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    PSA Unit2

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    fvijayami

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 63
    FLOW STUDIES 2.1 INTRODUCTION “The load ow sudiesinvolve the solution ofthe power system network under steady , tp iQ et % i=) bs waned vn sen(2.18) “From equ(.18) the equation fr complex powerin burp during (+1) iteration can beobtaned as shown inequ(219)- pogttaiver ski] 09) “The eactve power of busp during (b+ 1) tration given by imaginary part of Power System: 108 ‘ThelineNowsu the power edby th bes in varousines and they areceulared ssshownbdow. Cones ine onnectng buspandbusqsshowninfig2.1, Unally the transmision linescommestedto bes sng andormersaisend Ther-ivalentofthetrarsmision ne wihanomerstisendconsofasresadminaneY, andshun admitanes Yas m shownin fig2.1 ‘Dap Daa haa i al Fig 2.1: equivalent ofa transmission line for evaluating line flows Tnfig 21, tpg =Ip + Epa =(Vp=Ve) Yon #5 Complex power injected bybus- pin ne-pq | =the ¥ I g21, 1g mgs *Tga=(V-Vp) Yq 1% a) “pybos-ain ine-pq [50 7Pe He =¥ he Power loss in the u 109 c Chapter 9 Load Fow Sucies Step 6 : Check for generator bus. If itis a generato otherwise (i.e, its lod bus) goto sep 9. ce Step 7 : Temporarily set \V,‘| = |V,] eae the Kite value if the bus-p is a generaior bus where |V7| Wile. the speed magnitude of voltage for bus-p, Then calculate the reactive power of the generator bus using the following equation, of =C)xim [er [5 ys ver} (Here “Im” stands for “Imaginary part of”) ‘The calculated reactive power may be within specified limits or it may violate the limits. Ifthe calculated reactive power is within the specified limits then consider iis is seve i esa {or this iteration and go to step 8. Ifthe calculated reactive power violates the specified limit for reactive ‘power then treat this bus as a load bus. The magnitude of the reactive ‘power at this bus will correspond to the limit it has violated. hesif QL pms thet = Qp nas ‘Since the bus is treated as load bus, take actual value of V,* for (k-+1)", : tector eV moterepled Weather bus is treated as S load bus. Go to step-9. Step 8 : Bea ede pe ted gee ee thcnge ‘ Fe tents the magrtude f bus uolog ste pec vlu. ii ‘The phase ofthe bus voltage can polaris below. 10: An acceleration factor, a can be Se factor is specified Step 11: ‘Step 12: Step 13: | for faster convergence. If then modify the (k-+1)" iteration value ‘of bus-p voltage using the following equation. -a(vp"'-¥p) bt pee eee + A suitable valuo of « fora particular system can be obtained by running thal Joad flows. For most of the systems the recommended value of ais 1.6. Caleulate the change in the bus-p voltage, using the relation, at yet yk ayy" ayy" avE q Repeat the steps 5 to 11 until allthe bus voltages have been calculated. Fa ee he i es a oer al ales count is n, Find out the largest of the absolute value of the change in voltage. i.e, Find the largest among [AV |aV," [AVS fo--of4Vq"| . Let this largest change be | 4V,,|. Check whether ths largest change | AV... | is lessthan the prespecified tolerance <. If |AV_.| is less thon « then ‘move fo the next step. Otherwise increment the iteration count and go to step-4. + Calculate the line flows and ae es ‘Power using tee (node) voltages, isercaelpeoaten ie eimai eedietare: above. A flowchart for the computational procedure have been presented in fig 2. ' ] m1 Chopter 2 cad Pow Sues Ta s= Ppa maint a se omeGe thr ond Bg o cee |, “Tei a ge BoE BS gael Visas Wn 8 Tra ie Tow od ack bs POM n2 the voltagesat the end of irs iteration by Gauss Seidel method. Take a= 1.6. Table2.1.1:Lineadmittances -Table2.1.2: Bus Specifications [Buscode [ Admittance | [Buscode | P [ Q | V_| Remarks pee apf 1 [= | - | osc] sux a 14 2aio5 1402}, 1Q 2-3 | 0.666—j2.664 3 |or] ox] - 1Q ae 1-}# 4 |o}o| - | 3-4 2-)8 SOLUTION s 26 ‘Using the data given in table the single line diagram. Q ® cof the power system can be drawn as shown in fg? 1.1. 2 ‘The bus admittance matrix can be directly formed from fig21.1. The elements ofbusadmiance mari Y, ol axe obtained rom ineadmitancesy, ssshown bow. * am ‘Note; Alleementsareaditacesinp.n Yu =n +¥n =2-j8 +1-j4=3 -j12 Fig2.1.1. Yn=Yut¥n +; + 0.666 ~ 2.664 + 1— 4 =3.666 — 14.664 Ys =¥u +¥n +3 4 + 0.666 — j2.664 + 2 — j8 = 3.666 — 14.664 Yu =¥nt¥s 44+2-j8=3-j12 Schaef Ses Theinit values of bus vohagesareconsideredas pu. exep he sakes cVPal4p 5 Veet 3 Wa Li ‘The bus isa slack bus and soits voage remain atthe specified valueforalliterations. IOV. = V = cannon Vi mV, = 1064 pO Since the buses are PQ buses the specified rel. powers are considered as Toad powers. Therefore a negative sign s attached to the specified power. ‘The (k-+1)"iteration voltage of a PQ (load) busp is given by go fe eee fn ake Tat" ee Forfist iteration, k = 0 Thesystem has fourbuses and sopp will tae value from 1t0 4 Herel the buses are load buses except bus. The ealclation of bus voltages fr firs iteration are shown below. neh a Vi= Vf =106+j0 pu. (Bus-1 isa slack bus) dew nm 0 pole ye wt YaMi-WVE va] Q nur the Qype = Qe Calculate the change in recipe xb load bus (or for the generator bus treated as load bus). Change in reactive power, AQ,‘ = |Q, ox! ~ Q,° Repeat steps 5 to 12 until all residues (change in P and Q or V) are ‘calculated. For this increment the bus count by 1 and go to step-5 until the bus count isn, Determine the largest of the absolute value of the residue (i.e., jind the largest among AP, Astor |AV 2 Let this largest change be Compare AE and €. If GE < © then go to step-20. If AE > < go to next step (step-16) Determine te elements of Jacobian matris(J]\by partly aifferentcing the load flow equations and evaluating the equations using the k° iteration values. Calculate the increments in real and reactive part of voltages, Ae 2s and 4; by solving the matrix equation B = JC (The elements of B matric are 4p," dQ,* or |AV,[? calculated in the previous steps. The elemenis of C matrix are de," and 4f* uhich are uolage increments to be solued from the matri equation B = JC), Calculate the new bus voltages as shown below eM=ettdet ; p=1,2,3 frapege ; utrte let) +(e)? and sh! oan! (t/t) fel yet ght ‘Advance the iteration count, ie., k = k+1 and go to step-4. SS 142 SSS a 2.6 COMPARISION OF G-S AND N-R METHOD OF LOAD FLOW STUDIES LO -§) method the variables are expressed in rectangular . ee Raphson (N-R) method. They are expressed in polar coordinates. Ifrectangular coordinates are used for N-R method then ‘memory requirement will bemore. - ; 2 ‘Thenumberof mathematical operations per iteration will belesserin G-S method, than NR method. Hence computation time per iteration islessin G-S method 3. TheG-Smethod haslinear convergence characteristics whereas the N-R method has quadratic convergence characteristics. Hence N-R method converges faster than GS method. 4. InGSmethod numberof iterations increases with number of buses but in N. R method the number of iterations remains constant andi does not depend on thesize ofthe system, 5. InGSmethod convergence is affected by the choice of slack busand the presence of eries capacitors but the N-R method isless sensitive to these factors, 6 TheN-R method needs only 3105 iterations to reach an acceptable solution for alargesystem, But GS method requires arge number of iterations (30 or more) for same level of accuracy. Advantages of G-S method 1. Caloulationsaresimpleand so the programming ask islesser. 3. Useful forsmall size system. Disadvantages of G-S method 1 Requires large number ofiterationsto reach convergence. 2 Notsuitable forlarge systems. 3. Convergence time increases with size ofthe system, Advantages of N-R method 1. TheN-R methods faster, more reliable and the results are accurate, 2 Requiresless number ofiterations for convergence. 6 ‘Thenumber of iterations are independent ofthe sizeof system (numberof buss) 4, Suitable for large size systems, Disadvantages of N-R lod. Hl The programming logic is more complex than G-S method. ; pis aa et N al nG-S method. ~ 43 Chapter 2 Load Row Studies ee 2:7 VOLTAGE CONTRO ______ “The various components of power system (or the equipments connected to power ten) ae dsigndto work asin trad vols, Thereforethe voltages varios ERresina power sjsem should remain constant or vary Within prescribed mits “The variationsin voltagesis within 5% in well designed power system. Ifthe voltage variations ae more hana speiedlimitthen the performance ofthe equipment willbe poor “arth io the equipment wil reduce. Hence the voltage conto is very och important in apowersystem. Jreanbeprovd hat the voltage variations ina bus or noe deny related reaeve powersfthe reactive power injetedto abusis ss than the reactive power drawa from it then che voltage ofthe bus decreases and vice-versa. Tnorderto show the reition becween reactive power and bus voltages consider avo tussystem showin 24 Inthssysembu1isagenerator busandbus2isaload eT aelperconnectd throughatransmision ine of reatanceX. Here the ransmision (Oe eee Fig 2.4: A sample NV; pre MS (2-bus system. Tineisconsideredasloss less andsothe resistance ofthelineis zero (ae R = 0) Letusassume thatthe voltage V, maintained constant (by adjusting the excitation ofthe generat). By assuming inductive load, from fig2.4 we get, ‘The power delivered by generator = V,'I= P-jQ 0240) Current delivered by generator, =? =J2 M Here V, = V, because V, isa reference vector Q ie me ~@Al) ‘The voltage drop in the transmission line = 1jX 242) ‘The voltage at load bus, V, = V,-1jX 04) On substituting for from equ(2l) inequ(2.43) we get, : vo (244) _ Promequ(2.45) wecan observe that the voltage drop is directly proportional tothe reasivepower Q Inondertokeepthe receiving end volageV, fied fora particular sending end voliage V,, the drop QX/V, must remain constant. Tathequantty QX/Y, theonly variable iQ (because the sendingend vokages maintained onstant and reactance oftransmissionlineisa constant), Therefore the reactive power Q Should beadjused athe load busesin order 1o maintain thee voltages constant. Thisis posible by generation of reactive power by means of shunt capacitors or synchronous motors For ‘capacitive loads or very light load the reactive power canbe generated by shunt inductor, ‘From equation(2.45) wecan say thatthe inductive reactance ofthe transmission linecan ‘ereduced by introducing series capacitors, which results in reducingthe volage drop. For vatableload conditions the voltage canbe controlled by swichingin suitable seis capacitors A transmission lines said to be regulated nefits receiving end voltages controlled by varying the reactive power at receiving end. re : Chapter 9 tons Pow Studies i. Voltage control by adjusting the excitation of generators _Fromthetheory ofc machines wecansy at an overated get spin reactive power toasystem and an underexcited generator absorbs reactive power froma er -tumvary thereactive power.. oe Considera generator connectedtoan infinite busol rsystemasshown infig26 (Aninfnte 97, al whose vokageremainsconsantandcannot "** mean busi acitaion).Lt Fig 262 A generator connected fo ae Ticatacbete WIZ : eer ‘Since the generators connected to an infinite busits terminal voltage remains constant andcannot change. Therefore any changsinexittionwllhange only the generate Le ‘the generated emf be |E,| 28. ‘Now the current delivered by the generator isgiven by 26 —|VizZer eee a) G47) ES ei ~ mls) | 46 over Sytem pays ‘Oncquatng imaginary partofequ2t8) we f IYIIBY ropa) - SE Orage 8) ay ot) i clearly showsthe cofpowertransferredt | chen eee etl pega |store ‘The power angled can be variedby varying the gener ion. Tnaponersyxemifthe ze poverPiscontanthe rom au 50) wean sy tha foraconstant |, the increase in generated emf ((E,|) should Icin reduction in § (because sind decrees with eductionind) (the inereasein |F,| and reduction in § wl keep the product |E,|sinSconstantinordertokeepPonstan), Tnequ(251),an increasein |E,| and decreasein8 willresultin increasein Q (because ‘cos increases with reduction in’, Here the increase in |B, and reduction in 8 will increase theproduct |E,| cos6 and so Q increases). Itisalso roreduce the reactive power by decreasing |E,| and increasing. Hence the reactive power supplied by the generator can be varied by varyingthe excitation, The: control by varying generator exctationisa very old method and its useful ‘nly forsmll isolated sytem, Also the generatorshavealimitforexcitation variation. Reducing ‘theextitation below ceri mit may result ininsablty andincreasng the excitation shove a.certain limit may result in over ie pearson ‘ a flegteos —1¥] demand cannot be met be excitation control The ¥ limited o permisible voltage reat thesendingend. Voltage control by shunt cé i 147. Chapter 2 Load ow Stuces ‘When capaitorisconnesteto a partcularbus the increase in voltageat the busean Ie ae ape ecg aes 27, The capacitor canbe connecediothe busbylesingthe with ‘Whentheswitch s open, V = E,. When theswitchsclosed the capacitor will draw a ‘current. as Ba Infig27, 7, ix, on 052) ‘Now the voltage Vwilincreasedueto the addition of capactor andthe new voliage ‘anbecalculated fromthe vector diagram offig2.8.— VeE,+1R, 4%) nS) Onnegingthe reise, theinceainvogeapproximaly ao |X “The shunt capacitors reconnected either drecly 102 bus aro through ateriary acing man wanormen Te dscns suntcapacons stat wah) 2 Travels the eave power supply pact eds Smit onlipht eadswhen she easier requredislesthecapastor ouput willbe le, This csadvantage cin be ‘Tani by connecting numberof capacitorsinparall and then the capacitance canbe tated by switching ON or OFF depending on therequiement Voltage control by series capacitors “When the transmission line has high value of X/R rato, theinductve reactance ofthe ‘inecan be reduced by introducing series capacitor. ‘Thedravbsckin eres patoristhhighvokageprodund under shor rot (fault) -condions.Thishighvolage:nay damage the capacitor. Therefore he capacitor hasto be protected usinga spark gap with ahigh speed contactor. on between series and shunt capacitors Voltage control by synchronous capacitors “Thesynchronous are over excted synchronous motors running on no lead, ‘The eal and recive power delivered hy generator roan infinite bus are given by equatons2.50and(281)and thes equations areapplicableforsynchronous motors, Occ nr oss Reactive power delivered by synchronous machine, = [ess - Iv] 255) Inthe bove equation if(E,|cos8 > [then Q > Oandthe synchronous machine produces reactive power, ie. it acts shunt capacitor. Ths condition issatisfed nly ifthe ‘synchronous machine is overexcited_ _ Similarly when |E, | cos6 < |V|,then Q < Cand the synchronous machine absorbs reactive power ie, tac asan inductor (shunt col). This condition is satisfied only ifthe machineis underexcited. ‘Thesynchronous motor is operated on no-load for reactive power control. Therefore Bando cosd= |B Hensfor eave power consolthe [lone anke varied by varying the excitation ofthesyachronous machine. ‘When the reactive power is varied by varying both [E, | and 6 then the machine s called synchronous phase modifier. Ic will have a smaller shaft & bearing, operates at high speed and have higher efficiency than normal synchronous motors. ‘The synchronous machines sed for reactive power control are designed to give ull load output at leading power factor and can take 80% of thei raed capacity when the power actors aging. ~The main advantage of the synchronous capacitor its flexibility for use all loads (both leading and lagging), because the synchronous capacitors can deliver or absorb reactive Sal ects fc andinductor. -of thes that it can fall out of step which es Pe ase feteme lasso machines will cette a ; of synchronc ipacitors over static capacitors —————————_— ~ 9. Chapter 2 Load Flow Studies Yottage control by tap changing transformer Trp changngranormen theca volag- canbe vases +10%by changing, eng ae Al al pwesunfomecn MSD on aE eiktr onthe emt wind. Thee arto 7P#o" Pinan transformers. Theyre 1, Offload ap changing transformers 2 Onload ap changing transformers. “The onoaday caning eansfonmers cana eclloasloasap changing TC) trandormersor tap changing:under oad (TCUL) transformers. Tnoffloa ap changing rarsforme theloalhastobe dconneced when the =p sing change The eon wing of ataptangigansfomnerssownin B25). ; ‘non load ap changing ansformer special cireitsare provided to change the tp ceing whut ateroping he loacurets The sxondary winding of onload tapchangng ‘ransformerisshown infig?8(). power but it qo ee eae near ape ae as -Atype of transformer designed for small adjustments of voltage: 8 der eclogite ‘transformer isan autotransformer a carat repuing oe ee phase andthree phase regulating 29{a)and 6) ly. te ennai, # ; ie a fi Nenad tarry Fig: Sal phereisng : trasformer and boot tonformer Fig 2.9 : Booster transformer with auto-transformer (ype repli anja oa hemaginde lag, Be ree: and Withee 29 la tann and Vig =Vas AN “eames tunis Thevalueof cis v i Chapter 2 Load How Studies Fig: Single line diogram “Fig 2.10: Transmission line with [evs consider the regulating stores eee sidealuransformer and aasreal aly aMeoy, and He or th From ig? 10() sng ichoff current ew we qeylVeW) Fe Onsubstnuing V,’= aV, inequ2S7) weer L=yfv,-a¥,] Inig2100),~ alan? = seal) al) =—oh = 2.8 SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ‘What is power flow study of load tlow study? The study of various methods of solution to power system network is referred to as load flow study. The solution provides the voltages at various buses, power flowing in various lines and line-losses. i \ 2 What are the informations that are obtained from a load flow study? B pa 5 va The informations obtained from a load flow study are magnitude and phase of bus -voltages, real and reactive power flowing in each line and the line losses, The load flow solution also gives the initial cohditions-of-the system when the transient behaviour ofthe system is fo be studied. ir What is the need for load-flow study? ‘The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation of exiting system an for planing the future expansion of thst. Wisalsoesenl for designing a new power system, What ore the work involved in load flow study? or How a load flow study is performed? The following work has to be performed for a load flow study (i) Representation of the system by single line diagram. {i)_ Determining the impedance diagram using the informations in single line diagram, (iii) Formulation of network equations. (iv) Solution of network equations., What are the quantities that are associated with each bus in a system? Each bus in a power system is associated with four quantities and they are real Power, reactive power, magnitude of voltage and phase angle of voltage. What are the different types of buses in a power system? or How the buses are classitied and what are its types? Chapter 2 toad Flow Sucies, “8. Define votage controled bus. ‘A bus is called voltage controlled bus if the magnitude of voltage |V| and real power (P) are specified for it. In a voltage controlled bus the magnitude of the voltage is not allowed to change. The other names for voltage controlled bus are _generator bus and PV bus. 9. Whatis PO-bus? ‘A bus is called PQ.-bus or load bus when real and reactive components of power seed ot and voto: alipedn rsp 1g, Whats swing bus (or slack bus)? ‘bus is called swing bus (or sack bus) when the magnitude and phase of bus ‘voltage are specified for it, The swing bus isthe reference bus for oad flow solution “and itis required for accounting line losses. Usually one of the generator bus is ‘selected as the suing bus. 1. 4 ‘is the need for slack bus? “The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In a power system ‘the total power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads and ‘losses. In a power system only the generated power and load power are specified Cee eee ‘required for losses. Since _the losses are unknown the real reactive power are not specified for slack bus | __ They ae esate through the sation of oad fow equations. 14, What are the iterative methods mainly used for the solution of load flow problems) ‘The Gauss-Seidel (G-S) method and Newton-Raphson (N-R) method are the y.. iterative methods mainly used for load flow studies 15, Wile the load flow equation of Gauss and Gauss-Seidel method. ‘The load flow equation of Gauss method is given by equ(Q2.15.1). A215.) vel Q2.15.2 where V,*! and V.* = (k+1)h and ke iteration voltage of bus-p respectively Vigo and V,* = (k++1)® and k’iteration voltage of bus-q respectively 16. White the load-tlow equations of Newton-Raphson method. ‘The load flow equations of Newlon-Raphson method are given below P= z [eo(©aGpe + Bpa)* (FG pq -&42)] 04-5 [eG Bu) eG FB] 2 (y, Pach Dieses ti eeepc ra eet eae oon How wil you account or votage controled buses in In oad flow slton by iterative methods, the number of iterations can be reduced sat each buss [by some constant. The multiplication the amount of correction to bring the voltage coseio | that accomplish this ye “BE: 18. Chapter 2 Load Row Stucies Given tho simultaneous equations ay FAM Mat On andlets;"and x be ial quss valves. Using Gauss-Seidel technique write down the values for x,’ and x," (first iteration values). Solution : From the given equations we get, 1 yam) and *274,5 ba-t™) xed fooanl] Given the simultaneous equations From the given equations we get, x, = 4x, and x, = 5 = 2x, win d-ng= 4-222 5- 2x) =$-2x2=1 ; 0 gle hy ao woo tof forive motos este lad few probiars? ‘inate pst Techical nts cane ae % BE ‘nonlinear equations can be obtained only What do you mean by a flat vollage start? — | Gpiberatve ret of load iw gute lie of all Soroemmetel pu hori ar ad The disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method are ty ‘Requires large number of iterations to reach convergence. 2. Notsuitable for large systems. 3. Convergence time increases with size of the systerm, ‘How approximation is performed in ‘Newton-Raphson method? In Newton Raphson method, the se of nonlinear simultaneous (load flow) equations ‘are approximated to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylor's series. ‘expansion and the terms are limited to first order approximation. Whatis Jacobian matrix? How the elementts of Jacobian matirx are ‘computed? “The matrix formed from the frst derivatives fload low equations is called Jacobian tmatrix and itis denoted by J. The elements of Jacobian matrix will change in every iteration. In each iteration th ‘elements of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by i flow equations with respect to a unknown variable and then eva derivatives using the solution of previous iteration. 3. What are the advantages of Newton-Raphson method? ‘The advantages of Newton-Raphson method are. i 2 3. 4. 7. What are the disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method? The disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method are 1. The programming is more complex, 2, The memory requirement is more, the G-S and N-F methods of load flow solutions. stem. 5, The choice of slack buss citica = ee GSnehed | CN Rmeted | |e ‘Variable are expressed in ‘Variables are expressed in. coordinates. polar coordinates. ‘2, Computation time per iteration i ess, ‘Computation time per iteration is more 3, Ithas linear convergence {thas quadratic convergence characteristics. 4, The number of iterations for| The number of iterations are required convergence increases with size of the! independent ofthe sizeof the system. ‘The choice of slack bus is arbitrary. ‘How the convergence of N-A method is speeded UP? are overcome? large memory \P5and QW. (i. can be overcome by decoupling ie., using decoupled load flow algorithm). rial time per iteration can be reduced by decoupled lod flow equations. The simplifications ae made based ‘on the practical operating conditions of a power system. tho static load ow equations (SLFE) tions for real and reactive power injected to the bus ae called Static Load Power System Anaiysis 36. What is the reason for changes in bus voltage? % The voltage variations in a bus is directly related to reactive power. ower injected to a bus is less than the reactive power drawn voltage of the bus decreases and vice-versa. 37. Mention the various methods of voltage control employed in po The various methods of voltage control in a power system are 1. Voltage control by adjusting the excitation of generators, 2. Voltage control using shunt capacitors. 3. Voltage control using series capacitors. 4. Voltage control by synchronous capacitors. 5. — Voltage control by tap-changing transformer. 6. Voltage control by regulating and booster transformer. 38. What is infinite bus? ‘A bus is called infinite bus if its voltage remains constant and does any changes in generator excitation. 39. How the reactive power of a generator is controlled? The reactive power of a generator is controlled by varying the phase of induced emf, which in turn varied by varying excitation. Fore reactive power the magnitude of induced emf is increased and its ph decreased. For a reduction in reactive power the magnitude of decreased and its phase angle is increased. 40. What are the drawbacks in voltage control using generator The generators have a limit for excitation variation. Reducing the a certain limit may result in instability and increasing the excitat may result in over heating of the generator rotor. Hence larger demand cannot be met by excitation control. Also, the voltage excitation is limited to permissible voltage rise at the sending end. 41. What is the disadvantage in reactive power compensation by and how it is overcome? ‘The disadvantage in reactive power compensation by shunt the fallin bus voltage the reactive power supplied by capacitor on light loads, when the reactive power required is les, the ca large. This disadvantage can be eliminated by connecting numb parallel and then the capacitance can be varied by switching ON on the requirement. 42, What is the drawback in series connected capacitor? The drawback in series connected capacitor is the high voliage cuit (fault) conditions. This hi th 0 159. 5 ‘capacitor is evenly distributed transmission line whereas the series capacitor provide ove te vollage al the point where its connected, en Cana in Ttean be proved that for same voltage boost the reactive power shunt capacitors greater than that ofa seis capacitor 3. The shunt capacitor improves the power factor of the load, but the series ‘capacitor has lite effect on the power factor. 4, — The series capacitors are effective in improving the system stability when {introduced in long transmission lines. wna is ‘synchronous capacitor? “The synchronous capacitor is over excited synchronous motor running on load ‘and connected to.a power system for the purpose of supplying reactive power. What are the advantages of synchronous capacitors over static capacitors? 1, ___ Insynchronous capacitors the reactive power can be smoothly varied whereas ‘in static capacitors only stepped variation is possible. 2 ‘The synchronous capacitors can deliver or absorb reactive power but the rs can only deliver reactive power and cannot absorb reactive 3, The synchronous capacitors can be overloaded for short periods, whereas as eckoie!, 4 see pcorrnchuenou pact ee es costa an yrmer and how voltage control is achieved in it? on the secondary winding are called tap changing 2.9 L a 2 a. 4 5 6 i. a a 10. changing transl, in diference between them i tna in offload tap cha th Tale nce bere chrignate ap eins ited? 2 9m a0 han, transformers special circuits are provided to change the tap settings vith, interrupting the load current. What i reguatng transformer and booster transformer? voltage rather than ‘typeof transformer designed for small adjustment of fog changing the voltage levels is called a regulating The booster transformer (or series transformer) is a transformer used for boosing or bucking the voltages ina transmission line by connecting one of the winding in series with the line, Usually the other winding of booster ransformer Is excited ty regulating transformer. What is off-nominaltranstormer ratio? Draw the equivalent crcult of @ transformer with of:nominal transfomer ratio cannected to a transmission ine, When the volage or tums ratio of a transformer is not used to decide the ratio of base kV then its voltage or turn ratio is called off-nominal turns ratio. Usually the voltage ratio of regulating transformers will be off-nominal ratios. The equivalent circuit ofa transformer with offnominal ratio, « and connected 2 transmission line of admittance y is shown below aa yay yay =e laiayy Fig Q50 : Equivalent circu ofa transmission line with regulating transformer EXERCISES State whether the following statments are TRUE / FALSE In a load bus the magnitude of bus ‘spe chapter 2 Load Flow Studies oe saplaineses wih lint. = absrh deliver reactive power. « i exced strona motorbekae a enn + ai ing taformeris an ff nial ti. real andreactve component of power re spied forthe Dus. hen ond magntude of bus voltage are specified forthe us, seme tbe... everest eaand react reed or renrssen of acceleration factri i iteration by 6-5 metog i 1. Dtarine he voltage at the end of third 6S ‘ Sees Vpn 15 2-068 pan Yy Yi," 1.82110 pu Note

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