ML WS2. Similarly, PL and EL
spectra for a MQW structure with four ML MoS2 layers is shown in figure 8(e) (v). The device showed an EL peak
at slightly lower energy (∼50 meV) than the PL peak.
Table 3 lists reports of EL studies on TMDCs with their device architecture and important performance
parameters. The following inferences can be made from the table.
i. ML TMDCs, due to their direct bandgap range, emit light in the range of 650–1200 nm. This is suitable for
short-to-medium range communication as well as standalone visible light LED applications.
ii. ML TMDCs are poorer current conductors than their bulk counterparts due to various reasons. Better
device architecture and processing can result in higher current carrying capacity with negligible losses to
enhance LED performance.
iii. Reported EQE values are rather low. Ways of enhancing emission efficiency are required to increase the
luminescence of TMDC-based LEDs.
iv. Output-light direction and angular spread are additional aspects of device design that need to be looked at
for better integrability with planar circuits.
Integration with silicon photonics
The integration of 2DLM materials or devices based on them with Si photonics to augment or enhance its
capabilities is one possible approach for commercial acceptance of these materials. Likewise, existing Si photonic
technology can also be leveraged to enable 2DLM-based optical and photonic devices and circuits. We show
19
Figure 9. (a) (i) Fabricated M-SLG-Si Schottky PDs integrated with photonic waveguides. (ii) Responsivity (Rph) of M−SLG−Si and
reference M−Si PDs for 0<VR <3 V. Colored solid lines show a fit of bias dependent Rph based on combined thermionic-field
emission and avalanche multiplication processes. Reprinted (adapted) from [144] with permission. Copyright © 2016, American
Chemical Society. (b) (i) 3D hybrid structure of silicon photonics, nanoplasmonics, and black phosphorus with labels for different
layers. (ii) Simulated transmission spectra of the nanogap for 100 and 200 nm Au layer thickness, showing resonances near the
designed wavelength of 1.55 μm. (iii) Contour plot of photocurrent Iph versus VG and VDS. A bolometric effect that generates negative
photocurrent is weak in the device. (iv) Photocurrent Iph and transconductance gm at optical power level of 560 μW when the gate
voltage is swept. The maximums of Iph and gm are coincident at the same gate voltage, suggesting the related gain mechanism.
Reprinted (adapted) from [114] with permission. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society. (c) (i) Cross-sectional schematic of
an encapsulated bilayer MoTe2 pn junction on top of a silicon PhC waveguide. The carrier concentration in MoTe2 is controlled by the
split graphite gates, the separation of the two gates is 400 nm, the dielectric layer is h-BN on top of the MoTe2, and the thickness is
80 nm. The source (S) and drain (D) electrodes are thin graphite flakes connected to Cr/Au leads. (ii) Microscopic image of the device.
The white dashed line defines the bilayer MoTe2 flake. The PhC waveguide is highlighted in pink and the two grating couplers at the
edges are in black. Dark lines in the image are etched trenches designed to avoid short-circuiting. (iii) Spectrally resolved PL of the
bilayer MoTe2 flake and EL of the MoTe2 pn junction at room temperature and at 6 K. The gate voltages of the pn junction were set
with opposite polarity Vlg =−8 V and Vrg =8 V at a bias of Vds =2 V. (iv) EL emission image at room temperature overlaid on top of
a false-colour optical image of the device. Two extra emission spots from the grating couplers demonstrate coupling of the light source
and the silicon waveguide. Reprinted (adapted) from [143] with permission. Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature.
select examples on graphene, black phosphorus and MoTe2 here, but the idea is expandable to any 2DLM with
appropriate set of properties.
Figure 9(a) (i) shows the 3D schematic of a single-layer graphene (SLG) Schottky contact PD over a patterned
silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguide [144]. The graphene layer, as mentioned before, enables absorption over a
wide spectral range and can couple to the waveguide easily. Moreover, scalable CVD process for graphene
20
deposition is compatible with Si processing. Figure 9(a) (ii) shows a comparison in responsivity values of the
structure with and without the SLG layer. The data shows significant enhancement (∼10 ´) in responsivity for
the same optical power. In another example, three-dimensional integration of a black phosphorus FET with
plasmonic grating with a Si waveguide was demonstrated. This illustrates how simple FET architecture can be
incorporated into commercial technology with little modification. Schematic of the device structure is shown in
figure 9(b) (i) [114]. The simulated transmission spectra for different plasmonic grating thicknesses is shown in
figure 9(b) (ii) with a peak at 1.55 m m due to resonance. Figure 9(b) (iii, iv) show the photocurrent dependence
on the biasing condition. The Iph peaks near the maximum transconductance (gm) value as expected in a FET.
Similarly, TMDCs can be used for light emission in conjunction with Si photonics. An electrostatically
modulated bilayer MoTe2 LED over a Si photonic-crystal (PhC) waveguide is shown in figure 9(c) (i, ii) [143].
The LED response along with the PL signal for low temperature (6 K) and room temperature (300 K) is plotted in
figure 9(c) (iii) showing overlapping normalized EL and PL peaks. Figure 9(c) (iv) shows the EL emission image
at room temperature overlaid on a false-colour optical image. In addition to the EL signal from the device area,
two spots from the grating couplers (centres of the two circular rings) suggest good optical coupling of the light
source and the Si waveguide.
Conclusions and outlook
In summary, we have discussed the progress and scope for 2DLM-based optoelectronics with specific emphasis on
TMDCs. The prospects of realizing versatile, low-cost, flexible optoelectronic devices and their integration with
mature technologies are high. In optoelectronics, photodetector is the most studied device type with TMDCs
followed by photovoltaics and light-emitting devices. Rise of data-hungry models with ever increasing connectivity
will push for added functionalities requiring new ideas for implementation. However, as mentioned in [145], some
challenges still remain for these materials to be a part of a mature, commercial technology. While many device and
data-analysis challenges have been discussed in the text, we would like to mention some general aspects that need to
be addressed for high-yield manufacturing of application-specific devices. One such issue is of uniform, large-area
and high-quality growth for scalable fabrication technology. Unlike graphene, TMDCs and other 2DLMs have not
been grown on a large scale yet. Also, material defects and traps significantly affect the behaviour and performance
of optoelectronic devices based on TMDCs. More systematic and detailed studies that target understanding the
origin of traps, their energy distribution and effective ways for leveraging/passivating them are of high interest.
Fabricating good quality ohmic contacts to TMDCs (especially mono- to tri-layer flakes) is another important
aspect that impacts device performance. Understanding metal contacts to TMDCs and lowering contact resistance
are crucial for the realization of high performance optoelectronic and photonic devices. TMDCs are well suited for
flexible electronic applications due to intrinsic material properties. This also means that their interaction with
flexible organic substrates and their suitability in flexible device processing needs to be studied in detail.
Additionally, lack of standard models for these materials in device simulation tools (like TCAD) limits the
simulations to first principle studies, which are computationally complex, time consuming and can, at times, lead
to incorrect or unrealistic results. Simulation platforms with calibrated TMDC material models will significantly
aid research on TMDC devices. From a device and future technology points-of-view, it is important to have simple
device operation as opposed to complex device architectures for achieving performance goals. Furthermore,
secondary effects such as thermal losses, heat dissipation, external noise etc need to be looked at and accounted for
during device performance analysis. Lastly, the ultimate gap between research and application as commercial
products based on TMDCs (and 2DLMs in general) can only be bridged with constructive collaboration between
academia and industry [146]. A recent review article has proposed a technology roadmap to help introduce 2DLMs
in CMOS-compatible technologies [147]. Devices that demonstrate novel physical properties hitherto unrealized
in the electronics industry with conventional materials, along with ease of scalable processing, will help the TMDCs
(and 2DLMs in general) to be accepted and deployed commercially.
Acknowledgments
KT acknowledges support from Visvesvaraya PhD scheme from the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology (MeitY), Govt. of India.
ORCID iDs
Kartikey Thakar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7617-3827

Saurabh Lodha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0690-3169
21
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Optoelectronic and photonic devices based on transition metal

ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

Original content from this Abstract

Two-dimensional layered materials (2DLMs)

© 2020 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd

Optoelectronic devices based on TMDCs

Mechanisms in optoelectronic devices

Persistent photocurrent (PPC)

Avalanche photodetectors (APD)

Photothermoelectric (PTE) effect

Photobolometric (PB) effect

Valley or spin selection

Typical measurement and analysis methods

Characterization, analysis, and ﬁgures of merit

Noise equivalent power (NEP)

Speciﬁc detectivity (D*)

External quantum efﬁciency (EQE)

Linear dynamic range (LDR)

Open-circuit voltage (Voc ) and short-circuit current (Isc )

Fill factor (FF)

Quantum efﬁciency (hPV )

Light emitting devices

Quantum efﬁciency (hEL )

K Thakar and S Lodha

1 [121] pn HS MoS2/WSe2 Halogen lamp, 6400 W m−2 0.55 50 pA 14 pW 0.5 —

5 [128] pn HS MoS2/CVD WSe2 514 nm, 5 μW 0.27 0.22 μA — — 11% EQE

K Thakar and S Lodha

Light emitting devices

Table 3. Summary of key reports on LEDs and their performance parameters.

1 [135] M-S-I-M ML WSe2 738 1% —

Integration with silicon photonics

Conclusions and outlook

Kartikey Thakar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7617-3827

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