WATER POLLUTION

Introduction.
The uses we make of water in lakes, rivers, ponds, and streams is greatly influenced by the quality of the
water found in them. Activities such fishing, swimming, boating, shipping, and waste disposal have very
different requirements for water quality. Water of a particularly high quality is needed for potable water
supplies. In many parts of the world, the introduction of pollutants from human activity has seriously
degraded water quality even to the extent of turning pristine trout streams into foul open sewers with few life
forms and fewer beneficial uses.

Water quality management is concerned with control of pollution from human activity so that the water is
not degraded to the point that it is no longer suitable for intended uses. Water quality management is also the
science of knowing how much is too much for a particular water body.

To know how much waste can be tolerated (the technical term is assimilated) by a water body, we must
know the type of pollutants discharged and the manner in which they affect water quality. We must also know
water quality is affected by natural factors such as the mineral heritage of the watershed, the geometry of the
terrain, and the climate of the region. A small, tumbling mountain brook will have a very different assimilative
capacity than a sluggish, meandering lowland river, and lakes are different from moving waters.

Water Pollutants and their sources.

The wide range of pollutants discharged to surface waters can be grouped into:
(1) point sources
(2) non-point sources

Point sources are those domestic sewage and industrial wastes because they are generally collected by a
network of pipes or channels and conveyed to a single point of discharge into the receiving water. Domestic
sewage consists of waste from homes, schools, office buildings, and stores. The term municipal sewage is used
to mean domestic sewage into which industrial wastes are also discharged.

Non-point sources are those urban and agricultural runoff which are characterized by multiple discharge
points. Often the polluted water flows over the surface of the land or along natural drainage channels to the
nearest water body. Even when urban or agricultural runoff waters are collected in pipes or channels, they are
generally transported the shortest possible distance for discharge, so that wastewater treatment at each
outlet is not economically feasible. Much of the non-point source pollution occurs during rainstorms or spring
snowmelt resulting in large flow rates that make treatment even more difficult. Non-point pollution from
urban storm water and, in particular, storm water collected in combined sewers that carry both storm water
and municipal sewage requires major engineering work to correct. The original design of combined sewers
provided a flow structure that diverted excess storm water mixed with raw sewage directly to the nearest
river or stream. The elimination of combined sewer overflow (CSO) may involve not only provision of separate
storm and sanitary sewers but also the provision of storm water retention basins and expanded treatment
facilities to treat the storm water. This is particularly complex and expensive because the combined sewers
frequently occur in the oldest, most developed portions of the community. Thus, paved streets, utilities , and
commercial activities will be disrupted.

Runoff from industrial land is a significant non-point source. Fertilizer, whether in the form of manure or
commercial fertilizer, contributes nutrients. Agricultural runoff carries nutrients and toxic organic compounds.
Soil erosion contributes suspended solids. Implementation of Best Management Practices (BMP) to reduce
excess application of fertilizer and pesticides along with erosion control programs conserves the farmers
economic investment while protecting the river.
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Table for major pollutant categories and principal sources of pollutants.
Point sources Non-point sources
Pollutant category Domestic sewage Industrial waste Agricultural runoff Urban runoff
Oxygen-demanding material X X X X
Nutrients X X X X
Pathogens X X X X
Suspended solids/sediments X X X X
Salts X X X
Toxic metals X X
Toxic organic chemicals X X
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals X X X
Pharmaceuticals X X X
Personal care products X
Heat X

Oxygen-Demanding Material:
Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving water with the consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen is
termed as oxygen-demanding material. This material is usually biodegradable organic matter but also includes
certain organic compounds. The consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) poses a threat to fish or other higher
forms of aquatic life that must have oxygen to live. The critical level of DO varies greatly among species. For
example, brook trout may require about 7.5 mg/L of DO, while carp may survive at 3 mg/L. As a rule, the most
desirable commercial and game fish require high levels of dissolved oxygen. Oxygen-demanding materials in
domestic sewage come primarily from human waste and food residue. Particularly among the many industries
that produce oxygen-demanding waste are the food processing and paper industries. Almost any naturally
occurring organic matter, such as animal droppings, crop residues, or leaves, that get into the water from non-
point sources, contribute to the depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO).

Nutrients:
Nitrogen and phosphorus, two nutrients of primary concern, are considered pollutants because they are
too much of a good thing. All living things require these nutrients for growth. Thus, they must be present in
rivers and lakes to support the natural food chain (refer to the collection of interrelated organisms in which
the lower levels are the “eatees” and the upper levels are the “eaters”) Problems arise when nutrient levels
become excessive and the food web is grossly disturbed, which causes some organisms to proliferate at the
expense of others. Some major sources of nutrients are phosphorus-based detergents, fertilizers, and food-
processing wastes.

Pathogenic Organisms:
Microorganisms found in wastewater include bacteria, viruses, and protozoa excreted by diseased persons
or animals. When discharged into surface waters, they make the water unfit for drinking. If the concentration
of pathogens is sufficiently high, the water may also be unsafe for swimming and fishing. Certain shellfish can
be toxic because they concentrate pathogenic organisms in their tissues, making the toxicity levels in the
shellfish much greater than the levels in the surrounding water.
Cholera and typhoid are endemic diseases in the world with over 384,000 cases of cholera and 16 million
cases of typhoid per year. The widespread disease-causing organisms are Giardia lambia and Cryptosporidium
parvum. These are protozoan pathogens from both human and animal sources.
Bacteria that have developed immunity to antibiotics are now being found in natural waters (Ash et al.,
1999; Sternes, 1999; Benneth and Kramer, 1999). The resistance of the bacteria appearing in natural waters is
an ominous prelude to the future effectiveness of antibiotics.

Suspended Solids:
Organic and inorganic particles that are carried by the wastewater into a receiving water are termed
suspended solids (SS). When the speed of the water is reduced by flowing into a pool or a lake, many of these
particles settle to the bottom as sediment. In common usage, the word sediment also includes eroded soil
particles that are being carried by water even if they have not yet settled. Colloidal particles, that do not settle
readily, cause the turbidity found in many surface waters. Organic suspended solids may also exert an oxygen
demand. Inorganic suspended solids are discharged by some industries but result mostly from soil
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erosion, which is particularly bad in areas of logging, strip mining, and construction activity. As excessive
sediment loads are deposited into lakes and reservoirs, the usefulness of the water is reduced. Even in rapidly
moving mountain streams, sediment from mining and logging operations has destroyed many living places for
aquatic organisms. For example, salmon eggs can only develop and hatch in stream beds of loose gravel. As
the pores between the pebbles are filled with sediment, the eggs suffocate and the salmon population is
reduced.

Salts:
Although most people associate salty water with oceans and salt lakes, all water contains some salt. These
salts are often measured by evaporation of a filtered water sample. The salts and other things that don’t
evaporate are called total dissolved solids (TDS). A problem arises when the salt concentration in normally
fresh water increases to the point where the natural population of plants and animals is threatened or the
water is no longer useful for public water supplies or irrigation. High concentrations of salts are discharged by
many industries, and the use of salts on roads during the winter causes high salt levels in urban runoff,
especially during the spring snowmelt. Of particular concern in arid regions, where water is used extensively
for irrigation, is that the water picks up salts every time it passes through the soil on its way back to the river.
In addition, evapotranspiration causes the salts to be further concentrated. Thus, the salt concentration
continuously increases as the water moves downstream. If the concentration gets too high, crop damage or
soil poisoning can result.

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs):

These are a class of compounds that are applied externally or ingested by humans, pets, and other
domesticated animals. They are released to the environment through the disposal of expired, unwanted, or
excess medications to the sewage system by individuals, pharmacies, or physicians. Another source of PPCPs
in the environment is through metabolic excretion – the excretion of the chemically unaltered parent
compound and metabolized by-products in urine and feces. PCPs such as deodorants and sunscreens, can be
washed into our waterways during bathing, washing, and swimming. Some PCPs are also used as pest-control
agents. Examples of pharmaceuticals that have been detected in wastewater are common prescription and
veterinary drugs such as beta-blockers (e.g., metoprolol, propranolol), analgesics (e. g., ibuprofen, naproxen),
and antibiotics (e. g., erythromycin, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, tetracylcline, clindomycin, sulfonamides,
tetracycline, fluoroquinolone, macrolides, and trimethoprim) (Hullman, 2009).
Personal car products (PCPs) such as hand and dish soap, oral hygiene products, and air fresheners, may
contain compounds such as triclosan (a registered pesticides), phthalates, and phenols. Seven carcinogenic
compounds that are commonly found in PCPs are hydroquinone, ethlylene dioxide, formaldehyde,
nitrosamine, acrylamides and PAHs.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals:
The class of chemicals known as endocrine disrupters, or EDCs, alters the normal physiological function of
the endocrine system and can affect the synthesis of hormones. Some naturally occurring EDCs, such as
17 β-estradiol that is both a naturally occurring estrogen and a synthetic estrogen used as a method of birth
control, are excreted into wastewater. Other EDCs include the polychlorinated biphenyls, commonly used
pesticides such as atrazine and other triazine chemicals, and the phthalates. EDCs can mimic estrogens,
androgens, or thyroid hormones, or their antagonists, although the structures of many EDCs bear little
resemblance to that of natural hormones with which they interfere. They can also interfere with the
regulation of reproductive and developmental processes in mammals, birds, reptiles and fish (Sadik and Witt,
1999; Harries et al., 2000) The chemicals can also alter the normal physiological function of the endocrine
system and can affect the synthesis of hormones in the body. EDCs can also target tissues where the
hormones exert their effects.

Pesticides:
The major classes of pesticides are herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. Herbicides are used to kill
weeds. The most common used herbicides are atrazine, metolachlor, and alachlor. Chloropyrifos, diazinon,
and malathion are the typical insecticides used to kill insects that would otherwise destroys crops, gardens, or
structures. Common fungicides are sulfur, chlorothalonil, and mancozeb.
The presence of pesticides in surface – and groundwater is ubiquitous. The most commonly occurring
pesticides found in water were primarily those currently in use, whereas those found in fish and sediment are
the organochlorine insecticides, such as DDT, that were heavily used decades ago. About 50 percent of the
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wells sampled contained one or more pesticides, with the highest detection frequencies in shallow
groundwater beneath agricultural and urban areas and the lowest frequencies in deeper aquifers
(U.S.G.S., 1999).

Heat:
Although heat is not often recognized as a pollutant, those in the electric power industry are well aware of
the problems of disposing of waste heat. Also, waters released by many industrial processes are much hotter
than the receiving waters. In some environments an increase of water temperature can be beneficial. For
example, production of clams and oysters can be increased in some areas by warming the water. On the other
hand, increases in water temperature can have negative impacts. Many important commercial and game fish,
such as salmon and trout, live only in cool water. In some instances the discharge of heated water from a
power plant can completely block salmon migration. Higher temperatures also increase the rate of oxygen
depletion in areas where oxygen-demanding waste are present.

Water Pollution In Rivers:

The objective of water quality management is to control the discharge of pollutants so that water quality is
not degraded to an unacceptable extent below the natural background level. However, controlling waste
discharges must be a quantitative endeavor. We must be able to measure the pollutants, predict the impact of
the pollutant on water quality, determine the background water quality that would be present without human
intervention, and decide the levels acceptable for intended uses of the water.
The impact of pollution on a river depends both on the nature of the pollutant and the unique
characteristics of the individual river. Some of the most important characteristics include the volume and
speed of water flowing in the river, the river’s depth, the type of bottom, and the surrounding vegetation.
Other factors include the climate of the region, the mineral heritage of the watershed, land use patterns, and
the type of aquatic life in the river. Water quality management for a particular river must consider all these
factors. Thus, some rivers are highly susceptible to pollutants such as sediment, salt, and heat, while other
rivers can tolerate large inputs of these pollutants without much damage.

Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL):

A total maximum daily load (TMDL) specifies the maximum amount of pollutant that a water body can
receive and still meet water quality standards. In addition, it also allocates pollutant loadings (that is the mass
of pollutant) that may be contributed among point and non-point sources. It is computed on a pollutant-by-
pollutant basis for a list of pollutants similar to those in the preceding table for major pollutant categories.
Also included categories in calculating TMDL are acids/bases (measured as pH), pesticides, and mercury.
Equation:
TMDL = ∑ WLA + ∑ LA + MOS
where
WLA = waste load allocations, that is, portions of the TMDL assigned to existing
and future point source
LA = load allocations, that is, portions of the TMDL assigned to existing and future
non-point sources
MOS = margin of safety (it is to account for uncertainty about the relationship
between loads and water quality)

Example:
Estimate the mass discharge of 30 mg/L of suspended solids in a wastewater flow rate of 28 x 10 6 gal/d.
Assuming that 1 mg/L = 1 ppm (parts per million).
Given: C = 30 mg/L
Q = 28 x 106 gal/d
Required: the mass discharge
Figure. Consider a wastewater flow

Q = 28 x 106 gal/d
C = 30 mg/L
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Equation: d(M) = C (Q)
dt
Solution: Solving the rate of mass discharge d(M) /dt
for the d(M) = C (Q)
dt
= ( 30 parts )( 28 x 106 gal/d)( 3.79 kg/gal)
(1 x 106 parts)
= 3,183,600,000 kg/d
1 x 106
d(M) = 3,183.6 kg/d
dt